DEVELOPMENT GEOGRAPHY Developmen’ involves the efficient use of resources to improve the standard af living and quality of life of a nation. + Itis not about the wealthy * ftis about using resources and technology to improve people's quality of life, which is how happy and content people are + Itrefers to the characteristics that describe the stage a couniry has reached on economie, cultural, sacial and technological levels + ftis about realising the natural and human resaurce potential of a country, a ragion or a locality + Itis one way to reduce paverty and improve people's quality ef lite. "itis liked to time, improvement and progress. Developed, developing and industric countries 1. Developed countri Countries that are economically, culturally and socially advanced. Countries are richer and mare industrialized than developing countries. Population are generally well educated Population work mainly in the industrial and service sectors. Population enjoy good quality af life, because Healthcare, housing and water and electricity are provided by their government They are concentrated in the Northem Hemisphere. 2. Developing countries = ‘Countries that have a low standards ofliving as resources are not yet utilised effectively Are unable to use their resources effectively Have small industrial sectors Law national income and populations with lower standards of living The countries are in the process of becoming developed. They are concentrated in the Souther Hemisphere. 3. Industrialized countries Countries that have experienced rapid growth in their economies due to a switch from agriculture to large scala industrialisation The countries which have many manufacturing industries and uses various, technologies. The countries are classified to as “developing” or “developed” looking to how they used their resources to increase national wealth.countries, MEDC and LEDC are used to describe the develapment status of the country. MEDC (More E: 7 - # Use their resources efficiently + Are highly industrialized + Have a high standard of living * Have good education, health and transport systems * Manufacture and export goods an the werld market * Have stable governments that are able to donate financial aid to other countrie * Have an ageing population + Larger number of people living in urban areas than in sural areas. * Automation of manufacturing or transfer of manufacturing to NIC © Growth of jabs in the knowledge economy. ountries) {Less Economically Develops * Often high levels of poverty * Have weak and sometimes inefficient education, health and transport systems. © Export raw materials: * Import manufacturing goods as they cannot make them + Receive financial aid FROM MEOC IC. * Primary economic activity dominant * Mechanism in farms is low. * In early stages of economic development + Informal service sector in the cities is quite 3 * People live in rural areas and are involved in primary activities Industrislisation is low NIC (NewJy Industrialized Countries) + Strong manufacturing sector * Many transnationals move to NICs to take advantage of cheap labor and land + These countries sit between MEDC and LEDG in texms of certain Socio- economic indicators{measurements of eacis! aspacts and economic aspects of a country) + Thay af# undergoing raid economic growth resulting frav exports to other courttries around the world «Ave characterized by high levels of Rural-Urban migration Are characterized by switch from agricultural to industrial ecosomies with nigh levels of manufacturing Why is devefopment unequal+ Development suncess all aver the world has heen moat weible in social rather than economic matters. * Developing countries have faund it difficult ta achiave the same sort of economic success that richer nations have. Aims of development + Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). provides framework for whole world to work together towards making sure that human development reaches everyone, + MDGs were set to be achieved by 2015 + Ifthe goals are met, world wil be cut by Half, millions of lives will be saved and billions more people will have the opportunity to benefit in the global economy Aspects of development /indicators of development. * Are standardized units of measurement (statistics) that reflects levels of development + Ameans of measuring and communicating information about hew a country is, doing in terms of development with regard to its econemic, socia and institutional growth + Itincludes cantinuaus growth and improvement of its social, economic, political, cultural and enviranmental aspects. onomie aspects. + cours when policy makers initiate projects that meet the basic needs of individwals through the development of natural resources, industry and services. + May include -development of human capital, infrastructure, regional + Focuseson :education, training, creation of jobs, work opportunities and provision of Healthcare facilities. + Development occurs where there is an economically and socially safe environment, free from crime, disease and political instability. Sustainable development. * [refers to providing for future generations for a lang time. * ignoring poverty and environmental issues will not result in sustainability * Abuse of natural resourd@s and not raplacing them is not sustainable. + The use of natural and human resource must be balanced through preparation and planning for tha future is sustainable. Impreving of people's standard of living has a very large impact an the environment, due la the overuse af natural resources. er* In order to see the imeact of development on the environment, scientists study the information of ;deforestation, desertification, Carbon dioxide emissions, overfishing and mineral reserves. Appropriate scale and spatial aspects of development. Development does nat occur equally in most countries. What is available to the poor country is different from what is available for the wealth. There are differences between what is givan to women and men. The scale of development Development scale ranges fram global to continental, national, regional and local levels. Focusing on global scale, we have Developed North and Developing South. Macro-scale davelopment: itis a large scale. global or continental level. tis used when We are comparing a cauntry to the world ar the rest of the continent it is found in. itdoesn't contain me +lements of competition or ranking Micro-scale development :it focuses on changes that will affect individuals or small groups of people at a local lovel, It may be a joint effort between government agencies and Non Governmental Organizations and Non Profit organizations The spatial aspects of development + Development occurs over time, but it also occurs in space + [tis used by gecaraphers to study where devalopmant occurs, + Macro-scale information is easy to see and demonstrate an map. + Micro-seale discrepancies, however are hidden. * Statistics are valuable tools when comparing levels of development Economic, social and demographic indicators of development. Whilst @ country is making money, this does indicate development 1.The Gross Domestic Product (GDP) itis an economic indicator. “it measures the wealth or income of a country in terms of the total value of goods and services it produces in one year. at considers workers and capital spant by citizens of & nation regardless of where they live. -tis compared using currency exchange rates. 2.The Gross National Product (GNP! “is an economic indicator -it measures the total economic output of & country, including the earings from foreign investments that are not included in the GDP -it is Calculated by dividing the total value of goods and services produced in @ country by its papulation. hd“itis always calculated in US dollars, as this would be the easy way to bumpare wuunlies. i considers workers and capital spent by citizens of a nation regardless of where they live 3.Human Development Index (HD!) tis a social indicator. “1 uses to compare tha quality of life in different populations. it was formed as a means of gaining greater insight info development issues. -uses the number of indicators to give each country in the world a development score -it uses the indicators of development which are : racy Life expectancy GNP per person. 4.The Gini-c: “tis a social indicator it looks at the distribution of wealth “tis a statistical tool that establishes the level of inequality between the wealthy and the poor. 4s a number between 0 and 1. Whereby 0 indicates the same income and 1 indicates that ona person has all the wealth. the higher the Gini-cosfficient value, the less equal the spread of wealth ina society is. 5.Life Expectancy (LE} -itis a Demographic indicator. “itis used to indicate the level of economic health in a country. -Itis the average number of years a persan is expected to live within a certain society. -reflects the state of healthcare and the ganeral quality of life in a country. 6. Mortality. -itis a demographics indicator. -it occurs in most cases in LEDC. -due ta lack of knowledge and sound health care system, this means that mothers and babies are at risk during child birth. -it is measured as the number of children who die before they can reach 1 year old, and itis measured per 1 000 bom. -it is lower in MEDC than in LEDC. ~reflacts the state of healthcare and the general quality of life in a country. in a country that ha access to good nutrition adequate health care, extended education and a variety of employment opportunities, infant mortality rate is low. Differences in development. dLocal ferences in development.* Gccurs between and within small areas * Itfocuses on access te water and electricity equality. * ft ocuses on public transportation availabilit + Itfecuses on whether the students are furtherly studying, in university. * It fecuses on businesses that are available in a certain society, that belongs to locel people. + It focuses an unemplayment. 2.Regional differences in development + Exists between differant areas af the same country 3,Global differences in development. * Differences between different parts of the world. + ltoccurs because many countries in the world have different natural resources, and different populations. + The main global differences are ;natural resources and different populations. + _Large GDPs do not necessarily translate inta wealthy citizens. imeworks for developmen Factors that affect development. 1. Access to resources. * May include fact country’s climate. * Poorest countries are in tropics, where it is hot, the land is less fertile, water is often scarcer and disease flourish. * Europe and North America have large tracts of fertile soils, a temperature climate and good rainfall * Hol and cold climate means energy goes info survival and there is not much left over for economic develapment * tis a physical factor. 1s that such as the location of the country in the warld and alsa 2.Energy. * Richer countries are largest consumers of energy. * People in MEDC, use fossil fuels to meet their basic needs, this means that the global demand far energy is increasing rapidly, * [tis difficult for developing countries to move away from fossil fuels. * itis a physical factor. 3 population growth. at* Lavels of development will decrease, when the growth rate of a populatien outstrips its ability to feed, house and employ itself * Rapid increase increases of population, means countries may not have enough resources for development. * Cultural and social factors. 4.Trade imbalance * Intemational trade is nat fair ta poorer countries + Richer countries expart higher value manufactured goods, which poorer countries struggle to afford * Poor countries export lower value raw materials, often to higher countries. + Qverall, this means that the MEDC eam more from their exports than they spend on imports. + iis a political factor. 5.Unstable government / History. * War, corruption and incampstence may present the obstacles to the development of a country. + Mass migration, caused by slavery, famine or “gold rush” affects the human resources balance between and within countries, + Itis a political factor. 6.Natural resource limitations. + The availability of raw materials leads to a development, that may only last until the resources are depleted. * Lack of natural resources, often prevents development. + Itis.a physical factor. ZEnvironmemtal degradation. * It continues the cycle of underdevelopment as it can ruin farming and fishing, * Due to the relying on the natural resources to maet basic neads, countries may end up dastroying the environment. # This is visible, because trees are chopped down for shelters, but destraying the environment by not raplacing them. Fuel and farming practices may increage soil erosion. * In MEDC, mining and construction operations destroy the environment DEVELOPMENT MODELS. FREE MARKET MODELS. = Amarket free of government or stata intervention with the exception of tax collection.© Government only intervene and regulate tax collection, whilst enforcing private ownership and contracts, * Ina controllad market, the state regulates how goods, services and labour may bo usod, prised and distributed. + Free market economies are thase where production is in the hands of private ownership and is not owned by the State * Trace is based on demand and supply, this is visible in ;if supply is more than demand then goods will decrease in value. If demand is mora than supply, then goods will increase in value. Rostow's model «itis made up of linear stages. + Itsuggested that all industrialized countries had to ga through certain stages of development from agricultural ta industrial economies + According to it, LEDC were either in a stage of Traditional or Pre-Candition development, ism and limitations of Rostow's mode! * Theory dogs not fi every country perfectly. + Notall developed countries have experianced a sudden ‘take off stage. © Development in most countries appears to have a gradual process of change. * The condition facing LEDC currently. are very distinct from those which MEDC faced in the past + Model was based on the European experience with little relevance for developing countries. + The Pre-Conditians for growth were never explored or outlined + Itwas never investigated or explained why societies in developing countries were unable to save and invest maney. * [tis assumed that development is a stage which is reached rather than an ongoing process. * Not all countries have enough natural resources to be exported or manufactured © The support necessary for improvements in technology may not exist, + Each country's unique social, cultural and historical experience isn't taken into account. + Only the part to development is explained, but haw the changes actuafty pocur it is not explained, Stage :1.Traditional society. * Labour intensive subsistenes agriculture. + No surplus produced * Abartering system (intemal trade) flLimited technology © eg. farming, nshing ang nunting Stage :2.preconditions for take-off, + Increased technology. + Improved infrastructures Agricultural specialisation, leading to surpluses. + Limited extemal trade based on agriculture Stage :3.Take-off. + Industrialisation leads to increased production. * Infrastructure is developed ta support increases in industrialisation and trade. + Growth is concentrated in a few industrial areas in the country. * There is a large labour shift from agriculture to manufacturing + Urbanization happens Stage :4.D : ©) The number and type of industries increase. + Askilled and specialized workforce emerges. + The economy diversifies — there is less reliance on imports af manufactured goods and services. + Economy becomes self-sustaining with more money for investment. Stage :5.1 fi ; + Manufacturing focus is on consumer goads, © The service sector dominates the economy. + Everyone has their needs met. High GOP per capita CORE AND PERIPHERY MODELS. The core is made up af all the major world powers which represents much of the wealth, The periphery is made up of Countries that are not benefiting from global wealth and globalization. It is based on the idea that as prosperity and wealth graw worldwide, they are only enjoyed by thase in the core and do not benefit those in the periphery where the majority of the world’s population is found. The history behind the core-peri model. + The core-periphery model developad from dependency theory. + The theory at the widening gap between LEDC and MEDG. + The theory explains that the situations thal exists between the care and periphery rasulls from relationships which have existed sinca calonial times.+ Raw matetials were provided from the perinnery and sold to the core countries, where they Were tuned into value added gocds and ther: sold back to the periphery. ‘SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT MODELS, is the development that meets the needs of the present, without compromising the shility of future generations to meet their own needs. Both developed and developing modern economy, they are consumerism, that is, using resources for consumption. It improves the lives of people without damaging the environment fram which the resources are obtained. With increased standards of living and increases in population levels, consumption increase and this puts tha rasources beyond lewals that are globally sustainable. It aims to incorporate economic and social develapment withaut harming the environment, Benefits of sustainable development ; = Involves the community. = Improves the standard of living in the commun = Develops skills. * Does nat harm the environment. * Uses resources wisely + Fits in with the social and organisational structures of the community, Economic elements. itdemands on the environment, as a country’s or global population grows. Sustainable growth is not just about money, however it lakes into consideration and integrate all factors (social, cultural, health — related and monetary). The challenge lies in provding people with what they need without destroying the environment. * Due-coupling. Ithappens when an economy is able to sustain GDP growth without impacting negatively on the environment, Ecotaxes and incentives, tradable permits for carbon and payment for eco-services have been introduces, in order to make companies who use resources in large quantities more mindful about the way in which they do so Social element Sustainable practices, within any given society will megn a huge alter in the national and international law, urban planning and transport, Human rights, human development, corporate power, environmental justice, glabal poverty and citizen action also needs to be taken into cansideration. Deep ecologist believe that : ~there has ta be a decreage in human population. -Consumption has to be decreased -human interference in the non-human world has to decrease. tl-quality of life has to be improved rather than the standard of living Economic elements, Resource wars. When natural resaurces became scarce. Increasing human activity is impacting negatively on the biodiversity of the world’s ecosystem. Climate change. Is linked to carbon emissions from industry. which in tum is, linked consumption. Toxic emissions creates smog, acid rain, and chlorofiuorocarbons which destroy the ozone layer. Anthropogenic particulates, reduce irradiance, and reflect from the sun causing ‘global dimming’, and it is thought to be reducing the evaporation and rainfall in same areas. Industrial agribusiness and agriculture are placing huge demand on land usage: and water resources. Water. Greater population growth means more demand are placed on water for domestic, agricultural and industrial use. Solutions can be using different types of irrigation, planning for climate change, harvesting rainwater and reducing demands on borehole and mains water. Food security. It involves providing healthy food to suppart healthy eating habits, whilst maintaining healthy ecosystems. Sustainable foods production encourages local production which can be distributed at reasonable prices. Recycling © materials and waste. Itis based on nature where everything is racycled or becomes part of the cycle of life and death, Waste Hierarchy Every economic activity produces material that can be classified as waste. Sustainability principles. Reduce dependence upon fossil fuels, underground metals and minerals. Reduce dependence upon synthetic chemicals and other unnatural substances. Reduce encroachment upon nature. Meet human needs fairly and efficiently. COMMUNITY-BASED DEVELOPMENT. It is a development that takes place within a communi It meets real needs identified by the community. The community is responsible for its awn development tis a low scale and low cost. fe= ftresponds te criticisms made about development initiatives imposed by outside cultures. * it draws on the imterest, commitment skills of civic leaders activists, involved citizens and professional people in the community. APPROACHES TO RURAL DEVELOPMENT. * Rural development is development in rural areas, away from cities, * Rural areas make use of simple technologies * Rural poverty is the biggest concem for many LEDC. * An increase of Urbanization is a challenge for development in rural areas * If development is failed to be brought to rural areas, that would be meaning mass migration to the cities, Issues facing rural areas in LEDC. * Lack of funding and knowledge to increase agricultural productivity keeps rural people in LEDC at the level of subsistence farming © Lack of funding from government, means agriculture becomes expansive and uncompatitive in the world market. © Lack of opportunities, means people will move away from rural areas to cities, looking forward to get a better life. * Lack of infrastructure linkages between rural and urban areas difficult and expensive for effective trade Possible solutions = Women's rights to land need to be addressed. ‘Small farmers need access to financial services and credi. Government must provide high-yield seeds, irrigation systems and fertilizers. * Economic inirastructure of rural areas is developed creating market-related work opportunities. lotegrated rural development. + Itemphasizes that focusing on agriculture while ignoring its inks to the rest of the economy fails ta develop rural areas. * Agricultural was known to be the only source of income in rural areas: + bused to shift the emphasizes away from intensive agriculture to mora sustainable rural economies. * The focus of support is access to water, roads, and transport, housing, health care and training, as well as development of new skills linked to diversified employment opportunities "The aim is to encourage young people to remain in these areas and countaract the ageing of rural people as is currently being experienced. APPROACHES TO URBAN DEVELOPMENT. beMeaning of a city in economic terms, * Acity is a provider of employment, shelter and services. + Iti a center of culture, lsarning anc technological development. * It is a gateway to the rest of the world and cn industrial centre for manufacturing and other business that generates income + Sustainability in an urban environment meang being able to provide sufficient energy, air quality. Water, materials and waste control, land, biodiversity, as well as transportation, livability and work opportunities * Mocies of transportation become an important factor in controlling environmental pollution, congestion and noise pollution within sities Challenges facing future citie: * Rapid urban population growth * Rise of megacities * High urban poverty levels * Inadequate basic services = Environmental degradation What is required of urban development programmes? * Sustaining urban areas as centres af growth = Managing urban growth. Bridging supply and demand for infrastructure services due to cost. Strengthening urban management capacity. Decentralising urban administration to lncal governments = Responding to glabalization Cities need ta be able to provide the following in order ta be sustainable * Ongoing access to provision of resources and services within an uncampromised enviranment. = Ongoing work opportunities which allow all people to improve their lives. = Management of spatial aspects to allow for efficient use of resources, recycling and waste Management. y approaches to addressing urban issues and challenge: i. Stakeholder partnership Cifies partner with private sector to build capacity and implement improvements in urban management 2, Inter-local cooperation. Between rural and urban areas where rural development assists in diminishing the migration levels from rural to urban areas. 3. Cities as ecosystems llWhere there is need for balance between economia, social and environmental issues in order for them to be sustainable. 4, City leaders as economic managers. Rather than just political figures must have entrepreneurial and economic management capabilities and business skills. STEP-WISE MIGRATION. Farm. No school, shopa, of entertainment. Gnly jobs on farms, Millage, There might be primary school and Inadequate number of shops. Low ievel employment only and no entertainment, ather than local community events Town few schools and shops, limitad employment and limited employment and imited entertainment. City. All levels of schools, malls for shopping, a. good jab prospects, and a range of entertainment. Primate city. All levels of education, many different places for shapping, a huge variety of job opportunities and = large variety of entertainment TRADE AND DEVELOPMENT Trade is the exchange of goods, services, capital, labour and information, which can be addressed as commodities between two parties. The main purpose of Trade is because of uneven distribution of raw materials over the Earth's surface. Trade plays a major role in economy of all countries. It happens when @ producing country is able to produce goods and services mote cheaply, or of batter quality, than the consuming country INTERNATIONAL TRADE AND WORLD MARKETS. = Intemational trade is trade of geods and services across cauntry borders = Countries produce different commodities according to their natural resources. = Ifthe countrias trade equal amount of resources they are trading, then trade relationship is equal, however if they trade unequal amounts, then the trade relationship will be unequal, trade deficit occurs.+ Trade is linked te supply and demand, this is due to the fact rat when demands increase, the price of commodity(samething that can be sold) increases. + if the supply increases, then the demand and price of commodity will decrease jes (traded). * Commodities, can either be raw materials or finished products. Comme: Terms of Trade, * itis the value of a country’s exports relative to that of its imports. * itis also known a3 (TOT) * Ibis the price received for exported goods versus the price it pays for imparted goods. + Terms of trade are considered to be more favorable, when the price of exports exceed those of imports + TOT= (export price fimport price) «100 + The economy of the country is healthy, only when the percentage is greater than 100%, and unhealthy when itis under 100%, TYPES OF TRADING RELATIONSHIPS. Free trade. * Itwas developed in response to increasing globalization of industries. * [tis a trade with no restrictions. = Countries are free to trade their commodities anywhere in the world for the best possible prices. © It's benefits are that, consumers can gain fram lower prices from the efficient use of resources to through mass production * Doesn't benefit all nations, as wealthier nations are able to exploit the labour and resaurces of poor nations. * Countries with similar economic systems may form free trades agreements, 2. Trade barriers. * Are government induced, restrictions on intemational trade. = Most of them, work on same sort of cost on trade that raises the price of the traded products. * Inorder to protect domestic producers, governments impose taxes on imported goads to make them more expensive than those produced locally. = Ways to protect home producers : 2.1 Embargoes Importing praducts from another is banned. 2.2 Quota Acertain number of imported goods are allowed into a country within a given time, DtThey can be changed when local production is lower. 2.3 Tariffs It is a form of tax, which is charged on imparted goods but nat on local goods. Makes the imported goods expensive than local goods Are much easier to monitar. Are government's sources af income. 3. Subsidies. + Acommon form of Trade barrisrs *® Used by governments to protect domeste indusines. + Makes the production of commodities much cheaper. + Farms in LEDC do not receive them. whilst MEDC does + Protection of local businesses from foreign competitions. * Are payments made by the gavemment to local producers. + Thay work wall in (Japan, Europe and USA) this means local preducts in these areas are cheaper than the imports. * Countries where farming is not subsidized, subsidies means that imported goods are cheaper than local sroducts, as a result -local farmers may go out of business, country looses out on money it would have eamed through exporting the same commodities. 4, Fair trade. + Atrade systam that supports farmers in developing countries by paying fair prices and encouraging saciai and environmental development in their communities. + ‘Fair trade” Producers and consumers are screened by organizations such as the “World Fair Trade Orgamization (WFTO) and TransFair USA to ensure they are paying fair trade for their products, * The organizations also ensure that products has not been made using slave or child labour. * itis price fixed regardless of what is going on in the world trade. * ftaims the following - 4.1 Creating opportunities 4.2 Fair and stable prices 4.3 Social development 4.4 Gender equity 4.8 Sustainability GLOBALISATION. * Iisa process that leads to an integrated global economy and society. * Brings countries closer through better communication, transport and trade links. * Ilia process that changes the world dramatically and quickly + Htinyolves the flow of goods, ideas and values across national boundaries. + FIVE major types of flows are tl*money, through investments, trade, loans and intemational control of the world ecanamy. ‘ideas like, capitalism, democracy, and human rights. “technology thraugh machinery and business management “information through TV, radio, movies, newspapers, magazines, and books. “people through tourism, immigration refuges and Migrant works. 1. ADVANTAGES OF GLOBALISATION. Multinational corporations (MNC} Companies that own or control production facilities in more than one cauniry. Increase employment opportunities Offer better salaries. There is an incteased access to information, spread of knowledge and innovations There is rapid and effective natural disaster response and relief. There is increared tolerance and appreciation for cultural diversity. Magrant workers send remittances of money they have eared back to their home ountries. Global environmental awareness, responsibility and accountability improve. Poverty is reduced, life expectancy increase and literacy rates increase. There are increased markets and access to more consumers. Relaxation of Trade barriers helps emerging economies (BRICS) to compete actively in the global economy. DISADVANTAGES OF GLOBALISATION. Increased trade and travel facilitate the spread of plant, animals and human diseases. Insufficient infrastructure to support technology excludes some nations from world events and advancement, Employment in MINGs creates an upper middle class — increasing income inequalities. MNCs exert economic and political influence in their host countries. ‘Outsourcing creates unemployment in development countries and may lead to sweatshops. Rules and regulations of global associations influence policy and choices of government. Government spending on infrastructure, education, health and welfare may decline dus to loan repayments. Brain drains may take place, whereby the skilled and educated migrate from LEDCs to MEDCs. Economic interdependence leads to global financial crises. Great demand for raw materials lead to unsustainable use of natural resources, Technological advances may destroy traditional agricultural systems or erode: indigenous customs and language.EXPORT-LED DEVELOPMENT. + Development strategy adopted by some developing countries * itis used by developing nations to catch up the developed nations = Many exported economies use “impart subs#iution industrialisation” where they make the commaditios they require themseh istes tne economy. = Allows countries concemed to balance their finances and overcame debts + Greater export g ncreases productivity which in turns ereates More exports. stly used by, Thailand, Vietnam, Taiwan, Malaysia, Singapore, the Philippines and Indonesia.