Argument & Language Analysis: Metalanguage

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The Task
Write an analysis of the ways in which argument and written and visual language are used to try
to persuade others to share the point/s of view presented

Broadly speaking, argument refers to what the writer is saying and language refers to how they’re saying it. These two aspects of
persuasion overlap: eg., an argument based on reason and logic might be supported by a serious tone and formal language, while an
argument that appeals to the reader’s sympathy might be presented in highly emotive language.

Terms you should be familiar with:

ISSUE The general topic of a persuasive piece. eg., Leaving children in cars

CONTENTION The writer’s point of view on the issue.

eg., There should be tougher penalties for leaving children in cars on hot days

ARGUMENT A writer’s main contention needs to be supported by argument. A well-reasoned argument

consists of one or more points connected logically to the writer’s main contention. Writers
carefully select the main reasons they will present to support their contention and the
way in which they will present them. They might begin with the most important reason first
or they might begin with more minor reasons and build to a strong conclusion.
Think of the contention as the product the author is trying to sell…and then analyse how argument and language are used to make
this sale. How is the author trying to make the target audience feel? eg, angry at those who support a carbon tax? Proud to be an
Australian who supports refugees?

ARGUMENT CONSTRUCTION
Identify how the argument has been constructed. Common argument structuring strategies include:
 starting with specific information, or one particular case, and ending with general information
 moving from the personal to the universal: starting with personal experience and ending with broader examples that
relate to everyone in the world or everyone in a particular group in society
 beginning with a clear statement of the contention and developing this with clearly signposted logical reasons.
 building to the contention which is stated at, or near, the end of the piece.
 using subheadings to break up the text and identify main points
 presenting a problem and offering a solution (the problem-solution approach)
 imbuing an argument with wider significance
 locating an argument in a wider context
 acknowledging opposing views and rebutting them, creating a sense of objectivity

ARGUMENT APPROACH: Objective vs Subjective

A well-reasoned argument uses evidence and sound reasoning to persuade readers to accept a particular point of view. It is
logically argued and often draws on the authoritative support of experts and factual evidence to persuade readers, presenting a
carefully substantiated case. It also acknowledges and convincingly rebuts opposing arguments. This is called an objective or
unbiased argument. By discussing opposition to a piece’s contention, the writer pre-empts objections to their argument and deals
with them before the reader has a chance to deem their writing one-sided or narrow minded.

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In contrast, a subjective or biased argument is more likely to be based on emotion or personal involvement in the issue. It might
include frequent attacks on opponents, many appeals to emotion, the overuse of emotive language and a failure to acknowledge
opposing views.

AUTHOR
One of the first questions you should ask about the material you are required to analyse is WHO IS THE AUTHOR?
 What knowledge of the issue does this author have? What authority does s/he have? Is s/he an EXPERT? Expertise can
be very compelling and provide credibility.
 If the author is not an expert, is s/he drawing on PERSONAL EXPERIENCE? Firsthand knowledge of an issue can be
a powerful persuasive tool and create credibility. However, it can also suggest bias if it is the only method or mode of
persuasion used.
 You should also ask if the author has a VESTED INTEREST in the issue. A person has a vested interest if they have a
particular stake in the issue. A stockholder of a company has a vested interest in that company being portrayed positively.
Readers can also have a vested interest which may make them biased. For example, subscribers to a University’s newsletter
may be more inclined to respond negatively to an article on funding cuts to the university than a member of the general
public.

AUDIENCE
The task requires you to analyse how argument and written and visual language are used to try to persuade others to share the
points of view presented. It is important to accurately identify who the audience for the piece is and to analyse how argument and
language has been used to persuade them (not you).

High-scoring responses show how the text is designed to have an impact on the intended audience.

Look for explicit and implicit appeals to the values that the audience might be expected to endorse to show a perceptive
understanding of how argument and language are used.

The audience might be quite specific. On the 2017 exam, the audience was parents of children who attend Spire primary school.
The author was the school principal. The principal was attempting to persuade parents to reduce packaging waste at the school and
at home. A strong analysis would think about the values parents might endorse and the things they would want for their children. It
would identify how the writer was appealing to these values. If the author is clearly targeting parents, use ‘parents’ rather than ‘the
reader’ in your essay.

On the 2018 exam, the text for analysis was a review of a new coffee shop. The review was published in the local newspaper and
aimed at residents of a suburb called Benmore. The audience for this text was broader. In this case, think about different sections of
that broad readership and how the author is appealing to them. For example, the author could be targeting older residents who have
lived in the area for a long time, are more likely to read hard copy newspapers and might be reluctant to see their suburb changing.

PURPOSE & INTENT

Authors have a clear purpose in mind. Their aim, or intent, might be to persuade the audience to take action: to buy a product, sign
a petition, vote for a particular political candidate or donate money to a cause. Their aim, or intent, might also be to persuade the
audience to agree with the point of view expressed.

CONTEXT & TEXT TYPE

The context of the piece refers to the setting, background and circumstances surrounding a persuasive text, all of which affect how
the text is understood. Usually, the background information will provide the context. It tells you the target audience. It tells you
what the article is in response to (why the author has written the article). It will probably tell you the form of the piece or text type.
Text types could include: a speech; a newspaper editorial or opinion piece, a letter or newsletter; a blog; a review; an advertising
feature; a radio interview etc etc. You are expected to show an understanding of the text type. eg., If it is a speech, you would need
to refer to the audience, not the reader.

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APPEALS TO EMOTION
Identifying appeals to emotion can help you establish how the author is trying to make the target audience feel: eg, angry at those
who support a carbon tax? Proud to be an Australian who supports refugees?
Avoid writing ‘The writer appeals to emotion’. Instead, be specific and identify the particular emotion being appealed to: eg., the
writer appeals to patriotism.
Common emotions that writers can appeal to include:

SYMPATHY PATRIOTISM FAMILY VALUES TRADITION

COMMON SENSE THE HIP-POCKET JUSTICE/FAIRNESS NOSTALGIA

FEAR SYMPATHY

Appeal to common sense

Example
“With the number of tertiary students entering the teaching profession decreasing 15% in the last 10 years, there is no doubt that the
quality of Victorian education is set to decline.”

Definition & Effect on reader

An appeal to common sense is an attempt by the writer to make an idea seem like the only logical inference from a piece of
information. This makes any opposition to the writer’s point of view appear consequently illogical, therefore encouraging the reader
to reject it. Additionally, because of the common sense displayed by the writer, these appeals often lead to an increase in credibility
of the text, as critical thinking is generally more indicative of in-depth thought than a reliance on emotional appeals. These types of
appeals are often found either with statistics and a logical style, or sarcasm and rhetorical questions. Techniques such as this, which
make the reader feel as if there is only one logical answer or conclusion, can serve to align the reader with the writer’s argument on
the basis that a counterargument is thereafter presented as ridiculous.

Appeal to a sense of fairness

Example
“How is it fair that a man makes $1 to the 75c a woman would earn in the same job?”
Definition and effect on reader
Appeals to fairness rely on the reader reacting to situations that are inherently unjust. In the above example, the effect of the
inconsistency in salaries is enhanced by the rhetorical question, which provokes a response of “it’s not” in the mind of the reader. This
technique can serve to evoke an emotional response of anger, frustration or sympathy in the reader, and act as a motivation to change
or protest the situation.

Appeal to family values

Example
“Having both male and female influences in a child’s upbringing is extremely important. This is why traditional families raise
more well-adjusted children.”

Definition & Effect

Appeals to family values are often a combination of an appeal to fear and an appeal to tradition in that it attempts to speak to parents
about how to, or how not to, raise their children. Often it is used to critique particular education styles, parenting fads or social issues
and scientific advancements such as IVF, gay marriage, adoption and surrogacy. These appeals can be particularly effective when
used to make parents feel guilty that they are not raising their children “right” or suggesting to parents that other people’s children are
not being raised “right.” Because appeals to family values generally involve children, they can often play significantly to feelings of
fear and guilt. Children are part of a vulnerable group so suggestions that their welfare is under threat tend to carry more weight with
the reader than a general threat.

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Appeal to fear
Example “Without increased funding for the police force, soon it won’t be safe to walk our streets at night.”

Definition and Effect on reader

An appeal to fear attempts to make the reader feel that they, or other individuals, are at risk from a threat identified by the writer. In
turn, this fear can be a powerful motivating force in changing their opinion or behaviour. Appeals to fear are often combined with
other appeals, such as an appeal to nationalism on issues such as asylum seekers, or an appeal to family values in relation to debates
such as same-sex marriage. An appeal to fear can be particularly effective when combined with a discussion of a vulnerable group,
who tend to elicit sympathy and a desire to protect from the reader.

Appeal to the hip-pocket

Example “The Government is blatantly pulling money from tax payers’ wallets with these ridiculous taxes.”

Definition and effect on reader

An appeal to the hip-pocket is a writer’s way of making the reader feel as if their finances are under attack (the hip-pocket being where
one traditionally caries their wallet). Individuals are made to feel that a particular event or action will take a toll on their wallets,
motivating them to cease that activity or agree with the argument being presented by the writer. Common words and phrases
associated with an appeal to hip-pocket are: taxes, charges, costs, fines.

These appeals can be very strong and impart the sense that the writer is looking out for the best interests of the reader and this technique
is therefore often paired with attacks on government, banks, or authorities who are often accused of taking money from the
hardworking taxpayer.

Appeal to justice Also referred to as an appeal to a sense of rights.

Example “The Government is violently oppressing these people from expressing their opinions.”

Definition and effect on reader

An appeal to justice or a sense of rights is an attempt to rally the reader’s feelings about what rights should be available to the
individual, and condemn any perceived attacks on these freedoms. In a country like Australia, where our rights are enshrined in law,
most readers have an emotional attachment to what we view as our rights as human beings. In the above example, the writer is
suggesting that a group’s right to free speech is being violated, therefore evoking a response of anger or indignation.

Consider the freedoms and protections from the justice system that Australians consider to be their rights. It is natural to assume that
if someone committed a crime against these rights, the police would arrest them and they would be charged. Equally, we expect not
to be persecuted for the things we say, the political party we vote for or the legal activities we engage in. If a writer suggests that we,
or another group, may have these rights violated, it naturally evokes an emotional response and a desire to change the situation. In this
way, an appeal to a sense of rights can evoke indignation and anger in the reader in order to motivate them against perceived injustices
being committed.

Equally, writers can rally readers against outcomes that they see as unjust. Consider some of the writing that appears after a well-
covered criminal trial concludes. If a perpetrator who is thought to be guilty in the court of public opinion is found innocent in the
court of law, sometimes writers can appeal to the reader’s sense of justice to evoke outrage that the justice system is failing to provide
for the people.

Appeal to patriotism/nationalism
Example “These people’s sense of justice just won’t fit in with the value of fairness that is so important to the Australian way of
life.”
Definition & Effect
An appeal to nationalism is an attempt by the writer to drum up patriotism in the reader. Often with an Australian audience, appeals
to national pride or patriotism are seen in conjunction with colloquial and inclusive language, where the writer attempts to generalise
the values of a nation and use these values to bolster their argument. These appeals can be effective when used in relation to issues of
national concern where a particular idea or group may be viewed as harming Australia or the Australian way of life. Further, these
appeals can often leave the reader feeling “un-Australian” if they disagree. However, if the appeal generalises national ideals too
greatly, or incorrectly, they may be alienating.
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Appeal to sympathy
Example “I was only nine years-old when my mother was brutally murdered.”
Effect on reader
An appeal to sympathy is an attempt by the writer to make the reader feel sorry for an individual, group or thing. Emotional appeals
such as this can often be effective at making the reader care about the issue through evoking an emotional response. Their sympathy
may lead to feelings of empathy, guilt, outrage or anger which can motivate readers to align themselves with a certain group. In the
above example, the reader’s sympathy is being directed towards the writer herself, perhaps making them more likely to accept the
writer’s suggestions of policy changes regarding murder. However, if the writer appears overly emotional their credibility may be
negatively affected, especially if their audience is a logical one. For example, if the writer tries to persuade a person to donate money
simply by talking about the suffering of the children who the money would go towards, and not the cost of the donation or the
effectiveness of the program, the argument is reliant on purely emotional appeals and probably not very persuasive.

Appeal to tradition
Definition and effect on reader
Appeals to tradition are common when debating issues such as same-sex marriage, technology, legislative change or physical changes
to the landscape (building shopping malls, redeveloping heritage buildings or similar). It is in essence an attempt to rally nostalgia for
“the way it used to be” in the reader, or a suggestion that the way things are now is fine, and therefore not in need of change. For this
reason, the technique is obviously more effective with some groups than others and often relies on appealing to that group’s fear of
change. This appeal is directly opposed to attempts to target a reader’s desire to be (or at least to seem to be) progressive. Often these
types of appeals to a sense of progressiveness will take place with the same sort of issues:

Example
“The vast majority of Australians agree that people should be able to marry whoever they please, it’s simply the oppressive
government who is preventing same-sex marriage reform.”
In this example, the reader does not want to feel “behind the times” by opposing that which the “vast majority of Australians” are
insinuated to be progressive enough to agree with. This technique of pitting seemingly traditional or backwards beliefs against
progressive social change is relatively common and effective with the opposite audiences to those who are persuaded by appeals to
tradition.

Vulnerable group
Example “The horse plunged into the crowd of onlookers, injuring eight people, including a five year-old girl and an 85 year-
old woman.”

Definition and effect on reader

A vulnerable group is a collection of people who may be perceived as being more at risk than the general population, such as children,
the elderly and minorities. People in these groups may be seen by the reader as more susceptible to harm or likely to be taken advantage
of, evoking a natural urge to protect that group. In the above example, the two victims specifically identified are chosen because they
evoke a greater amount of sympathy from the reader than the 35 year-old punter who was also trampled by the horse.

Identification of vulnerable groups is common in appeals as they can compound the emotional impact of the issue the writer is
discussing.

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ANALYSIS OF WRITTEN LANGUAGE

Analysis of written and visual language is at the heart of this task. It is vital that you focus on the language being
used in the text/s and how the language works to persuade. This is more important than identifying persuasive
techniques. Written language also includes punctuation.

You must include at least some of the following language techniques in your analysis. Many of these overlap.
eg., adjectives often have positive or negative connotations and help to create an image in the readers mind,
encouraging them to feel a particular emotion (fear, outrage, anger, pride, sympathy etc)

Those marked with an asterisk (*) below are ones you should include in every essay

Adjectives
An adjective is a word that adds information to a noun or pronoun: eg., Irish potato; rotten potato; raw potato. Adjectives
modify nouns and pronouns, by describing a particular quality of the word they are modifying
eg., wise in a wise grandmother,
perfect in a perfect score
There are different types of adjectives (descriptive= a cold day; numerical=six men; demonstrative = that car; distributive = each girl;
possessive = her shoes; interrogative = what snake).

Look for the descriptive adjectives in a piece. These often have positive or negative connotations.

Adverbs
Adverbs tell us more about the action of a verb. They usually tell us how, when or where something happened. They can show time,
place, manner, number or degree. Adverbs can also modify adjectives, prepositions (words like ‘by’, ‘for’, ‘into’ or ‘with’) and other
adverbs. A good way to pick out an adverb from a sentence is to look for the word ending in -ly. Although that's not universally true,
it's a good place to start. These adverbs of manner are usually placed right before or after the verb in the sentence.
eg., She spoke angrily
The dog snapped savagely at the stranger

Alliteration
Example “Wary Wayne and Judgey Julia.”
Definition
Alliteration is the repetition of initial consonants at the start of words. Generally this is used to make a sentence or phrase memorable,
humorous or to create emphasis.
Effect on reader
Because of the altered rhythm of the sentence from the repeated sound, alliteration changes the way a reader may read a sentence, and
in this way, the writer may draw attention to a previously overlooked part of the article or discussion point. In the above example,
alliteration is also being used to create a light-hearted, mocking tone which is directed towards the people discussed.

Colon (:)
A colon is used at the beginning of a list of things, at the beginning of a series of ideas or to introduce a quotation. It indicates that
something is to follow:
Margaret has six varieties of flowers in her garden: petunias, roses, chrysanthemums, orchids, carnations and sunflowers.

Cliché
Example “What goes around comes around.”
Definition and effect on reader
Clichés are overused or hackneyed phrases that often appear in colloquial speech. They may be used to effectively build up a casual,
conversational tone and persuade the reader through the illusion of a conversation, rather than a one-way lecture.

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Colloquial language
Example I love my staffy as much as the next bloke, but all this talk about “cruel” puppy mills just makes me roll my eyes.
Definition & Effect
Colloquial language is informal language. Its use creates a casual tone– in the example above the use of Australian
vernacular (“bloke”) makes the sentence appear like a spoken conversation with the writer rather than a formal piece of writing. This
sense of casualness can alter the tone and potentially create a sense of connection between the writer and the reader.Words and phrases
such as “g’day” and “she’ll be right” instantly connect the issue that’s being written about with Australia, or at least with an Australian
audience.

Connotations*
Definition & Effect
Connotations are the idea or feeling which a word invokes in addition to its literal or primary meaning. Think of connotations as
‘power words’. For example, the word ‘discipline’ may have negative connotations associated with punishment and repression. When
identifying connotations, always identify the association that the word evokes. Use a dictionary to do this.
Writers use positive or negative connotations to evoke an emotional response in the reader. Try annotating with maths symbols: +
(positive = +); - (negative = - ). Use the formula: The positive/negative connotations of (quote the word), associated with (with what
the word is associated with; what it makes you think of) positions the reader/audience to feel that (link to an argument or point the
writer is making).

Contractions
If you write ‘can’t’ instead of ‘cannot’, you have contracted the word, or made it shorter. Cannot is correct and formal, If you are
analysing a piece which uses many contractions it is likely to be informal and perhaps conversational in tone.

Direct address
Example “You should consider the implications of your actions on Australia’s chance of escaping marine ecosystem collapse.”
Definition
The writer speaking directly to (or at) the reader through words such as “you”, constitutes a direct address. Second-person writing is
unusual in the English language, and therefore its use is surprising enough to grab the reader’s attention. Furthermore, given that
this technique creates a direct conversational link between writer and reader, it garners more focused attention from the reader.
This technique often carries an accusatory tone as it can encourage the reader to consider their personal interaction with the issue,
such as in the example above. Unlike a general statement about the actions of Australians, the reader is being asked to consider their
own behaviour, and potentially change it in line with the writer’s contention.

Euphemisms
Example The elderly man passed away in hospital surrounded by family.
Definition and effect on reader
Euphemisms are polite or softening phrases used in replacement of words that might seem harsh or unpleasant to hear. They replace
the plain English phrase to make the idea more palatable or friendly. In this way, they can be used by writers to make an idea seem
kinder than it actually is, for example suggesting that a drug has “negative patient outcomes” instead of severe health complications.

Exclamation mark (!)

An exclamation is a sound, word, or sentence that is spoken suddenly, loudly, or emphatically and that expresses excitement,
admiration, shock or anger. An exclamation mark (!) is the sign that is used in English to show that a word, phrase or sentence is an
exclamation.
“Your donations are needed today if we are going to save the Great Barrier Reef from imminent destruction!”
The exclamation mark, juxtaposed with the negative connotations of ‘destruction’ and the adjective ‘imminent’ create a sense of
urgency, positioning readers to feel that action must be taken now.

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Exclusive language
Definition and effect on reader
Exclusive language excludes individuals or groups. It is often signified by the use of ‘they’ and ‘them’ and may be contrasted with
the inclusive ‘we’ and ‘our’. It can also include derogatory or pejorative language which excludes or discriminates against groups or
individuals and may be paired with attacks on the opposition.

Imagery
Example “The great chasm between indigenous and non-indigenous Australians”
Effect on reader
Specific words can create images in the minds of the reader. In the above example, the word “chasm” (used instead of synonyms such
as “gap” or “difference”) creates an image in the reader’s mind of a physical chasm – a deep fissure in the ground such as the Grand
Canyon. This image further solidifies the split between the two groups mentioned because it creates an image of something tangible
for the reader to attach their understanding to.

Imperative sentences
Imperative sentences issue a command or instruction, make a request, or offer advice. Basically, they tell people what to do. Imperative
sentences usually end with a full stop but can also end with an exclamation mark. These sentences are sometimes referred to as
directives because they provide direction to whoever is being addressed. Typically, imperative sentences begin with verbs that issue
a command.
Below are examples of imperative sentences. Note that each is issuing a command of some sort.
* Pass the salt. *Move out of my way! *Shut the front door.
* Find my leather jacket. *Be there at five. *Clean your room.
* Complete these by tomorrow. *Get out!

Inclusive language
Example We all have to pitch in to help our brothers and sisters in Queensland recover from this horrific
tragedy.
Effect on reader
Terms such as ‘our’, ‘us’, and ‘we’ are often used to make the reader feel like part of a group or inspired to take collective action.
This can be empowering for the reader, as they are not left as a bystander with no stake in the issue, and are therefore encouraged
to take action. In addition to feeling encouraged through inclusion in the group, they may be given a sense of responsibility. Being
made part of a group may allow the reader to feel that they are being held responsible to the recommended action or belief of the
writer.

It is important to note that the use of words like ‘our’, ‘us’ and ‘we’ is not always inclusive, as they can be used to refer to a group
to which the reader does not belong. For example, the RSPCA slogan “help us stop animal cruelty” is not inclusive as the ‘us’
refers to the organisation rather than collaborative action with the reader.

Jargon
Example The increase in methane and anthropogenic nitrous oxide poses a serious risk to the environmentbecause it leads to
higher global temperatures.

Definition & Effect on reader

Jargon is terminology that is especially defined in relationship to a specific activity, profession or group. It is technical language
that fits within a specific context, such as “anthropogenic nitrous oxide” being from a scientific vocabulary. Jargon may be a barrier
to communication in that it is not necessarily familiar to individuals outside of that group or field. In the above example, the use of
jargon doesn’t increase the reader’s understanding, but it does make the writer appear like an expert on the issue. For this reason,
jargon may make the writer appear like an authority on the issue. Jargon is sometimes used in conjunction with statistics and appeals
to experts.

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Metaphor
Example “The typical teenage boy’s bedroom is a disaster zone.”

Definition and effect on reader

A metaphor is a comparison that describes one thing in terms of another but does not use “like” or “as” in the way that similes do.
In the above example, the writer is not literally suggesting that teenage boys’ bedrooms are disaster zones: it’s a metaphorical
representation of how messy they are. This technique can be used to reinforce a point without repetition. Metaphors are often very
witty and can add humour and colour to a piece.

Pronouns
A pronoun is a word that is used instead of a noun or noun phrase. Pronouns refer to either a noun that has already been
mentioned or to a noun that does not need to be named specifically.
The most common pronouns are the personal pronouns, which refer to the person or people speaking or writing (first person),
the person or people being spoken to (second person), or other people or things (third person). Like nouns, personal pronouns
can function as either the subject of a verb or the object of a verb or preposition: " She likes him, but he loves her." Most of
the personal pronouns have different subject and object forms:

Personal pronouns singular plural

First person I/me We/us
Second person You You
Third person He, she, it They

Identifying the pronouns used in a text helps to identify the tone. eg., the use of first person (‘I’) often creates a conversational
tone; a sense that the writer is engaging the reader in a conversation. Second person pronouns directly address the reader. They
can build rapport and create a connection with the reader.

Pun
Example “All the King has to worry about is his receding heir line.”
Definition & Effect
A pun is a form of word play that insinuates two or more meanings by exploiting the potential for multiple meanings within the
same or similar-sounding words. In the above example the pun is on the use of “heir” referring to descendants, to replace of
“hair.” Puns are intended to be humorous and memorable.

Question
Example “Do steaks have a future in Australia if we ban alpine grazing?”
Effect on reader
Not all questions that appear in argument and language analysis pieces are rhetorical. Some are actual questions that are being posed
by the writer to the reader. Genuine questions can be used for many reasons, but generally increase the engagement of the reader
with the piece or issue at hand. In the above example, the question is most likely being used as a signpost for an issue that will be
discussed later. They can also be used to cause the reader to pause and consider their own stance on an issue or to reinforce something
that has been discussed throughout the piece.

Register
Language register in English is the scale of formality used when we write and speak English. A formal register generally uses
longer, more complex sentences and more sophisticated vocabulary. It avoids slang, colloquial terms and contractions such as I’m
or it’s. A formal style can be used to help convey authority and expertise. An informal register is one which sounds like casual,
everyday conversation. It may use slang, colloquial terms and contractions. It can suggest a down to earth, no nonsense approach to
an issue or topic.

Rhetorical question
Example “Do we really want our road tolls to continue rising like this?”Definition & effect
Rhetorical questions are statements with question marks that give the illusion of asking something when really the answer is implied
by what is being said. They are often used to create a scoffing or incredulous tone. This tone, along with the insinuated obviousness
of the answer (in the example above, the answer is obviously “no”), makes any other answer or opposition to the writer’s point of
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 view seem ridiculous. This can be persuasive as it makes the reader view an alternative answer to the issue at hand appear illogical
or against common sense. Words like “really” and “honestly” are often indications that a question is not genuine, but rhetorical.

Semi-colon (;)
Whereas a colon usually occurs near the beginning of a sentence so a list of ideas or a quotation can follow, a semi-colon usually
occurs near the middle of a sentence, separating two closely connected ideas.
eg., Beauty is only skin deep; ugliness goes all the way (Proverb)
Sensory Imagery/Language
Language which uses one or more of the five senses (sight, sound, touch, taste or smell). It can help the reader to visualise a point
being made by the writer. It can also evoke a strong emotional response.

Short sharp sentence

Example
“When the factories close down, when the workers go back home to their families without a payslip in their pockets, when the
price of living goes up and the quality of life goes down, where will the Government be to help? Nowhere. Just like always.”

Definition and effect on reader

Sometimes, particularly short sentences can be used by the writer to draw emphasis to what is being said because of the change
in rhythm that they create. In the above example, this change in rhythm can be seen in how a reader would pause on the punctuation
of the last two sentences. This results in the focus of the text as a whole being drawn to the consistent failure of the Government.

Simile
Example “Using wind power to solve global warming is like putting a Band-Aid on a broken arm and expecting it to heal.”

Definition and effect on reader

A simile is a technique that uses a comparison to create meaning. The words “like” or “as…as” often signify similes. This
comparison is effective in giving the reader a sense of what something is like, even if it is foreign to them. In the above example,
the reader’s knowledge that putting a Band-Aid on a broken arm would be an ineffective cure enables them to understand the
reader’s suggestion that wind power is an ineffective solution to the crisis of global warming. In this example, the simile can also
be described as hyperbolic and as an analogy.

Syntax
The arrangement of words in a sentence.

Tense
Verbs tell the time when an action took place. This time is called the tense. There are three main times when an action can take
place:
(i) Past (The action is now finished) Jason cooked spaghetti last night.
(ii) Present (The action is occurring now) Jason is cooking the spaghetti
(iii) Future (The action has not yet begun) Jason will cook the spaghetti when he’s ready.
Am, is, are, was, were, will be, shall be, has, have and had are all forms of the verb ‘to be’.

Tone/Tonal shifts*
Tone refers to the “voice” or ‘mood’ of the writer. It refers to how the writer sounds; the way s/he expresses h/er attitude through h/er
writing. The tone may be angry and aggressive, for example, or calm and reflective. The tone of a piece can change at different points.
You should be alert to these TONAL SHIFTS or SHIFTS IN TONE and identify them. Often, the tone changes when the writer
introduces a reason or argument to support his/her point of view. You must identify how tone is used (it is part of the language).
When you think about it, it seems obvious that the tone that the writer is projecting is the emotion that they intend to evoke from the
reader. If the language is trying to elicit concern and outrage, it follows logically that the tone is also one of concern and outrage. If
you struggle identifying tone, think of the emotion the author wants their target audience to feel.

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Verbs Action words, sometimes called the engines of sentences. A verb becomes a verb when it performs an action in a
sentence eg., Joe lights a fire when the room is cold. Jackie switches on the lights when the room is dark. (‘lights’ is a noun;
‘switches’ a verb).

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 ARGUMENT TECHNIQUES

Acknowledging and rebutting opposing views

A well-reasoned argument acknowledges and convincingly rebuts opposing arguments, creating an objective or unbiased argument.
By discussing opposition to a piece’s contention, the writer pre-empts objections to their argument and deals with them, logically
explaining why these opposing viewpoints are weak, flawed or inferior to the writer’s view.

Ad hominem attack
Definition
Denigrating an opponent through discrediting their credibility or suggesting they have questionable associations. Attacking an
opponent, often using forceful language which creates a strident or passionate tone.

Analogy
Example “Illegally downloading movies is like walking into a video store and stealing the disks from their DVD cases.”
Definition and effect on reader
Like a simile, an analogy often offers a comparison which creates meaning for the reader. They are often used to explain an idea in a
simpler way or to demonstrate the writer’s use of logic. In the above example, the writer is using the analogy to draw a comparison
between an action that the reader may engage in, and an action that they would recognise as stealing. In turn, this allows the writer to
demonstrate the logic in their argument that people should not illegally download movies as their analogy has made the reader
acknowledge the similarities between physical stealing and electronic stealing.

Anecdote
Example “Annie was only 5 when her father walked out on the family.”
Definition and effect on reader
An anecdote is essentially a story; a recount of something that has happened. Writers can use anecdotes for a range of reasons, one of
the most common being to give a human face to an otherwise impersonal issue. For example, presenting statistics on how many people
die of cancer annually can be logically persuasive, but telling a specific story about a woman who was afflicted with the disease can
be emotionally persuasive. Anecdotes can also be used to demonstrate a real-world application of a scenario the writer is presenting.
By showing how an issue affects individuals, writers are able to portray the relevance, and therefore importance, of their contention.

Call to action
Example “Your help is needed urgently to save the community centre.“
Definition & Effect
A call to action is a request or demand for the reader to further engage with, or take action on, the issue discussed. It may be a request
for a donation, signature on a petition, suggestion to join a group or protest, or some other action. These commonly appear at the end
of pieces and work in conjunction with a writer’s aim. A call to action can be a direct attempt by the writer to make the reader fulfil
their own aim. In altering their behaviour to suit the call to action, the reader is in turn empowered to create the change that the writer
has been advocating for. The reader may feel further engaged in the piece if they are taking an active role rather than passively
absorbing the writer’s opinion.

Experts and Authorities

Example “The Minister for Tertiary Education was earlier quoted saying “investment in our universities and TAFEs should be in
the top three current national priorities”.
Effect on reader
Quotes and references to authorities are often used in conjunction with statistics, because they have the same overall effect. We are
naturally inclined to listen to the advice or opinion expressed by an expert, like accepting medical advice from a doctor or legal advice

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from a lawyer. We see them as a trusted and reliable source. The source of the quote is particularly important though, as a reader is
less likely to be persuaded by a quote when the speaker is not an expert or has a vested interest in the issue.

Generalisation
Example Today’s young royals are rich, famous and fond of partying – and the online generation can’t get enough of them
Definition & Effect
A generalisation is a sweeping statement that what is true for some is true for most or all. This can be powerful because it appeals to
commonly held beliefs, prejudices and views. However, generalisations are easily challenged and are not generally included in a
reasoned, logical argument.

Hyperbole Also referred to as “exaggeration” or “overstating fact”

Example “The teachers gave me more homework than I could finish in a thousand years!”
Definition and effect on reader
Hyperbole is the use of exaggeration and is a common feature in spoken English. These overstatements of fact are generally not meant
to be taken seriously but evoke strong feelings or potentially create an image in the reader’s mind.

Juxtaposition
Example “Self-indulgent, cocky commentators pick on the most innocent players”
Definition
Juxtaposition is the positioning of two opposite ideas directly against one another to highlight the differences between them and make
the comparison seem more extreme. In the example given, by talking about the “innocent players” in the same sentence as the “self-
indulgent, cocky commentators”, the writer shows that the commentators are all the worse for picking on well-behaved players, rather
than just on any player. This technique is often used to place blame on one group while highlighting the innocence of another.

Listing
Example “Riding your bike to work has many benefits for the individual and the community: it reduces traffic, improves your health
and protects the environment.”
Effect on reader
Listing as a technique is exactly what the name implies: a list, generally of the benefits or detriments of a particular decision or
event. By giving a list, the writer is providing multiple arguments to sway the reader, and furthermore, targeting multiple readers at
once in case one particular argument or idea is not persuasive to a particular person. In this way, a list can overwhelm a reader with
the many arguments on the side of the writer. For this reason, listing can be useful in convincing multiple readers simultaneously. In
the above example, a reader may not necessarily be interested in all three benefits, but may be convinced of one individual benefit.
Equally, in a piece that recommends changing your diet and lists the health benefits, a reader may know they are not at risk of one of
the conditions listed, but that another is a possibility for them. This ensures that the piece is widely persuasive.

Personal anecdote
Example “I will never forget seeing the life leaving that man’s body when the machine malfunctioned.”
Definition & Effect
The only difference between an anecdote and a personal anecdote is that the latter has to be personal to the writer; a story from their
own life. Personal anecdotes can be used as an attempt to re-position the writer as an expert on the issue. They may serve to increase
the writer’s credibility, such as the above example which suggests that the writer has first-hand knowledge of an issue that the reader
might not have ever experienced.

Reason and Logic

Logic is the science of reasoning, proof, thinking, or inference. In a logical argument or method of reasoning, each step must be true
if the step before it is true. The logical conclusion or result of a series of facts or events is the only one which can come from it,
according to the rules of logic. For example:

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1. Any member of a sports squad is exempt from undertaking physical education. (fact/truth)
2. Nathan is a member of the football squad.
3. Therefore, Nathan is exempt from undertaking physical education.

We say that the third statement follows logically from the other two. It is a logical conclusion. Think of this as having a ‘if we say
X, then Y follows’ structure. This structure implies that the argument is logical.

‘If teenagers can be considered adults when paying entry to cinemas and concerts and
so on, then it’s unreasonable to treat them as children when it comes to voting. Many
teenagers are more passionate and well informed about important issues than adults.
It’s only reasonable that the voting age be lowered to sixteen’.

Sample analysis
The writer begins with a comparison between admission to cultural events and eligibility to vote, in order to argue that the voting
age ought to be lowered. The use of reason and logic, supported by a calm and measured tone, positions the reader to feel that it is
only fair that teenagers be treated consistently in different contexts.
A well-reasoned, logically sequenced argument often takes into account the opposing viewpoint to help establish the strength of one
side. The position being argued is clearly stated in a main contention. The argument is then supported by points, each of which is
explained or justified with evidence in various forms. Each point is clearly related to the main contention. Note that highly persuasive
language can still be used to present well-reasoned views.

Repetition
Example “It hurts the individual, it hurts the community and it hurts the country as a whole.”
Definition & Effect
Repetition does not only refer to words that are repeated in a single sentence or even throughout an entire piece; it can also refer to
the repetition of phrases or ideas. Generally repetition creates emphasis and is memorable for the reader. When a writer is focused
on communicating a particular message or idea, returning to a particular phrase over and over again helps to keep it fresh in the
reader’s mind throughout the piece. In the above example the repetition of “hurts” emphasises the negativity of the action that is
causing such widespread harm.

Signposting
Example “The three main arguments for vegetarianism are the human health benefits, environmental sustainability, and moral
standards in relation to how we treat animals.”
Definition & Effect
Signposting is a way that a writer or speaker outlines their arguments. It acts almost as a map for the reader or listener; indicating
where a piece is intending to go. This can make the style of a piece appear more logical and assist the reader in following the line
of argumentation. It should be noted that the above example also constitutes listing in that it is persuasive by providing more than
one argument for the reader to adopt.

Statistics
Statistics refer to factual, numerical evidence and are generally convincing because they provide a type of evidence that is difficult
to refute: rational, scientific ‘proof’. The use of statistics can aid a writer’s credibility by demonstrating their knowledge and
showing evidence of research. A reader is more likely to trust a writer who seems knowledgeable on the subject. Statistics also
position the reader to view the writer’s argument as more convincing because it appears to be objective and reliable.

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ANALYSING VISUAL LANGUAGE
You will be required to analyse a visual (or visuals). If the visual is a separate, stand-alone text, you will need to analyse it separately.
For example, you must identify the point of view it. If the visual is part of the main text then you must identify how it supports the
contention of that text or a particular argument in the text.

When analysing the visual/s, work through the following:

 VISUAL TYPE What are you being asked to analyse? Is it a photograph, a logo, a cartoon, a sketch, an advertisement, a
graph, a table or chart, a banner? Always identify the visual type.

 AUTHOR Is there one? If so, use his/her name

 DESCRIBE IT Study it closely. What does it show?

 SIZE & PLACEMENT

Does the visual dominate the page? Where is it located in the article?
Is it the first thing the reader sees? What effect might this have?

What about the SIZE OF ASPECTS WITHIN THE VISUAL? In the 2010 exam, for
example, the visual showed an adult’s hands cupping the globe. Ordinarily, the Earth would
dwarf a pair of hands, but this size reversal was used to demonstrate the power that humans
have to change the fate of the planet. The visual thus reinforced the writer’s contention that
humans hold immense power over a relatively fragile planet and thus formed a literal
representation of the idea that ‘humans hold the fate of the world in their hands’.

 FOCAL POINT What are your eyes immediately drawn to and why? Refer to the focal point in your analysis.

 COMPOSITION. What is in the FOREGOUND? THE BACKGROUND? What has been emphasized or
foregrounded and backgrounded as a result?

 CONTRAST eg., light and darkness. Is this used to create an atmosphere?

 PEOPLE if people are depicted, look at their FACIAL EXPRESSIONS, GESTURES,

STANCE OR POSITION. Where is their GAZE directed? What effect does this have?

 ORIENTATION are we positioned to look at the image at eye level or from above or below? What effect does this have?

 SYMBOLS what might objects in the image symbolise or represent?

 CROPPING images may be cropped to only include part of the overall picture. Sometimes this can be used to create
meaning by what is included or excluded

TEXT WITHIN AN IMAGE

Text may be contained in an image. There may be a heading, a caption, a speech bubble, dialogue between characters etc. It is
important to analyse any written language. You might identify connotations, the use of adjectives etc.

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 HOW TO IDENTIFY TONE

A tone that is… A tone that is… A tone that is…

CALM, MEASURED & CONVERSATIONAL ANGRY, AGGRESSIVE, OUTRAGED,
AUTHORITATIVE HEATED, CRITICAL,
PATRONISING, FRUSTRATED,
DEFENSIVE, MOCKING,
could signal an SARCASTIC, PATRONISING
OBJECTIVE & UNBIASED argument
&
could signal a
SUBJECTIVE & BIASED argument
is likely to be based on reason &
logic

LOOK FOR… LOOK FOR… LOOK FOR…

-acknowledgement of opposing views -use of the first person (“I”) which -frequent attacks on the opponent…eg., ad
& a convincing rebuttal creates the effect that the person is hominem attacks
-the use of reason & logic speaking directly to his/her audience -the frequent use of words with negative
-evidence -direct addresses to the audience –eg., connotations
“I suppose you are wondering…” -the overuse of exclamation marks (!) and
-the use of words/phrases like -colloquial language questions (?) indicating strong emotion
‘Opponents argue’; ‘Some suggest’, -humour -a failure to acknowledge opposing points of
‘However’, ‘While some’, -contractions view
‘Admittedly’…these are words and -ironic phrases and sarcasm
phrases which show the writer/speaker -the use of exaggeration/hyperbole
is giving consideration to opposing -sweeping generalisations
views & is therefore unbiased -the over-use of exclusive language (“they”,
“them”)

Expanding your tone vocabulary

It’s important to have a broad variety of tone words to choose from when writing your analysis. Use the words
below as a starting point!
Accusing blaming, containing or suggesting a claim that somebody has done something wrong
Aggressive attacking and assertive
Agitated anxious, nervous or disturbed
Alarmist spreading fear or warnings of danger
Amiable friendly and pleasant
Amicable characterised by or done in friendliness, without anger or bad feelings
Animated full of liveliness or energy, rousing and inspiring
Antagonistic showing or expressing hostility or opposition

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Appalled feeling or appearing to be shocked by something dreadful or awful
Appreciative expressing or feeling gratitude or approval
Apprehensive hesitating, worried that something bad will happen
Approving to have a favourable opinion of somebody or something
Assertive confident in stating a position or claim
Authoritative reliable, showing deep knowledge, apparently backed by an established authority
Belligerent hostile or aggressive
Bemused bewildered, confused or puzzled
Benevolent showing kindness or goodwill, charitable, caring
Concerned worried and apprehensive or attentive and interested in something
Condemnatory confident that someone or something is wrong and stating that it is unacceptable
Condescending thinking of yourself as better than others, behaving in a way that shows yourself as
intellectually superior to others
Confrontational a challenging or hostile encounter of ideas, approaching prepared for a fight
Contemplative meditative, calm and thoughtful
Contemptuous feeling, expressing or demonstrating a strong dislike or utter lack of respect
Critical not approving, tending to find fault with somebody or something
Cynical distrustful and sarcastic, contemptuous and doubtful of other’s behaviour and motives
Diplomatic showing tact and skill, fairly dealing with multiple people or opinions
Disappointed unhappy because something was not as satisfactory as expected, or because something
hoped for or expected did not happen
Dismayed filled with alarm, apprehensive or distress
Dispirited discouraged or disheartened
Distressed very upset, anxious or unhappy
Earnest serious and solemn, done with great conviction and sincerity
Forthright direct in speech or manner and very honest, outspoken
Frustrated feeling exasperated, discouraged or unsatisfied
Incensed extremely angry, enraged
Incredulous showing disbelief, unable or unwilling to believe
Jingoistic belligerent nationalism in the form of extreme patriotism
Jovial cheerful in mood or disposition
Measured carefully considered and restrained in emotional expression
Mocking treat somebody or something with scorn or contempt
Nostalgic sentimental recollection, a mixed feeling of happiness, sadness and longing when
thinking of the past
Optimistic positive attitude, tending to take a hopeful and positive view of future outcomes
Outraged intense anger and indignation
Pejorative expressing criticism or disapproval
Pessimistic very negative, somebody who always expects the worst to happen

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Pleading to make an earnest entreaty, often in emotional terms
Reflective characterised by deep, careful thought
Regretful feeling or showing remorse for something
Resigned to come to terms with something and acquiesce in it reluctantly
Restrained characterised by control, especially in not being excessively emotional or aggressive
Sarcastic characterised by words that mean the opposite of what they seem to say and are
intended to mock or deride
Satirical using wit, especially irony sarcasm and ridicule, to criticise faults
Shocked the feeling of distress or numbness experienced after something surprising or upsetting
happens
Solemn having or showing sincerity and gravity
Sombre serious and melancholy
Sympathetic showing, having or resulting from shared feelings, pity or compassion
Troubled displaying worry or distress
Vindictive a desire to enact revenge, or punishment, showing spite
Source: https://wiki.engageeducation.org.au/english/
________________________________________________________________________________________

Sentence Starters
(i) To talk about argument

Objective argument
-Acknowledging opposing views and convincingly rebutting them conveys the author’s objectivity, positioning the audience to
be persuaded by an unbiased approach which makes convincing use of logic and reason
-Compelling evidence drawn from reputable sources persuades the audience to support the writer’s claim that…
-The writer’s calm, authoritative tone reflects his/her ability to impartially and objectively examine both sides of the argument
-Considered, reasoned and carefully substantiated arguments provide a convincing case for/against…..
-Extensive and credible research convincingly supports the writer’s argument that ….
-The considered use of authoritative experts adds credibility to the writer’s case
-Statistics, coupled with a calm, authoritative tone, provide reputable evidence to support the argument that….
-By discrediting opposing arguments the writer persuades his/her readers that his/her case is logical and reasonable
-The writer strategically combines logic and reason with personal experience/case studies/ appeals to …
-The writer pre-empts opposition by…..

Subjective

-Repeated ad hominem attacks which denigrate (name the person) character elicit an emotional response in readers but fail to
deal more objectively with his/her argument
-Repeatedly appealing to (eg., readers’ fears), the writer evokes a highly emotional response
-Adopting an aggressive, strident tone, the writer repeatedly attacks….
-The over-use of negative connotations and multiple appeals to emotion suggests an over-reliance on emotion as a persuasive
strategy at the expense of reason and logic
-Unsubstantiated claims that ….
-The writer’s over-reliance on personal experience and emotional appeals/anecdotal evidence at the expense of reason and logic
suggests a largely biased and subjective approach
-The writer’s failure to acknowledge opposing arguments suggests bias

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(ii) To talk about who the writer is

 The author’s credentials lend authority to his/her argument

 The author’s vested interest makes him/her a potentially biased spokesperson on this issue
 The writer draws on his/her personal experience to add weight to his/her perspective
 Throughout the piece, the author emphasizes his/her expertise and experience to augment his/her case
 The author’s lack of a vested interest makes him/her an impartial spokesperson
 The author’s authoritative tone reflects his/her knowledge and expertise
 The writer’s vested interest in the issue makes him/her potentially an unreliable commentator

(iii) To talk about argument construction

-The writer builds to his/her contention

-The writer begins with a clear statement of the contention and develops this with clearly signposted arguments, supported by
evidence
-The writer moves from the personal to the universal, beginning with personal experience and ending with universal
examples
- Moving from the personal to the universal conveys the writer’s ability to see the issue in a broader context…
-The writer adopts a problem-solution approach to argument, outlining the problem then offering a solution
-The writer begins with specific information and ends with general information
-The writer uses subheadings to break up the text and identify main points
-The writer imbues the argument with wider significance by (emphasizing the broader global, social, political, ethical,
environmental consequences
-The writer moves from the local to the global
-The writer locates the argument in a wider context
-The writer frames his/her argument around (the environmental impact of…; the health consequences of….; the financial/
economic cost of….; the morality/ethics of…; the long term impact of….; social justice concerns?

S/he immediately establishes her standpoint that ...... and imbues her argument with a clear sense of ...
By opening her piece with ... she obligates her readers to acknowledge that
S/he begins by strategically establishing her credentials....
S/he begins by establishing a problem-based approach to argument....
S/he begins with a strong statement of contention.....
S/he begins by evoking a shared sense of responsibility for ....
S/he begins with a strong appeal to justice, evoking outrage....
S/he begins by contextualising the problem ...
S/he begins with a discussion of broader ideas before narrowing her focus to ...
S/he begins by focusing on a specific aspect of the issue before broadening her focus to...
S/he begins with an anecdote, then moves from experience to discussion of universal issues...
There is a marked shift from argument to instruction in order to .....
Having established her case, there is a marked shift to .... culminating in a call to action
Strategically following this up with more expert testimony....
The author skilfully contrasts
The author then shifts her argumentative stance by offering several alternatives as rhetorically-presented counter-proposals,
reinforcing this with a tonal shift
S/he galvanises her audience by utilising inspiring rhetoric....
A more constructive approach to argument is evident in the list of solutions offered to give readers a sense of hope and a way
forward
The tone becomes more optimistic as s/he outlines a number of solutions….

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(iv) To use instead of ‘positions the reader’
*addresses the readers’ *activates the readers *alarms the reader

*allows the reader *compels the reader to (consider,reconsider,reflect on)

*challenges the reader to see… *clarifies for the reader *confronts the reader

*directs the reader to *elicits from the reader *encourages the reader to…

*forces the reader to (focus, consider, acknowledge) *fosters the reader’s view that

*impresses upon the reader *invites the reader to see *influences the reader to see

(v) Phrases to use in the body of your analysis

*Having established…
*Having positioned the reader to see….
*Having created for the reader
*Following on from this, the author
*Having argued
*Having dismissed
*The author turns their attention in the bulk of the piece to….
*The author focuses on their central argument that…..
*The author’s argument that….
*The author’s dismissal of …. provides a springboard/launching pad for…
*The author’s intention in the body of the piece is …
*Central to the author’s strategy in the body of the piece is…
*The author builds upon
*The author capitalises on
*The author seeks to reinforce/underline

SENTENCE STARTERS FOR USING PERSUASIVE LANGUAGE:

NB: Combine these with analysis of argument

 The use of alliteration in the headline creates (eg., an urgent, insistent tone)
 The analogy comparing ……….. vividly illustrates the point that…….
 The adjective (quote) implies that…..
 The anecdote personalises the issue/makes a complex issue accessible and interesting
 The writer’s argument that (……..) is endorsed by expert opinion. (Name of expert) clearly has expertise in this
field, positioning the reader to accept the author’s view
 The writer’s status as (describe position) constructs them as an expert and lends credibility to their views
 The writer appeals to common sense by claiming that …..
 An appeal to family values is evident in the claim that …..
 In suggesting that people’s safety is at risk, the writer appeals to fear and insecurity…..

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 The writer appeals to the hip pocket by suggesting that public money is being wasted, positioning readers to feel
outraged
 An appeal to tradition and customs is evident in the (include comment/quote),. positioning the reader to ….
 Repeated reference to Australians throughout the piece appeals to patriotism, positioning the reader to…….
 The writer appeals to a sense of justice in commenting that …..
 The writer attacks the opposition…………………….
 The writer launches an ad hominem attack, denigrating……
 A series of clichés describes……
 Colloquial language (quote example) reinforces the point in a humorous manner, creating a rapport with the
reader
 The negative connotations of (quote the word/s), associated with (what the word makes you think of) positions
the reader to ….
 The positive connotations of (quote the word/s), with their associations with (what the word makes you think of)
positions the reader to ….
 The writer’s use of hyperbole creates a ……………
 The use of inclusive language invites the reader to …(share the writer’s view; feel that the issue directly affects
them)
 The use of exclusive language creates a division between ……
 The repetition of (quote the word/s) reinforces the point that (explain) positioning the reader to……
 The rhetorical question positions the reader to agree that……
 The use of the first person creates a conversational tone
 The writer’s angry, aggressive tone is conveyed in the attack made on ……
 The use of the third person reinforces the writer’s objective, unbiased argument based on reason and logic
 The fact that the writer is an expert in the field lends credibility to the arguments
 The simile helps readers to visualise
 The use of sensory imagery encourages readers to want to share the experience….

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