Pointers in ETHICS ❖ The act of self-defense may have double effect:

✓ first, the saving of one's own life;

^VIRTUE ETHICS ✓ second, the slaying of the aggressor.
❖ is the study of a person's character and the virtues for ❖ He also argues that since one's intention is to save one's
determining or evaluating ethical behavior. own life, the act is not unlawful.
^PHILOSOPHY ❖ However, St. Thomas maintains that the permissibility of
❖ The essence of philosophy is to question what is self-defense is not unconditional.
considered the truth. ❖ The act of self-defense may be rendered unlawful if a man
❖ Philosophical inquiry involves questioning beliefs and in self-defense shows unnecessary violence.
assumptions of reality and how it works. The New Catholic Encyclopedia lists the principal
❖ Philosophical activity is practical because it challenges conditions of the principle of double effect:
what and how humans think and act. 1. The act itself must be morally good or at least indifferent.
❖ Ethics, as a branch of philosophy, involves systematizing, 2. The agent may not positively will the bad effect but may
describing, and recommending concepts of right and permit it. If he or she could attain the good effect without the
wrong. bad effect, he or she should do so. The bad effect is sometimes
^METAETHICS said to be indirectly voluntary.
❖ Attempts to determine the meanings of terms such as right, 3. The good effect must flow from the action at least as
good, virtue, justice, etc. immediately as the bad effect. In other words, the good effect
❖ Among the approaches in metaethics are cognitivism, must be produced directly by the action, not by the bad effect.
intuitionism, naturalism, and subjectivism. Otherwise, the agent would be using a bad means to a good
APPROACHES OF METAETHICS end, which is never allowed.
✓ Cognitivism maintains that moral judgment can be true 4. The good effect must be sufficiently desirable to
or false and can be a subject of knowledge or cognition. compensate for the allowing of the bad effect.
✓ Intuitionism suggests that human knowledge of what is *EXAMPLES OF NON-MORAL STANDARDS
considered good and bad is immediate and self- evident. ❖ We have no right to impose on others
✓ Naturalism suggests that moral terms are complex ❖ Does not affect other people
matters and can be established through scientific ❖ Refer to standards by which we judge what is good or bad
investigation. and right or wrong in a non-moral way.
✓ Subjectivism holds that moral judgments are subjective ❖ Are matters of taste or preference
and that there are no objective moral truths. A form of ❖ Manage individual life, aspirations and desires and may
moral skepticism that doubts absolute moral truth and decide a person’s place in his group. Some moral
asserts that no one can have absolute knowledge of it. standards of any society could be the table manners,
^CONFLICT general etiquette, clothing, etc.
❖ Are instances when individuals are confronted with *FACTORS OF XENOCENTRISM
conflicting answers to the question, "what is right? “ ❖ is the tendency to value other cultures more highly than one's
❖ In psychology, a moral dilemma is said to arise when distinct own.
psychological mechanisms for moral judgment yield ❖ Fascination with others' culture and contempt for one's own
conflicting judgments of individual cases. culture can be traced back to a culture's colonial experience
❖ Situations like these can place a person in a moral conflict, in through cultural brainwashing via media.
which several alternative courses of action can have positive
and negative outcomes. ^TOLERANCE
❖ Conflict typically involves opposing values, beliefs, and ❖ Tolerance means that people should try to understand and
norms. respect the beliefs, traditions, and practices of the cultures
❖ Thus, conflict is rooted not only in individual behavior but also of others.
in different values and norms of the society. ❖ The feeling and attitude of superiority, intolerance, and
^PRINCIPLE OF DOUBLE EFFECT impatience towards cultural differences must be avoided
- self defense - kapag ‘yung taong gustong manakit sa’yo is and rejected
unintentionally mo napatay which is acceptable *PROBLEMS OF CULTURAL RELATIVISM
- hindi lang nagiging acceptable ang self defense kapag nasaksak ❖ Tolerance and acceptance of social injustices and
mo na tapos sinaksak mo pa ulit inhumane activities.
- own will mo na ‘yun, ayaw mo na siya buhayin ✓ Though it has its own strengths, cultural relativism also
❖ Moral dilemma relates primarily to the principle of double has negative implications. It is possible that it will make
effect that takes root in the teachings of St. Thomas people turn a hot blind eye to the plight of the
Aquinas. marginalized in the name of cultural plurality.
❖ In his work Summa Theologica, St. Thomas introduces the ✓ The are many cases that the long-held cultural
principle of double effect in his discussion on the traditions and practices cause the suffering and abuse
permissibility of self-defense. of individuals.
❖ He himself holds that killing one's assailant is justified,
provided that one does not intend to kill him or her.
 ✓ However, these traditions and practices are passed off ❖ Cultural relativism respects the beliefs of different
as existing in a particular cultural context that not cultures.
everyone understands. ✓ Cultural relativism does not insult or question the ability
✓ A rational person will assert that such acts should of other cultures to make intelligent and sound moral
continue, yet relativism tends to accept, permit, and judgment.
tolerate it because of cultural diversity. ✓ Moral norms or standards of other cultures have long
been respected and recognized by their own authorities,
❖ Rejection of higher universal or common moral elders, members.
standards ✓ There is no objective, scientific method or valid system
✓ The idea of good or bad, of wrong or right depends on to judge and criticize the moral practices of other
the accepted practices in one's culture. cultures as superior or inferior.
✓ Individuals and groups cannot question the legitimacy ❖ Cultural relativism promotes unity and harmony among
or validity of cultural practices simply because it is cultures.
approved by the society. ✓ Cultural relativism counters the attitude of intolerance,
✓ However, is it possible to critically evaluate and arrogance, and dominance
criticize the quality, essence, and meaning of morality if ✓ These behaviors are the source of endless
objectivity is disregarded? misunderstanding, conflict, and hostility within and
✓ Moral progress cannot be achieved if there are no among cultures.
universal moral standards with which to judge various ✓ Cultural relativism promotes deeper understanding and
cultural preferences and practices. respect which is the key to better relationships among
❖ Assumption that knowledge of other culture is diverse cultures
impossible ^SELF-ESTEEM
✓ Cultural relativism assumes that it is impossible to fully ❖ This is the value of the highest level among Filipinos
understand and immerse oneself in a foreign culture ❖ It refers to the high regard for amor proprio (self-esteem) or
because people come from different cultural the strong desire to be respected
backgrounds. ^EGO, CONSCIOUSNESS, REASON
✓ Therefore, no one is in the position to judge or criticize a ❖ Max Ferdinand Scheler
person from a different culture. ❖ He contends that reason, consciousness, and ego are
✓ With globalization, the atmosphere of increasing global characteristics of a human being and the pure form of these
cooperation and unity requires transparency and the characteristics cannot be found outside of humans
understanding of foreign cultures. ❖ Scheler states the existence of a human being is due to his or
✓ The concern for international human rights, welfare, and her heart and not his or her ego, will, or reason
development bridges the diversity and plurality of *SCHELER’S THEORY AND HIERARCHY OF VALUES
cultures. -Sensory Value Modality
❖ People who conform to these values primarily consider
❖ Vulnerability to racial discrimination whether something leads to pleasure or pain
✓ Cultural relativism rejects a universal sense of humanity ❖ They agree on what gives them pleasure and disagree on what
by claiming that each culture is unique and different. gives them pain
✓ The truth is, despite cultural differences, all humans ❖ Pleasure-seekers hold this particular value-modality
share the same traits as human species. ❖ E.g. sensual feelings, experiences of pleasure of pain
✓ Generally, all human beings are similar to one other and -Vital Value Modality
it is of possible to understand and agree on common ❖ All modes of feelings in life are included in this level.
moral standards. ❖ Pertains to the recognition of health and sickness, strength
✓ The idea that there are unique and different cultures and weakness, and excellence and flaw.
could also lead some people to think that their culture is ❖ Emotional reactions are also included in this category such as
superior to others or that others can be disparaged and "being happy about something" or "being annoyed at
controlled because they are inferior. something”
*STRENGTHS OF CULTURAL RELATIVISM ❖ E.g. Health, vitality, capability, excellence
❖ Cultural relativism helps avoid moral dictatorship.
✓ Cultural relativism respects -Spiritual Value Modality
✓ diversity and the plurality of rich cultural and historical ❖ The feeling-states relative to this value-modality are connected
traditions. to spiritual feelings, more specifically, love and hatred, beauty
✓ The behaviors and moral standards of other cultures and ugliness, joy and sorrow, delight and disgust, and reverence
are not always in agreement with one's own. and contempt.
✓ The question is whether it is right to impose moral ❖ They may also include feelings of pleasure and displeasure,
standards applicable to all people on the moral approval and disapproval, and respect and disrespect.
dilemmas of people with different cultural ❖ The three main types of spiritual values are:
backgrounds.
 ✓ values of "beauty" and "ugliness," including the whole span ✓ Nonetheless, he suggests that divine and natural laws
of purely aesthetic values; are the criteria by which people can judge the morality
✓ values of "right" and "wrong," and or immorality of their moral decisions especially when
✓ values of the "pure cognition of truth." they are faced with moral dilemmas.
❖ Those who possess these values are considered geniuses ✓ In pursuit of moral decisions, the human person must
(artistic, moral, and philosophical). discern and make all the right choices by relating them
to divine law and the ultimate good of humanity.
^STRUCTURAL DILEMMA
^FEELING-STATES ❖ Refers to moral predicaments in public administration
❖ Feeling-states refer to specific values or elements that one ❖ Cases involving network of institutions and operative
may give importance to. theoretical paradigms
❖ It may be pleasure, strength, joy, or holiness ❖ Encompasses multi-sectoral institutions and organizations,
^NORMATIVE ETHICS may be larger in scope and extent than organizational ones
❖ The study of ethical actions and questions the standards of
what is considered morally good or bad.
❖ It is concerned with questions such as why should one be ^INDIVIDUAL DILEMMA
moral and how can one tell what is right or wrong. ❖ A person, or an individual, has two or more moral values to
Major Theories of Normative Ethics consider, he or she can choose one only, and choosing one or
✓ Consequentialism, the moral worth of an action is the other will not solve the problem in a moral way.
determined by its potential consequences. ^ORGANIZATIONAL DILEMMA
✓ Deontological ethics is the study of the rightness and ❖ Can take many form and these are the moral problems in the
wrongness of the actions themselves regardless of their workplace
consequences. In short, it is the study of duty ❖ Resolved by social organizations are organizational moral
✓ Virtue ethics is the study of a person's character and the dilemmas.
virtues for determining or evaluating ethical behavior. ❖ Include moral dilemmas in business, medical field, and public
^ETHICS OF RELIGION sector
❖ Most religions possess an ethical code. ^DEONTOLOGICAL ETHICS
❖ Thus, some philosophers regard that there can be no morality ❖ is the study of the rightness and wrongness of the actions
without religion as it is necessary to live ethically. themselves regardless of their consequences. In short, it is the
❖ Ethics and religion are best viewed as complementing study of duty.
systems. ^METAPHYSICS
^LOGIC ❖ What is real?
❖ Love as the center of all emotions and goes on to argue that ^SUBJECTIVISM
love and feelings have their own type of logic that is different ❖ holds that moral judgments are subjective and that there are no
from the logic of reason objective moral truths. Aform of moral skepticism that doubts
*STEPS IN MORAL DILEMMA absolute moral truth and asserts that no one can have absolute
1. Examine the acts in relation to the agent knowledge of it.
✓ The immorality of human acts is determined by examining ^EPISTEMOLOGY
the acts in themselves in their relation to the agent ❖ How do we know?
(person, doer) who performs them.
✓ The agent and the facts surrounding the act must be
assessed.
2. Determine the Consequences of the Acts *FACTORS WHY CULTURE CHANGES OVER ME
✓ The second step of testing the morality or immorality of a ❖ These changes may come in the form of discoveries,
human act is called consequentialism. inventions, or cultural adoption.
✓ The principle of consequentialism suggests that one *ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE AND ETHICS
must weigh the consequences of a human act to ❖ The organization's culture also reveals the unwritten ethical
determine whether it is moral or immoral. standards that guide employees in their decision making.
3. Identify the intention of the acts ❖ This culture is observed in the employer-employee
✓ For St. Thomas, the morality or immorality of the act relationship, the system and structure, and how the employees
resides in the intention of the person. communicate and interact with each other and with others
✓ If the agent intends to cause harmful consequences, then inside and outside of the organization.
the act is immoral. ❖ Ethical standards are the explicit code of conduct and sets to
4. Decide in accordance to divine and natural laws which be followed by its members.
govern moral life. ❖ Often, the problems arise when organization the organizational
✓ St. Thomas holds that not all aspects of the human culture is in organization's ethical standards.
person are either moral or immoral. ^PRIMARY SOURCE OF MORALITY
❖ Since the family is the basic unit of society, it is therefore, the ❖ Moral norms or standards of other cultures have long been
primary source of morality. respected and recognized by their own authorities, elders,
^IMMANUEL KANT members.
❖ Theory of Moral Feeling ^MORAL GUIDELINES
❖ When people make moral decisions, feelings come into play, ❖ It is indeed necessary to have moral guidelines that support
organizing them into inclinations, affects, passions, and desires and strengthen the values of cooperation and love.
❖ Kant defines moral feeling as "the susceptibility to feel ^ECONOMIC STATUS
pleasure or displeasure merely from being aware that actions ❖ Economic status, on the other hand, could influence a
are consistent or contrary to the law of duty" person's values of cooperation, generosity, and honesty if he
❖ Susceptibility to pleasure and pain or she is overtaken by greed.
❖ Moral feeling is not necessarily associated with moral ^MORALITY
goodness, but a susceptibility on the part of free choice to be ❖ Morality is rooted in the personhood of an individual.
moved by pure practical reason ❖ Morality recognizes the depth and mystery of personhood that
❖ No human being is entirely without moral feeling is instrumental to building the ideal society.
❖ Moral feeling's practical function is the ground of judgment and *UNETHICAL PRACTICES IN AN ORGANIZATION CULTURE
a motive to action ❖ Unethical practices are perpetuated in the organization when
❖ The way an individual responds to a situation could be based the superiors or leaders approve and support them or turn a
on feelings. blind eye on them.
❖ He believes that moral feeling is derived from rational law ❖ When the organization is in big trouble and on the verge of
❖ This view is summarized in Kant's statement, "Inner sense, if it collapsing because of unethical practices, there is an urgent
refers to the logical law of demonstration, is the secretive need to change its culture radically.
nature of moral law” ❖ This is a difficult process especially if unethical practices
❖ His view suggests that moral feelings is a product of people's have long been persisting in the organization.
thoughts and reasonings their cognitions *FACTORS INFLUENCE VALUES FORMATION
❖ The basic premise is that the mental abilities such as ❖ Major influences in values formation are family, peers,
judgement and decision-making are important determinants of education, and the media
moral feelings ^NORMATIVE ETHICS
^PRE-RATIONAL REFEREEING ❖ The study of ethical actions and questions the standards of
❖ He based his ethics on "pre-rational refereeing," the person's what is considered morally good or bad.
first reaction towards a specific value. ❖ It is concerned with questions such as why should one be
moral and how can one tell what is right or wrong.
^DEBT OF GRATITUDE *SOURCES OF PHILOSOPHERS QUESTION OF WHAT IS
❖ This value called utang na-loob in Filipino reflects the value of RIGHT
reciprocity among Filipinos ❖ Philosophers also raise questions about moral behaviors such
❖ It refers to the value in which one remembers the favor other as:
people has given to him or her and for him or her to return it in ✓ What is good?
some form or another in the future ✓ How can good be distinguished from evil?
^SOCIAL ACCEPTANCE ✓ What is the difference between moral and immoral?
❖ Among Filipinos, social approval, social acceptance, and the ✓ What is justice?
sense of belongingness are essential to enable them to
function in society *Review this legend requires reading because ques on is in
^TOLERANCE statement form (statement 1, statement 2, NOT TRUE,
❖ Tolerance means that people should try to understand and TRUE, etc.) and analysis (1, 2, 3, and 4,)
respect the beliefs, traditions, and practices of the cultures of
others.
❖ The feeling and attitude of superiority, intolerance, and
impatience towards cultural differences must be avoided and
rejected
^MORAL NORMS
❖ The components of culture attitudes, values, ideals, and
moral norms are integrated into a whole system for individuals
in the same social environment to share.
❖ Moral norms are necessary in a culture so that everybody may
live peacefully, justly, and happily with each other.
❖ Moral norms are not permanent; they change according to
time, place, and circumstances.