EXPERIMENT NO.

01

AIM: To Study of Active and Passive Components based on their ratings.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No. Apparatus / Components Specification Quantity

1. CRO 1
2. Function Generator 1
3. Multimeter 1
Active and passive
components (Diode,
Transistor, Resistance , 1no. each
4. Capacitance) 1
Power supply & Bread Board

THEORY:

Introduction:

In the designing of any electronic circuit, three most important considerations are:

(i) Circuit components like resistors, Capacitors, Transistors and Diodes. (ii)

Power sources like dc power supplies and signal generators

(iii) Measurement and analysis instruments like multi meters and Cathode Ray Oscilloscope
(CRO).

This experiment deals with familiarization of basic components like resistors, Capacitors anddiodes.
Basic Components: Basic components like capacitors, resistors, inductors, diodes, light emitting diode
(led) and transistors can be divided into 2 categories: (i) Passive components like resistors and capacitors
and (ii) Active components like diodes and transistors. The difference between theabove two categories
is that active components can generate energy whereas passive components can not generate energy. In
other words active components can increase power of asignal whereas passive components often cause
the power to be lost.
Some components like resistors have their values marked on them whereas others like transistors do
not have any value marking but have a type number on them. One has to refer to datasheets to get to know
the value of the unmarked component. Besides component values, they are also characterized by their
ratings for e.g. maximum current value that a component canstand without being burnt out.
Resistors: Resistors can be of two types: fixed value resistors or variable resistors. The formula for
resistance is given by: R = ρ l / A where ρ is resistivity, l is length and A is area of crossection. Different
value resistors can be manufactured by changing the length and area of crossection or the material itself
which changes the resistivity.
Current more than the prescribed wattage may damage the resistor.Colour Code for Resistors

Band colour Band colour & its

& its value tolerance

Black = 0 Gold = + - 5%
Brown = 1 Silver = + - 10 %
Red = 2 No colour means 20 %
Orange = 3
Yellow = 4
Green = 5
Blue = 6
Violet = 7
Grey = 8
White = 9

The first two bands near an end indicate first 2 digits, digit corresponding to 3 rd band is the power of 10
to be multiplied and fourth band indicates tolerance as mentioned in the table. Referfig 1, where brown =
1, black = 0, red = 2 and silver = 10 % tolerance. Hence its value is 10 x 102 Ω = 1 k Ω.
Capacitors
Capacitors are capable of storing charges. They are used for coupling ac signals from one circuit to
another and for frequency selection etc. A capacitor consists of 2 metallic plates separated bya dielectric.
The capacitance is defined as : C = Єo Єr A / d, where A is the area of plates, d is plates separation, Єo
is permittivity of free space and Єr is relative permittivity.
(i) Electrolytic Capacitors: There are two designs of electrolytic capacitors: (i) Axial where the
leads are attached to each end (220µF in picture) and (ii) Radial where both leadsare at the sam
(ii) e end (10µF in picture)
(iii) Non-polarised capacitors ( < 1µF): Small value capacitors
have their values printed but

without a multiplier. For example 0.1 means 0.1µF = 100nF.

Sometimes the unit is placed inbetween 2 digits indicating a decimal
point. For example: 4n7 means 4.7nF.

Inductors: Inductor is a component made by a coil of wire which is

wound on a core. It is usedto vary the impedance of a circuit or for
frequency tuning. The value of an inductor depends upon the total
number of turns (N), area of crossection of the core (A) and length of
the core (l).The formula is L = μo μr N2 A / l. Its unit is in Henry.
Diode: A diode is a single junction device made of p and n type materials.. Its main function is torectify an
ac signal although other special purpose diodes like Zener and LED’s are used for
other purposes. A normal diode comes in a black casing whereas a zener diode has a transparentcasing.
Their pictures and symbols are given in fig. 7.

Other diodes may be made by a p type and n type materials or between a semiconductor and a metal. If
the junction is made between a metal and semiconductor then it is called a Schottky diode whose
application is in rectifying and non-rectifying contacts and Schottky devices. If the pn junction is made
between very heavily doped materials then it forms a Zener diode. These are used for voltage regulation
in power supplies. and have breakdown voltages which are very low. The normal diode has a breakdown
voltage of greater than 100 V.

To test whether a given diode is O.K. or not, a simple multimter test can be performed.

Light Emitting Diode (LED)

LED’s are p-n junction devices which emit light radiation when biased in the forward direction. The
semiconductor material used for these junctions is a compound semiconductor like AlGaAs whose band
gap corresponds to a particular
wavelength according to
equation Eg = 1.24 / λ where
Eg is the band gap in ev and λ
is the wavelength in microns.
(e.g. red ~ 0.7 μ hence
corresponding E g = 1.24 / 0.7
= 1.77 ev). When the pn
junction is forward biased, the
electrons are excited to
conduction band and when
they fall to the valence band,
they give out energy in the
form of radiation
corresponding to the Eg of the
material
 Transistors

Transistors are semiconductor devices used for applications like amplification of voltages, current and are
also used in oscillator circuits and switches. It’s a two junction and 3 terminal device made of three layers
of n and p type materials. The three regions are emitter, base and collector. They are of 2 types (i) pnp
and (ii) npn.

Integrated Circuits (IC)

Today all electrical, electronic and computer parts have IC’s in them. Integrated circuit is a name given
to a package which can hold more than 10 and up to millions of electronic components. They can give
various functions like : (i) the function of a full microprocessor circuit (eg 8085), (ii) a memory chip,
(iii) a voltage regulator (LM 7805) or (iv) Can contain just 10 AND gates (eg LS7400). They come in a
black bench like casing with a notch on one side and with electrical legs for connections, which are called
pins. The size is usually around 1 cm2 X 1 cm2. Refer to the picture. Its name is always written on top
which

contains a few letters with numerals, according to its type, make and company. For example an IC with
name LS 7400 would mean LS series with And gates, LM741C - mA741C is an operational amplifier
(opamp). Datasheets can be referred to, to know the details of pin configurations and make etc. The pins
are usually read starting from left of notch and going anticlockwise as shown in picture for 555 timer IC.

Results: All Active & Passive components have been identified and tested.