Course Material

I Year Engineering & Technology (I Semester) – (2024-2025)

Subject name: Engineering Physics Subject Code: EBPH24ET1

Unit-I – Properties of matter

Contents
Sec. No Section Head Pg. No
1.1. Introduction – significance of elastic behavior, rigid body,
comparison between elastic and plastic body 2
1.2. Stress and Strain 3
1.2.1. Stress and Types of Stress 3
1.2.2. Strain and Types of Strain 3
1.3. Elastic Limit, Hooke’s law 4
1.4. Three moduli of Elasticity – Young’s, Bulk and Rigidity modulus 5
1.5. Poisson’s Ratio (σ) and its limiting value 7
1.6. Relation between three moduli of elasticity 9
1.7. Stress-Strain Curve (Behavior of a wire under increasing load) 10
1.8. Twisting couple on a wire (Couple per unit twist) 11
1.9. Shafts-solid and hollow shafts 14
1.9.1. Requirements /Properties of a good shaft
1.9.2. Hollow shaft is stronger than a solid shaft of same mass, length and material.
1.9.3. Comparison between solid shaft and hollow shaft
1.10. Beams – Introduction 18
1.11 Expression for the bending moment (Theory of bending of beams) 18
1.12. Cantilever 20
1.12.1. Non uniform bending-Experimental Determination of Young’s Modulus
1.13. I– form of girders 23
1.13.1. Significance of I- form of Girders
1.14. Viscosity, Coefficient of viscosity, stream line and turbulent flow 25
1.14.1. Reynolds number, Laminar flow, classification of viscous liquids,
1.15. Poiseillue’s formula 27
1.16. Ostwald’s Viscometer – Construction, working with theory to compare 27
the viscosities of two different liquids

1.17. Lubricants 29

1
 UNIT– I
PROPERTIES OF MATTER

1.1.Introduction
We know matter or material is made up of atoms/molecules. Properties of matter deal with the
physical, chemical, mechanical, electrical, optical, magnetic and other properties of materials. This
particular unit mainly deals with the mechanical properties of the given material.
The applied external force on the given body is called as the deforming force. When it is applied
on a given body, the body is not free to move and the molecules of the body are compelled to
change their relative positions. As a result, the body suffers change in length, volume and shape.
At this state, the body is said to be deformed. A body is said to be a rigid body, if the distance
between any two points in a body remains unaltered due to the application of external forces.
Elasticity refers to the property of the given material by virtue of which the body regains its
original length, volume and shape after the removal of the deforming forces. Gases and liquids also
possess elastic properties, since their volume changes under the action of pressure.
Significance of Elastic Behavior of materials
● Elasticity is concerned with determining the strength and load carrying ability of engineering
structures including buildings, bridges, cars, planes, and thousands of machine parts
● Theory of elasticity is used to design safe and stable man-made structures such as sky-scrapers
and over bridges to make life convenient.
● Cranes used to lift loads use ropes that are designed so that the stress due to the maximum load
does not exceed the breaking stress.
● Knowledge on elasticity is useful for material selection while doing device design.
● It is especially important in the fields of mechanical, civil, aeronautical and materials
engineering.
Comparison between elastic and plastic body
S.N Perfectly elastic body Perfectly plastic body
o
1 Bodies which can recover completely Bodies which do not show any tendency to
to their original state on removal of recover to their original state even after the
deforming forces are known as removal of external/deforming forces are
perfectly elastic bodies. known as perfectly plastic bodies.
2 Example: Rubber, steel wire, quartz Example: mud, clay, wax
fiber

2
1.2.Stress and Strain
1.2.1. Stress and Types of Stress
Stress is defined as the internal restoring force per unit area perpendicular to the
surface of the deformed body, when it is subjected to external deforming force (refer
Fig.1.1). Stress is represented by the symbol ‘σ’ and the unit of stress is Newton /𝑚2 (or)

Pascal.

Figure 1.2.1 Illustration of stress applied on a uniform rod

Types of Stress
(i) Tensile Stress (or) Longitudinal Stress
(ii) Bulk Stress (or) Volume Stress
(iii) Shear Stress (or) Tangential Stress
(i)Tensile Stress (or) Longitudinal Stress
It refers to the stress experienced by an object along its length due to the presence of equal and
opposite deforming forces (refer Fig.1.1) perpendicular to the area of cross-section. Due to this
longitudinal stress, the body undergoes changes in length but not in shape and volume.
(ii) Bulk Stress (or) Volume Stress
It refers to the applied stress that is equal and normal to all the faces of the given body. Due to
this volume stress, the body undergoes changes in volume but not in shape of the body.
(iii) Shear Stress (or) Tangential Stress
It refers to the elastic restoring force that acts parallel to the surface area of the given body.
Due to this shear stress, the body undergoes change in shape of the body but not in volume.
1.2.2. Strain and Types of Strain

Strain is defined as the ratio of change in dimension produced by the external force acting on the
body, to its original dimension. Figure (1.2) depicts the change in the length of a wire on
application of the deforming force. Here ∆L and L indicates increase in length and original length
of the wire respectively.

3
 Strain =
Figure 1.2.2 Illustration of strain in a wire.
Types of Strain
(i) Longitudinal Strain/Tensile Strain
(ii) Bulk Strain/Volume Strain
(iii) Shearing Strain

(i) Longitudinal Strain =

(ii) Bulk Strain =

(iii) Shearing Strain = (or) it is defined as the angle (θ)

through which a face originally perpendicular to the fixed face is turned through.
1.3. Elastic Limit, Hooke’s law
The maximum value of the stress, within which a body completely regains its original
condition (shape, size, and volume) after removal of deforming forces is called as elastic limit
(i.e.) the maximum limit beyond which permanent deformation occurs in the given body.
Hooke’s law
Hooke’s law, also referred as the law of elasticity (refer Fig.1.3), was discovered by an English
scientist named Robert Hooke in the year 1660. According to Hooke’s law, within the elastic
limit, stress is directly proportional to the strain produced i.e. Stress α Strain (or)

(M)

4
 Figure 1.3.1 Illustration of Hooke’s law
Proportional limit
Proportional limit is measured by the maximum stress that can be developed in the given material
without causing a deviation from Hooke`s law. The elastic limit nearly coincides with the proportional
limit for some elastic materials, so that at times the two are not be distinguished.

1.4.Three modulus of Elasticity

The elasticity of a material is quantified by the elastic moduli such as,

(i) Young’s Modulus (E)
(ii) Bulk Modulus (K)
(iii) Rigidity Modulus/Shear Modulus(G)
Which measures the amount of stress needed to achieve a unit of strain; a higher modulus indicates that
the material is harder to deform.
(i) Young’s Modulus (E)

Young`s modulus is defined as the ratio of longitudinal stress to longitudinal strain.

Fig. 1.4.1 Illustration of Young’s modulus in a wire

2
Consider Fig.1.4. where when a stretching force ‘F’ is applied to the free end of the wire of length ‘L’ and area
of cross section ‘A’, it undergoes an increase in length ‘ΔL’.
Then one can write,
Longitudinal Stress =

Longitudinal Strain =

Therefore, Young’s Modulus (E) = Newton/m2

(ii) Bulk Modulus (K)

Bulk modulus is defined as the ratio of Volume stress to Volume strain. Consider Fig.1.5. where when three
equal stresses (F/A=P) act on the given cube in mutually three perpendicular directions, then there is change in
volume (v) of the cube takes place. Let the initial volume of the cube be represented by ‘V’.

Then Volume Stress =

Volume Strain =
Therefore, the bulk modulus (K) is given by

= since F/A = P, the pressure acting on the face of the cube.

Hence,

3
 (iii) Rigidity Modulus (G)

It is defined as the ratio between the tangential / shearing stress to the shearing strain within
the elastic limits.

Consider the lower face of a cube is fixed and a tangential force ‘F’ is applied at the upper face of area A.
Due to this, the upper face is turned through an angle ( ).

Therefore, here shear stress/tangential stress = ⁄ .

Shearing strain = .

⁄
Hence, 𝑚 ⁄𝑚

1.5. Poisson’s Ratio (σ) and its limiting value

Poisson’s ratio is defined as the ratio of lateral strain per unit stress (ꞵ) to longitudinal per unit stress (α). It is
denoted by the symbol σ

Explanation

Let us consider a wire of length L and diameter D, whose one end is fixed and stretched along the other end as
shown in the Figure (1.7.). Due to the force applied, the wire becomes longer but it also becomes thinner. Hence
there is an increase in its length and a decrease in its diameter i.e. the wire elongates freely in the direction of
tensile force and contracts laterally in the direction perpendicular to the force. After the application of the force
let the length increases from L to (L+l) and the diameter decreases from D to d.
4
 Figure 1.5.2 Illustration of Poisson’s ratio after the application of Force

Then Longitudinal strain =

And Lateral strain =

The negative sign indicates that longitudinal strain and lateral strain are opposite to each other

Limiting value of Poisson’s ratio (σ)

Often there a exist relation of Poisson’s ratio (σ) with the Young’s modulus (E) and bulk modulus (K) as
E= 3K (1-2σ) ---------- (1)
Similarly there exist another relation of Poisson’s ratio (σ) with the Young’s modulus (E) and shear
modulus (G) as given by
E=2G (1+σ) ----------- (2)
Let us now examine Equ (1) and Equ (2), for the values of σ, so that the E remains positive itself. This is
possible under the following situations:

Case 1: In Equ (1), if at all one wants to maintain E to be positive, then σ needs to be either zero or ½.

Case 2: Similarly in Equ (2), if at all one wants to maintain E to be positive, then σ needs to be either zero
or -1.

Therefore consolidating the above two cases, one can say that σ needs to take its values between ½ and -1
(or) the limiting value of σ is 1/2 > σ > -1

i.e. 0.5 > σ > -1

5
1.6. Relation between three moduli of elasticity

The elastic constants/ elastic moduli are dependent on each other. Thus the expression can be derived
showing the interrelations between them.

As we discussed in the above section, assume the relation among (σ) (E) and (K) as,

E= 3K (1-2σ) ------------- (1)

Similarly the relation among (σ), (E) and (G) is given by

E=2G (1+σ) -------------- (2)

Rearrange Equ.(2) and get (1+σ).
(or) σ = – 1) ------------- (3)

Next, substituting Equ. (3) in Equ. (1) and simplifying, one will get the following expression for E,
E = 3K (1- +2)
= 3K (- +3)
= -3K + 9K
(or) E =
EG =
(EG + )=
(or) E = ------------- (4)

Now, divide Equ (2) by Equ. (1), then we get,

=

1= (or) 3K (1-2σ) = 2G (1+σ)

(or) (3K – 3K.2σ) = (2G + 2G σ)

(or) (3K - 2G) = σ (2G + 6K)
(or) σ = -------------(5)
6
Equations (1), (2), (3), (4) and (5) show the relations among the various elastic constants/moduli.

1.7. Stress-Strain Curve (Behavior of a wire under increasing load)

Consider a wire which is subjected to a uniformly increasing stress. Due to the application of the stress, the
change in dimension of the body takes place (i.e.) the strain is developed. A graph (Figure (1.9.)) is drawn to find
the relation between the applied stress on ‘Y’ axis and the developed strain on ‘X’ axis. This curve is called as
Stress-Strain Diagram. This graph represents the behavior of the wire under the application of load.

The various portion/region/parts of the graph are discussed below.

Portion OA: The graph signifies a linear variation from O to A, indicating that the elongationn is proportional to
the applied load and hence Hooke`s law is obeyed here. The point A is called the elastic limit. If the applied stress
is within the limit, then the body recovers its original state. Therefore the region OA represents the perfectly
elastic region.

Beyond OA: If the wire is loaded beyond this elastic limit (OA), the elongation increases more than rapidly than
the applied stress, hence Hooke’s law is not obeyed here.

Portion AB: This region AB represents a state in which the material is partly elastic and partly plastic. Here, on
removal of the applied load, the wire does not come back to its original condition along AO, instead it takes a new
path BM represented by the dotted line. Hence the wire will not attain its original length OA, but acquires a
permanent extension of

length OM which is called as ‘residual strain’ and the wire is said to acquire a ‘permanent set’.

Beyond the point B and up to C: Here, for no increase in stress, the strain increases rapidly and erratically up to
C. The point B, where the large erratic increase in strain commences is called as the yield point. The corresponding
stress is called as yield stress.
7
Portion CE: Here, as the strain increases steadily with stress, the cross sectional area of the wire decreases
uniformly. The region beyond C up to E is called as the plastic region.

After the point E: Here, the strain increases though there is no addition of load. The stress corresponding to the
point F is called as the breaking stress. At F, finally the solid breaks and hence it is called as the ‘breaking point’.

1.8. Twisting couple on a wire (Couple per unit twist)

● The twisting of a structural member about its longitudinal axis by two equal and opposite forces is expressed
through a certain angle.
● The stress seen in this situation is not tensile or compressive, it is said to be shearing or shear stress.
● The strain in this case is measured by an angle in unit of radians
● Couple per unit twist C is also called the torsional rigidity of the material of the wire

Let us consider a cylindrical wire of length ‘L’ and radius ‘r’, fixed at its upper end. Imagine, the wire is twisted
through an angle θ by applying a torque at the lower end (Figure 1.82). The wire can be assumed to be made up of
several hollow cylindrical tubes whose radii vary from 0 to r (Figure 1.12). Let us consider one such cylinder of
radius x and thickness dx as

shown in the Figure 1.12. Due to the twisting torque, the line AB which is initially parallel to the axis OO' of the
cylinder, is now displaced to a new position AB' through an angle φ. The result of twisting the cylindrical wire is
a shearing strain (φ).

The angle of shear BẤB'= φ BB`= xθ=Lφ

(or) φ = ……… (1) where φ is the shearing strain involved.

We know, rigidity modulus = G =

Therefore, from the above equation, we get,

shearing stress = G. φ…………………….(2)

Substituting for φ from equation (1) in equation (2) we have

Shearing stress = G.

We know, Shearing stress =

8
(or) Shearing Force (F) = Shearing stress X Area of cross section of cylindrical shell of radius
(x) and thickness (dx) -------------(3)
Here, Area of cross section of cylindrical shell of radius (x) and thickness (dx) = Circumference of the shell
X thickness of the shell (dx)
Hence, Equation (3) becomes

F= (2𝜋𝑥) 𝑥 ----------------------------------- (4)

where (2𝜋𝑥) represents the circumference of the cylindrical shell of radius x.
Moment of shearing force (F) about the axis OO′ of the cylinder = Shearing force X Distance
= (2𝜋𝑥) 𝑥. [x]

Moment (or) Torque acting on the wire = -----------(5)

This is the torque experienced by a cylindrical wire of length L of radius x and thickness dx.
Hence in order to get the total torque experienced by the entire cylindrical wire of length L
and thickness r, one need to integrate the Equ (5), where the variable ‘dx’ varies from the
center (zero) to the outermost radius of the wire (a).
Therefore, the twisting torque (τ) /couple acting on the whole cylindrical wire is given by

= ∫ = ∫ 𝑥 𝑥

= [ - 0] between the limits 0 to a.

Applying the limits, we get, τ = .a4

Now, Torque per unit twist (or) Couple per unit twist = = .a4 =
Torque per unit twist (or) Couple per unit twist = ----------------- (6)

Couple per unit twist C is also called the torsional rigidity of the material of the wire.

1.9. Shafts
Shaft is a rotating integral part of a machine usually of circular cross section that supports gears, wheels etc and
is used to transmit the power from one part of the machinery to another part of the same (Figure 1.9.1).

9
1.9.1. Requirements /Properties of a good shaft
● It should have high strength and efficiency.
● A shaft should be of good machinability.
● It should have low notch sensitivity factor/ should not be affected by the environmental condition
● It should transmit the couple without appreciable twist.

1.9.2. Hollow shaft is stronger than a solid shaft of same mass, length and material. Why?

Let us consider two cylindrical shafts viz., solid cylindrical and hollow cylindrical shafts of same length (L),

same mass and are made by the same material shown in the Figure (1.13) below.

Solid Cylinder: Let its length be L

Radius be r

And shear modulus of material of solid cylinder be G.

Then the Couple per unit twist of the solid cylinder = Cs = ---------- (1) (using Equ.(6) of the

above section)

Hollow Cylinder: Let its length, mass and material to be the same as that of the solid cylinder with the
inner and outer radius of the hollow cylinder to be r1 and r2 respectively,

10
Then the Couple per unit twist of the hollow cylinder = Ch = --- (2)

Now let us calculate, = = ------------- (3)

2 2
Using the formula (a - b ) = (a+b) (a-b), simplify the above equ.(3), we get,

= ------------ (4)

Here, since both solid and hollow are of equal mass, one can write,

Mass of the solid shaft = mass of the hollow shaft----------- (5)

L.H.S.of Equ. (5) = Area of C.S. of the solid shaft X length of the shaft) density of the material of the
solid shaft.

= [(πr2) L].ρ, ----------------------- (6) where ρ is the density of the material of

the solid cylinder.

Similarly, R.H.S.of Equ. (5) = Area of C.S. of the hollow shaft X length of the shaft) density of the ma-
terial of the hollow shaft

= [π ( . L. ρ--------------- (7)

Therefore, now Equ. (5) takes the following form,

[(πr2) L].ρ = [π ( . L. ρ. ------------- (8)

If we cancel the common terms on both sides, we get,

r2 = ----------------- (9)

Adding 2 on both sides of Equ. (9), we get,

r2 + 2 = + 2 ,

r2 + 2 = --------------- (10)

Now substituting Equ. (10), in Equ. (4), we get,

= ----------------- (11)

11
 Using Equ. (9), Equ. (11) takes the following form,

= , cancelling r2 both in the numerator and denominator of R.H.S., we get,

= -------------- (12); simplifying further will give us

=1+ --------------------------- (13)

Ch = Cs (1 + ) -------------------- (14)

From the Equ. (14), it is understood, that couple per twist of a hollow cylindrical shaft is greater than that of
cylindrical shaft. Hence we can conclude that the hollow shafts easily transfer the torque from one end to the other
solid shafts. Hence hollow shafts of same length, mass and material is stronger than the solid shaft of same pr

1.9.3.Comparison between solid shaft and hollow shaft

Hollow Shaft Solid Shaft

1
Couple /unit twist = 𝜋 Couple /unit twist =

2 Used in applications where there is concern Used in applications where there is concern
about space and weight about strength and rigidity
3 Applied in robotics/aerospace industries Applied in heavy machineries
4 Inner space could be used to fill coolant so Here no such space is available
that they can absorb the heat generated
whenever the electric motor is on.
It can encompass other parts such as wires
and pipes.
5 Made up of traditional materials such as Made up of composite materials
steel

12
 1.10. Beam - Introduction
Beam: It is a rod of uniform cross sectional area of homogeneous, isotropic, elastic material length is much
greater to its other dimensions, so that shearing stresses over any section of it are negligibly small.
Bending of Beams
In whatever way, the couple is applied to bend, the longitudinal filaments on the convex side of the beam are
extended while those on the concave side are compressed. Compressive and tensile forces develop in the
direction of the beam axis under bending loads. These forces induce stresses on the beam. The maximum
compressive stress is found at the upper most edge of the beam while the maximum tensile stress is located at the
lower edge of the beam. In between these filaments, there exists a filament which is neither extended nor
compressed. The neutral axis is the axis through a beam where the stress is zero (i.e) there is neither compression
nor tension.

Bending moment:

When a beam is bent under the action of a pair of equal and opposite forces, to oppose this bending, an internal
bending (restoring) couple is developed at each cross section of the beam, due to its elastic properties. In
equilibrium, the restoring couple is equal and opposite of the external bending couple. The moment of the
restoring couple is called bending moment or moment of resistance.
1.11 Expression for the bending moment of a beam (Theory of bending of beams)
Assumptions:
● Weight of the beam is negligible in comparison to the load.
● Minimum deflection of the beam is small compared with its length.
● Cross section of the beam remains unaltered so that the shearing stresses over any section are negligibly small.
● Curvature of the beam is small; for a short length dx of the beam, curvature at a point is given by 1/R = dθ/dx.
● Radius of curvature of the bent beam is large compared with its thickness.
Let us consider a beam under the action of forces. The beam bends into a circular arc. Let AB be the neutral axis
of the beam. Here the filaments above AB are elongated and the filaments below AB are compressed. The
filament AB remains unchanged (Figure 1.11.1).
Tensile and compressive stresses develop in the upper and lower halves of the beam respectively and form a
couple which opposes the bending of the beam and this couple is called as restoring couple. This restoring couple
is developed due to the elastic nature of the material.
13
Moment of restoring couple is called as the bending moment.
Let PQ be the arc chosen from the neutral axis. Let R is the radius of curvature of the neutral axis and θ is the
angle subtended at the center of curvature.
At equilibrium, bending couple = restoring couple ------------- (1)
Then in unstrained condition, we can write original length of beam section PQ=Rθ---------- (2)
In strained condition, extended length of the beam section = P'Q' = (R+x) θ-------------------- (3)
Therefore, Increase in its length = P'Q'- PQ
=(R+x) θ -Rθ
i.e Increase in its length =x θ ------------------(4)
Longitudinal strain in the filament = = = --------------------- (5)

Let E represents the Young’s modulus of the material of the filament, then
E=

(or) Longitudinal Stress = E X Longitudinal Strain----------------- (6)

Using Equ (5), one can write Equ (6) as
Longitudinal Stress = E ;

One can write the Longitudinal Stress = ------------- (7)

Hence Longitudinal Stress = E X Longitudinal Strain = ---------- (8)

Longitudinal Stress = EX =
(or) F = .
Therefore the moment of this force about AB = Force. Perpendicular distance
= F. x
= .x
Hence, moment of the force = 𝑥
Total moment acting on the filament = 𝑥

= AK2
Bending moment of the beam (or) internal bending moment of the beam = Ig,
where Ig = AK2 , and Ig is the geometrical moment of inertia of the beam equal to AK2 and , being the
total area of the section.
E.Ig = EAK2 is called as the flexural rigidity of the beam, defined as the bending moment required to
produce unit radius of curvature.
14
 1.12. Cantilever
Cantilever: It is actually a beam fixed horizontally at supported at one end and loaded at the other end. Beams are
used in buildings to support roofs and in bridges to support the load of vehicles passing over them. They are
usually set in horizontal position (Figure 1.15).

Theory

Let us consider a beam fixed at one end and loaded at its other free end as shown in below Figure (1.11.2). Due
to the load applied at the free end a couple is created between two forces (i.e) force (load ‘W”) applied at the
free end towards downward direction and to reaction (R) acting in the upward direction at the supporting end.
This external bending couple tense to bend the beam in the clockwise direction but since one end of the beam is
fixed, the beam cannot rotate. Therefore, the external bending couple must be balanced by another equal and
opposite couple, created due to the elastic nature of the body (i.e) called as internal bending moment.

Therefore under equilibrium condition

It can be proved that depression at the end of the cantilever (y) = meter

Where W = Load applied, l = length of the cantilever, E = Young’s modulus of the material

of the cantilever, Ig = Geometrical moment of inertia of the material of the cantilever.

1.12.1.Non uniform bending-Experimental Determination of Young’s Modulus

Non uniform bending is a type of deformation in which the deformed structure does not form an arc of a

circle and the depression is produced at the center of a beam.

15
Description
It consists of a beam, symmetrically supported on the knife edges A and B. A weight hanger is suspended at the cen
the beam my means or a loop. A pin is fixed vertically at ‘C’ by some wax. In order to focus the tip of the pin a
microscope (M) is placed in front of this arrangement (Fig.1.12.1).
Procedure
Taking the weight hanger as the dead load (W), the microscope is adjusted and the tip of the pin is made to coincide
horizontal cross wire. The reading is noted from the vertical scale of the microscope. The weights are added in steps
3m kg and the corresponding readings are noted from the vertical scale of the microscope. The same procedure is
while

Figure 1.12.1
unloading and the readings are tabulated in the tabular column. The mean depression ‘y’ is found for a load of M kg.

Tabular Column
SNo Load (kg) Microscope Reading Mean Depression (y) m/y
Increasing Decreasing (10-2m) (10-2m) (kg/
Load Load (10-2m) m)
(10-2m)
1 W 1 2− 1

2 W+m 2 3− 2

3 W+2m 3 4− 3
4 W+3m 4 5− 4

5 W+4m 5 6− 5

6 W+5m 6 7− 6

7 W+6m 7

16
General expression for depression is assumed here and is given by

y= ------------------- (1)

For a rectangular beam Ig = --------------------- (2)

the beam may be considered as a cantilever of length l/2, fixed at the center, bending upwards under a load (W/2);
and one need to replace W=W/2 and l =l/2 in Equ.(1), since

the beam is loaded at the center; ‘l’ be the length of the beam, ‘b’ is the breadth of the beam and ‘d’ is the thickness of the
beam. Also weight W=mg.

Hence Equ.(1) becomes, y= ; substituting for Ig, we get

y= ------------ (3) (or) E = ------------ (4).

Here l-the length of the beam can be measured with a scale; g=9.8 m/sec2 ; b – breadth of the beam is measured by
vernier caliper; d- thickness of the beam is measured by using the screw gauge; (m/y) is obtained from the above tabl
Hence one can determine the Young’s modulus (E) of the material of the beam.

1.13. I - form of girder.

The girders with upper and lower section broadened and middle section tapered so that it can withstand even hea
over it, is called as I shape girders. It is used in the construction of buildings, bridges and dams, lifts, iron rails, etc. Si
look like letter I, they are called as I–shaped girders.

Fig. 1.13.1

17
1.13.1. Significance of I-shaped Girders
● From the expression for depression at the loaded end of a rectangular shaped cantilever,

given by y = , it is understood that the depression ‘y’ is inversely proportional to d3, b, and E where d-

thickness of the beam/girder, b-breadth of the beam/girder and E – the Young’s modulus of the material of the
wire. ‘y’ is directly proportional to m and l3, where m-the mass suspended and l-the length of the beam.
Whenever, the beam is used as a girder, it is essential to keep the bending of girder (depression) to be the least
value. Obviously, this could be obtained (i) by choosing the material of the girder to have high Young’s modulus
(E) value, hence steel girders are preferred; (ii) Further one could say that though both b and d are inversely
proportional to the depression ‘y’, to keep ‘y’ minimum, increasing the depth ‘d’ to twice (2d) of its initial value
will reduce the depression to 1/8th of its initial value; whereas increasing the width ‘b’ to twice (2b) of its
initial value will only reduce the depression by ½ of its original value. Hence, comparing the b and d, it is wiser
to increase‘d’ than to increase ‘b’ in order to keep the bending of the beam to a least value. Altogether, it is
advantageous to have ‘l’ as small as possible and‘d’ as great as possible. The side having greater magnitude of
cross section need to be used as depth of the girder.
● When a girder is supported at its two ends, the surface above the neutral axis are compressed and that
below the neutral axis are extended respectively. i.e. stress decreases as one moves toward the neutral surface.
Therefore, it follows that upper and lower surfaces of the girder experiences maximum stress and needs to be
stronger than the middle portions. Hence the portions of maximum stress needs to have maximum amount of
material and the material at the portions midway between the top and bottom surfaces of the girder may very
well be removed as these are the places of little (or) no stress. In this way, I-shaped girders are derived from the
rectangular beams.
● Self-loading is minimum in I-form of girders.
● They produce very small depression even for a large dynamical load applied on it.
● They consume less amount of materials compared to solid beams; hence they are cheaper with no
loss in its strength.

1.14. Viscosity, Coefficient of viscosity, stream line and turbulent flow

Viscosity or internal friction of the liquid is the property of a liquid by virtue of which the liquid opp
relative motion between its different layers

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 Fig.1.14.1 Illustration of the phenomenon of viscosity
Explanation
Consider a liquid flow slowly and steadily over a fixed horizontal surface as shown in above figure, then the velocity
layer of liquid increases with its distance from the fixed surface as shown.
Let us consider a layer AB of the liquid. The layer below AB moves slower than the layer above AB. The differ
velocity will give rise to internal friction. As a result the fast moving layer tends to accelerate the slow moving layer
slow moving layer tend to deaccelerate the fast moving layer. Thus a temporary resistance is offered by the liquid
shearing stress called as viscosity.
Coefficient of Viscosity
Let ‘dx’ be the distance of separation between the two layers (Figure 1.19). Then
The velocity gradient is
According to Newton’s law of viscous force, the viscous force (F) acting tangentially on a layer
of a liquid is directly proportional to
(i) F α surface area (A) of the layer
(ii) F α Velocity gradient

(i.e) Or
where η is as constant for the liquid and is called as coefficient viscosity.
The negative sign indicates that force is acting in the opposite direction of flow
In the above equation for F, when A = 1; dv/dx = 1, then F = -η.
Therefore one can define the coefficient of viscosity as follows:

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The coefficient of viscosity is defined as the tangential force per unit area required to maintain
a unit velocity gradient. Unit: Newton Sec/m2.
SNo Streamline flow Turbulent flow
1 Every particle of the liquid follows the Motion of the particle becomes different
path of its preceding particle and travel at different points.
with the same velocity in magnitude and
direction.
2 It does not cause eddies or whirlpools. It causes eddies or whirlpools.
3 Stream line flow is laminar. Turbulent flow is non-luminar
4 Velocity of stream line flow is less than Velocity of turbulent flow is greater
the critical velocity. than the critical velocity
5 Example: Flow of liquid through a Example: Flow of a liquid from a tap.
Capillary tube.
6 Reynolds number < 2000 Reynolds number > 3000

1.14.1. Laminar Flow:

Consider a liquid flowing through tube/pipe line from left to right due to pressure difference between the ends of
the tube. The layer of liquid in the center of the tube moves faster compared to the layers of liquid at the walls of
the tube i.e the velocity gradually decreases, when one moves from the center of the tube towards the walls of the
tube. Frictional force acts between the layers of the liquid. Such a flow of liquid is called as laminar flow.
Reynolds number
Reynolds number is defined as the ratio of inertial forces to the viscous forces with in a liquid. It helps to
differentiate between a turbulent flow from a laminar flow.
Reynolds showed that the critical velocity (vc) of a liquid in a tube is given by
vc = , where Re - Reynolds number; η- coefficient of viscosity ρ - density of the given liquid, r-radius of

the tube through which the liquid is flowing.

Significance of Reynolds number:
Streamlining of bodies is important in the design of cars, submarines and the nose cones of air-craft and rockets,
since a lubrication in drag can reduce vibration and also save large amount of fuel.

Classification of viscous liquids

In general, viscous liquids are classified into two types,
High viscous liquids: Thick liquids such as castor oil, honey, glycerine are examples for high viscous liquids.
Low viscous liquids: Thin liquids such as water, alcohol, kerosene, oil are examples for low viscous liquids
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1.15.Poiseullie’s equation of a viscous liquid
It is also known as Hagen–Poiseuille equation, Hagen–Poiseuille law, Poiseuille
law or Poiseuille equation.

1838.

of a liquid through a capillary tube.

fluid depends on different variables such as the radius (r) and
length of the tube (L), pressure (P), and the viscosity of the fluid (η) as per their relationship which is important
for understanding blood pressure and cardiovascular health; Poiseuille’s law can be used to calculate the blood
flow rate in arteries and veins.

This equation is given by η= ,

Where,
P - Pressure difference at the two ends of the capillary tube
r - Radius of the capillary tube
V - Volume of the capillary tube
l - Length of the capillary tube

1.16. Ostwald’s Viscometer

It is an apparatus used to determine the coefficient of viscosity of a given liquid at two different temperatures and
also to compare the Ostwald`s viscometer is used to compare the coefficients of viscosity of two different
coefficient of viscosities of two different liquids
Apparatus Description
It consists of two glass bulbs A and B joined by a capillary tube bent into a ‘U’ shaped tube. The bulb ‘A’ is
connected to a funnel ‘F’ and the ‘B’ bulb is connected to an exhaust pump, through a pinch cock ‘C’. Let P, Q,
and R be the fixed markings engraved on the limbs. The whole arrangement is kept inside a constant temperature
bath to have better thermal insulation (Figure 1.15.1).
Working

● The first liquid is poured into the U tube through the funnel. The pinchcock is opened with the help of exhaust
pump, the liquid is sucked up above the marking ‘P’ until the liquid occupies the volume P, Q, R of the viscometer.
the pinchcock is closed.

● The exhaust pump is disconnected. Now if the pinch cock is again opened, the pressure on both sides of the
tube will try to become the same. Therefore the liquid flows from ’P’ towards the bulb ‘A’, through the ‘U’
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 shaped capillary tube. The time taken for the liquid to flow from ‘P’ to ’Q’ is noted; let it be t1.The experiment
is repeated for the second liquid and the time taken for second the liquid to flow from the same level P to Q is
noted. Let it be t2.

Theory

● Now make use of the Poiseiulle’s formula and write,

for the first liquid and for the second liquid,

where V1-rate of flow of the first liquid = ; η 1 – Coefficient of viscosity; ρ1 density of the first liquid; Sim

for the second liquid, we have V2-rate of flow of the first liquid = ;
η 2 – Coefficient of viscosity of the first liquid; ρ2 – density of the first liquid.

● Also we know, P1= hρ1g and P2 = hρ2g.

● Therefore = = = =
Hence one can compare the viscosities of the two liquids namely η 1 and η 2 provided we know the densities of the
given liquids 1 and 2. t1 and t2 are measured from the experiment.

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1.17. Lubricants
The resistance offered by a fixed or a moving surface to the free movement of another surface which is in close
proximity to it, is known as friction. This friction causes a lot of wear and tear of moving parts of machineries in
actual practice. In order to reduce the frictional effects that occur between the moving surfaces when they
are in contact, substances in the form of liquid or solid are introduced which are known as lubricants.
(E.g.) Vegetable oils, mineral oils, graphite, Grease, etc. Lubricants are graded according to their viscosities;
greater number means, greater viscosity. The process of application of chemical substances between the moving
parts of a machine is called lubrication. Lubricants help in decreasing the wear and tear of the machine parts.
Properties
● The lubricating liquid should have more adhesion to the surface and at the same time, it should have
cohesion among its own molecules so that it does not thin out; able to fill up minute depressions on the
surface.
● A good lubricating substance need to possess high viscosity.
● Viscosity of lubricant should not change with temperature and it should remain stable over a wide
range of temperature.
● It should be chemically inert; it should not vaporize quickly.

Types
Lubricants are classified on the basis of their physical state as
● Liquid Lubricants
● Semi Solid Lubricants
● Solid Lubricants
Applications
● Used in automotive components like starter, oil and water pump, wind shield wipers, etc
● Home appliances like cloth dryers, sewing machines, washing machines, food mixers and refrigerators.
● Used on tape recorders, electric clocks, fans, packaging and textile industries.

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