AC PAGE 1

Thursday, August 8, 2024 4:46 PM

Chapter–7: Alternating Current

Alternating currents, peak and RMS value of alternating

current/voltage; reactance and impedance; LCR series
circuit (phasors only), resonance, power in AC circuits,
power factor, wattless current. AC generator,
Transformer. 14 periods

A C Generator
 An ac generator converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.

The Yugoslav inventor Nicola Tesla is credited with the development of

the machine.One method to induce an emf or current in a loop is
through a change in the loop’s orientation or a change in its effective
area.

Principle : As the coil rotates in a magnetic field B,

the effective area of the loop (the face perpendicular
to the field) is A cos where is the angle between A
and B.
Construction : . It consists of a coil mounted on a
rotor shaft. The axis of rotation of the coil is
perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic field.
The coil (called armature) is mechanically rotated in
the uniform magnetic field by some external means.
The rotation of the coil causes the magnetic flux
through it to change, so an emf is induced in the coil.
The ends of the coil are connected to an external
circuit by means of slip rings and brushes.

Working :
Alternating currents
The electric mains supply in our homes and offices is a voltage that varies like a sine function with time. Such a
voltage is called alternating voltage (ac voltage) and the current driven by it in a circuit is called the alternating
current (ac current)*. Today, most of the electrical devices we use require ac voltage. This is mainly because
most of the electrical energy sold by power companies is transmitted and distributed as alternating current.
The main reason for preferring use of ac voltage over dc voltage is that ac voltages can be easily and efficiently
converted from one voltage to the other by means of transformers. Further, electrical energy can also be
transmitted economically over long distances. AC circuits exhibit characteristics which are exploited in many
devices of daily use.
1. Mean or Average value of AC over a half cycle.(NOT IN SYLLABUS)

2. Peak and RMS value of alternating current/voltage

REPRESENTATION OF AC CURRENT AND VOLTAGE BY ROTATING
VECTORS — PHASORS
A phasor* is a vector which rotates about the origin with
angular speed , as shown in Fig. The vertical components of
phasors V and I represent the sinusoidally varying quantities
v and i. The magnitudes of phasors V and I represent the
amplitudes or the peak values vm and im of these oscillating
quantities. Figure 7.4(a) shows the voltage and current
phasors and their relationship at time t1 for the case of an ac
source FIGURE 7.4 (a) A phasor diagram for the circuit in Fig
7.1. (b) Graph of v and i versus t. connected to a resistor i.e.,
corresponding to the circuit shown in Fig. 7.1. The projection
of voltage and current phasors on vertical axis, i.e., vm sin t
and im sin t, respectively represent the value of voltage and
current at that instant. As they rotate with frequency , curves
in Fig. 7.4(b) are generated.
AC VOLTAGE APPLIED TO A RESISTOR
AVERAGE POWER DISSIPATED IN THE RESISTOR
 Figure 7.5 shows an ac source connected to an inductor. Usually,
AC VOLTAGE APPLIED TO AN INDUCTOR inductors have appreciable resistance in their windings, but we
shall assume that this inductor has negligible resistance.
AVERAGE POWER SUPPLIED TO AN INDUCTOR
AC VOLTAGE APPLIED TO A CAPACITOR
AVERAGE POWER SUPPLIED TO A CAPACITOR
AC VOLTAGE APPLIED TO A SERIES LCR CIRCUIT
3 cases arise :

1. Non-Inductive circuit[RESONANCE]

2. Predominantly inductive or Inductance dominated

3. Predominantly capacitive or Capacitance dominated
POWER IN AC CIRCUIT: THE POWER FACTOR
Cases:

Case (i) Resistive circuit: If the circuit contains only pure R, it is called resistive. In that case f = 0, cos f = 1.
There is maximum power dissipation.
 Case (ii) Purely inductive or capacitive circuit: If the circuit contains only an inductor or capacitor, we know
that the phase difference between voltage and current is p/2. Therefore, cos f = 0, and no power is dissipated
even though a current is flowing in the circuit. This current is sometimes referred to as wattless current.

Case (iii) LCR series circuit: In an LCR series circuit, power dissipated is given by Eq. (7.30) where f = tan–1
(Xc – XL )/ R. So, f may be non-zero in a RL or RC or RCL circuit. Even in such cases, power is dissipated only in
the resistor.

Case (iv) Power dissipated at resonance in LCR circuit: At resonance Xc – XL = 0, and f = 0. Therefore, cosf = 1
and P = I2Z = I2 R. That is, maximum power is dissipated in a circuit (through R) at resonance.
Resonance The phenomenon of resonance is common among systems that have a tendency
to oscillate at a particular frequency. This frequency is called the system’s
natural frequency. If such a system is driven by an energy source at a frequency
that is near the natural frequency, the amplitude of oscillation is found to be
large.
Resonant circuits have a variety of applications, for example, in the tuning mechanism of a radio or a TV set.
The antenna of a radio accepts signals from many broadcasting stations. The signals picked up in the antenna
acts as a source in the tuning circuit of the radio, so the circuit can be driven at many frequencies. But to hear
one particular radio station, we tune the radio. In tuning, we vary the capacitance of a capacitor in the tuning
circuit such that the resonant frequency of the circuit becomes nearly equal to the frequency of the radio
signal received. When this happens, the amplitude of the current with the frequency of the signal of the
particular radio station in the circuit is maximum.
1. Filters: RLC circuits are commonly used as filters to selectively pass or block certain frequency
components of a signal. This makes them useful in radio, television, and audio systems for separating
different frequency bands.
2. Tuning circuits: In radio and telecommunications, RLC circuits are used as tuning circuits to select a
desired frequency channel or station by adjusting the values of the components.
3. Impedance matching: RLC circuits can be designed to match the impedance of a load to the
impedance of a power source, ensuring maximum power transfer.
4. Timing and oscillation: RLC circuits can be used to generate timed signals or oscillations at a specific
frequency, which is useful for clocks, timing circuits, and signal generation.
5. Energy storage: The inductor and capacitor in an RLC circuit can temporarily store energy, which is
useful for power conditioning, energy harvesting, and pulsed power applications.
6. Sensor circuits: RLC circuits can be used to measure or detect changes in physical quantities like
pressure, displacement, or proximity by monitoring changes in the circuit's resonant frequency or
impedance.
7. Besides above applications , RLC circuits are used in automobile ignition system to generate very high
voltage with a mere 12V. Inductor is connected across spark plug. By sudden closing of switch makes the
field in inductor to collapse rapidly ,which generates huge voltage across inductor. The high voltage
creates sparks in the small air gap ,there by starting engine.
8. In industries motors are mostly induction type which may lead huge voltage drop at supply point to
avoid this problem every industry equipped with capacitor bank.
PARALLEL CAPACITOR NOT IN SYLLABUS
( Ex. 7.8 for reference)
Solution The metal detector works on the principle of
resonance in ac circuits. When you walk through a
metal detector, you are, in fact, walking through a coil
of many turns. The coil is connected to a capacitor
tuned so that the circuit is in resonance. When you
walk through with metal in your pocket, the impedance
of the circuit changes – resulting in significant change in
current in the circuit. This change in current is detected
and the electronic circuitry causes a sound to be
emitted as an alarm
TRANSFORMERS Device used to change (or transform) an alternating voltage from one to another of greater or smaller
value by using the principle of mutual induction.
The equations obtained above apply to ideal transformers (without any energy losses). But in actual
transformers, small energy losses do occur due to the following reasons:

(i) Flux Leakage: There is always some flux leakage; that is, not all of the flux due to primary passes
through the secondary due to poor design of the core or the air gaps in the core. It can be reduced by
winding the primary and secondary coils one over the other.

(ii) Resistance of the windings: The wire used for the windings has some resistance and so, energy is
lost due to heat produced in the wire (I 2R). In high current, low voltage windings, these are
minimised by using thick wire.

(iii) Eddy currents: (NOT IN SYLLABUS)The alternating magnetic flux induces eddy currents in the iron
core and causes heating. The effect is reduced by using a laminated core.

(iv) Hysteresis: (NOT IN SYLLABUS) The magnetisation of the core is repeatedly reversed by the
alternating magnetic field. The resulting expenditure of energy in the core appears as heat and is kept
to a minimum by using a magnetic material which has a low hysteresis loss.

The large scale transmission and distribution of electrical energy over long distances is done with the use of
transformers. The voltage output of the generator is stepped-up (so that current is reduced and consequently,
the I2R loss is cut down). It is then transmitted over long distances to an area sub-station near the consumers.
There the voltage is stepped down. It is further stepped down at distributing sub-stations and utility poles
before a power supply of 240 V reaches our homes.
EXERCISES
Q. 7.4 A 60 mF capacitor is connected to a 110 V, 60 Hz ac supply. Determine the
rms value of the current in the circuit.
7.5 In Exercises 7.3 and 7.4, what is the net power absorbed by each circuit
over a complete cycle. Explain your answer.

Zero
7.6 A charged 30 mF capacitor is connected to a 27 mH inductor. What is the
angular frequency of free oscillations of the circuit?
7.7 A series LCR circuit with R = 20 W, L = 1.5 H and C = 35 mF is connected to
a variable-frequency 200 V ac supply. When the frequency of the supply
equals the natural frequency of the circuit, what is the average power
transferred to the circuit in one complete cycle?
 (a) Determine the source frequency which drives the circuit in resonance.

(b) Obtain the impedance of the circuit and the amplitude of current at the
resonating frequency.
(c) Determine the rms potential drops across the three elements of the circuit. Show that the potential drop
across the LC combination is zero at the resonating frequency.