UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

ANNA UNIVERSITY
ARIYALUR – 621 731

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

OMR 351 - MECHATRONICS

COURSE HANDOUTS

UNIT I
INTRODUCTION

"Mechatronics is synergistic integration of mechanical engineering. Electronics and

intelligent computer control in design and manufacture of products and processes. A
graphical representation of mechatronics shown in Figure illustrates the integrated and
inter-disciplinary approach of nature.

The concept of Mechatronics is very important today to meet the customer's ever
increasing demands and still remain competitive in the global market.

Graphical representation of mechatronics

A Mechatronics engineer must be able to design and select mechanical devices,
sensors and actuators, analog and digital circuits, microprocessor-based components and
control devices such as logic gates to design modern systems.

Elements of Mechatronics Systems

Various elements in typical Mechatronics system are shown in figure
1. Actuators and sensor
2. Signals and conditioning
 3. Digital logic Systems
4. Software and data acquisition systems
5. Computers and display devices.

Elements of Mechatronics system

1. Actuators and sensor
Sensors and actuators mostly come under mechanical systems. The actuators
produce motion or cause some action. The sensors detect the state of the system
parameters, inputs and outputs. The various actuators used in mechatronic systems are
pneumatic and hydraulic actuators, electromechanical actuators, electrical motors such as
DC motors, AC motors, stepper motors, servomotors, and piezoelectric actuators. The
various types of sensors used in the mechatronic system are linear and rotational sensors,
acceleration sensors, force, torque, and pressure sensors, flow sensors, temperature
sensors, proximity sensors, and light sensors.
2. Signals and conditioning
The mechatronic systems deal with two types of signals and conditioning such as
input and output. The input devices receive input signals from the mechatronic systems
via interfacing devices and sensors. Then it is sent to the control circuits for conditioning
or processing. The various input signal conditioning devices used in mechatronic system
are discrete circuits, amplifiers, Analog-to-Digital (A/D) convertors, Digital-to-Digital
(D/D) convertors. The output signals from the system are sent to output/display devices
through interfacing devices. The various output signal conditioning devices used in
mechatronic system are-Digital-to-Analog (D/A) convertors, Display Decoders (DD)
convertors, amplifiers, power transistors and power op-amps.
3. Digital logic systems
Digital logic devices control overall system operation. The various digital logic
systems used in mechatronic system are logic circuits, microcontrollers, programmable
logic controllers, sequencing and timing controls, and control algorithms.
4. Software and data acquisition systems
Data acquisition system acquires the output signals from sensors in the form of
voltage, frequency, resistance etc. and it is inputted into the microprocessor or computer.
Software is used to control the acquisition of data through DAC board. The data
acquisition system consists of multiplexer, amplifier, register and control circuitry, and
DAC board. The various data acquisition
5. Computers and display devices
Computers are used to store large number of data and process further through
software. Display devices are used to give visual feedback to the user. The various display
devices used in mechatronic system are LEDs, CRT, LCD, digital displays etc.

Examples of Mechatronics Systems

Examples of mechatronics systems are as follows
Numerical control (NC) and Computer numerical control (CNC) machine tools,
variable speed drives, flexible manufacturing systems (FMS) and automated
manufacturing systems (AMS), automated guided vehicles, rapid prototyping and
robots
Computers disk drives
Photocopiers, laser printers and fax machines
VCR/DVD drives
Automatic washing machines, dish washer, rice cooker, automatic ovens and
modern sewing machines
Automatic teller machine (ATM)
Coin counter
 SYSTEMS
The word system in mechatronics refers to a group of physical component a
connected or related in such a manner to form the entire unit for performing a specific
task. For example, this universe is a system consists of large number of subsystems.
Similarly, human body is a system consists of large number of subsystems such as brain,
nerve systems, digestive systems etc.

System

Measurement System
All mechatronic devices consist of various systems in which some input data are
given to get specified output. A system can be treated as a black box having an input and
output as shown in Figure. For example, an electric heater may be thought of as a
system which has its input as electric power and output as heat as shown in Figure.
A measurement system involves the precise measurement and display/recording of
physical, chemical, mechanical, electrical or optical parameters. It provides a means of
describing natural phenomena in quantitative terms. It has as its input the quantity being
measured and its output the value of that quantity. Measurement system provides the input
to the control systems of mechatronics. A generalized measurement system comprises of
a sensor/transducer, signal processor and a display/recording device shown in Figure 1.4
(i) Sensor or Transducer:
Sensor or transducer is a device which converts a physical quantity, property or
condition into output, usually electrical parameters such as voltage, resistance or
capacitance. For example, a thermocouple is a sensor which converts changes in
temperature into a voltage.

Measurement system
(ii) Signal processor
Signal processor or conditioner receives the output signal from sensor or
transducer and manipulates or processes it into a suitable input signal to control system.
Signal processor performs filtering and amplification functions. For example, the output
from the thermocouple is very small voltage, therefore, the amplifier increases the
magnitude of the voltage and the A/D (analogue to digital) converter changes the
analogue voltage signal to a coded digital signal.
(iii) Display or recording device
Recorder records the output from signal conditioner and the display device gives
the measured variable in visual or quantitative form. For example, LEDs, CRT and LCD
are the examples of display devices which give the measured variable in terms of
numbers.
Example of measurement system: Digital liquict level measuring system
Consider a digital liquid level measuring system in a tank as shown in Figure 1.5.
This system incorporates a float with resistive potentiometer as a sensor which gives
electrical voltage as output depending upon the liquid level in the tank. Signal processor
involves: an amplifier which increases the small voltage into higher voltage, A/D
converter which converts analogue voltage to a digital signal and digital decoder (DD)
decodes the digital data into readable format to display. LEDs display the value of liquid
level in terms of specific quantity.

Liquid level measurement system

Control Systems
A control system in mechatronics refers to a group of physical components.
Connected or related in such a manner to command or direct or regulate itself or another
system. The physical components may be of electrical, mechanical, hydraulic, pneumatic,
thermal or chemical in nature.

Open-Loop Control Systems

Open loop systems are systems in which the output of a system is not used as a
variable to control the system. In other words, open loop systems are systems in which
input to the system is not controlled by the present output. In an open-loop system, the
output of this system is not fed back as input to the system for control or operation. An
open system is essentially a feed forward system. The system is an "open" system because
it does not have a feedback loop in its control shown in Figure. There are many reasons to
use open loop control such as simplifying the control system, quicker response of the
system, reducing the possibility of oscillation and sometimes lowering the cost.

Open-loop control system

Examples of open-loop control system

The basic elements of this system are an amplifier and a controller as shown in
Figure. The amplifier receives a low-level input signal and it amplifics it enough to
drive the controller to perform the desired job.

Elements of Open-loop control system

As an example consider automatic bread toaster. In this system, when the system
is switched ON, the heating element in the toaster heats the bread for particular preset

time and then automatically it get switched OFF and ejects the bread. Here, there is no
feedback of data whether the bread is toasted properly or not.
Bread toaster (Open-loop) control system
Closed-Loop Control Systems
Closed-loop system uses on a feedback loop to control the operation of the system.
In closed loop or feedback control, the controller notices what actually takes place at the
output end and it drives the plant in such a way as to obtain the desired output. Closed-
loop control systems are the type most commonly used because they respond and move
the loads they are controlling quicker and with greater accuracy than open-loop systems.
The reason for quicker response and greater accuracy is that an automatic feedback
system informs the input that the desired movement has taken place.
 Elements of closed loop system
The basic layout of a feedback or closed-loop control system is shown in Figure
The essential elements of this system are given below.
1. The plant is the system or process through which a particular quantity or condition
is controlled. It is also called controlled system.
2. Measuring unit: Sensors, estimators and signal conditioners are the part of
measuring unit.
3. The control elements are components needed to generate the appropriate control
signal applied to the plant. These elements are also called "controller.
4. Comparison element or Error junction: Where the desired system outputs and the
measured or estimated outputs are compared to generate the error signal.
5. Error signal is the difference between reference value and measured value.
6. Correction element or actuator: It produces a change in the plant or process to
correct the controlled plant.
7. Feedback elements are components needed to identify the functional relationship
between feedback signal and controlled output.

Examples of closed-loop control system:

Example : Room heating system

Room heating (closed loop) control system

 An example for closed-loop control system is room heating system used in
western countries The thermostat (input) calls for heat. The heating coil (output)
produces heat and distributes it. Some of the heat is "fed back" to the thermostat. When
this "feedback" raises the temperature of the room corresponding to thermostat setting,
the thermostat will respond by shutting the system down until the heat is again required.
In such a system, the feedback path, input to output and back to input, forms what is
called a "closed-loop."
In this system, the various elements are as follows.
Plant or process - heating of room by electrical coil
Controlled variable - room temperature
Reference input - desired room temperature
Comparison element - electronic logic circuit
Error signal - difference between the and required temperatures
Controller switch
Correction element - thermostat
Measuring element - temperature sensor attached with thermostat
Comparison Between Open-Loop and Closed-Loop Systems
A comparison would show the following difference between open loop and closed
loop control systems.
Comparison between Open-loop and Closed-loop Systems
S.No Open loop control systems Closed loop control systems
1 Open loop operation dose not uses on Closed loop operation uses the uses
a feedback to control the feedback on a feedback to control the feedback
system. system.
2 The effects of known disturbances The effects of disturbances are
alone. be countered. Other countered by virtue of negative
disturbances cannot be taken into feedback.
account.
3 As long as the controlled plant is Closed loop operation can be unstable
stable, the control system will not even if the plant is stable.
become unstable
 4 It is less accurate. It is more accurate.
5 It is simple in construction. It is complicated in construction.
6 The presence of non-linearities Usually, it performs accurately even
causes malfunctioning. in the presence of non- linearities.

7 The response is slow because of Closed loop control can perform a

manual control. task faster than open-loop.
Optimisation in control is possible.
8 Optimisation in control is not Optimisation in control is not
possible. possible.
9 It ensures easy maintenance because It is difficult to maintain and
of no complex repair. electronic circuits.
10 The cost of the system is less. The cost of the system is more.

Automatic Control Systems

An automatic control system is a preset closed-loop control system that requires
no operator action. Most of the closed-loop control systems are automatic in nature. It
assumes that the process remains in the normal range for the control system. Various
applications of automatic control systems are explained below.
Examples of automatic control system
Example : Automatic tank-level control system
Figure shows an example of automatic tank-level control system. The control
system maintains the water level in a storage tank. The system performs this task by
continuously sensing the level in the tank and adjusting a supply valve to add more or
less water to the tank. The desired level is preset by an operator who is not a part of the
system.
The level transducer measures the level within the tank by using a float and
potentiometer arrangement shown in Figure. The level transducer sends a signal
representing the tank level feedback to the level control device (motor drive). This
feedback is compared with a desired level to produce the required control action that will
position the level control as needed to maintain the desired level. The level control device
computes how far to open the supply valve to correct any difference between actual and
desired tank levels.
 Figure Shows the block diagram of this system representing the signal flow to
various elements including feedback.

Automatic tank-level control system

Sequential Control Systems

In many situations, various operations of a plant or process take place in a

particular order. A sequential control system involves the sequential execution of well-
defined operations that are performed in a prescribed order. Each operation or activity is
called step.
Each step may be an open or closed loop continuous process or even a sequential
sub-process.
Example of sequential control system
Automatic domestic washing machine system
As an example of sequential controllers, consider automatic domestic washing
machine system shown in Figure in which various processes such as pre-wash cycle,main
wash cycle, rinse cycle and spin cycle are performed in a particular sequence as follows.
 i) A pre-wash cycle in which clothes in the drum are given a wash in cold water.
ii) A main wash cycle wherein clothes are washed in hot water.
iii) A rinse cycle where clothes are rinsed with cold water a number of preset time,
and
iv) A spin cycle in which the spinning of drum takes place to drain the water from
clothes and the drum.
The various processes of the washing machine as stated above were carried out
using cam operated switches in earlier days. In cam operated switch mechanism, the
contour of the cam is in such a manner that the different switches are activated at different
times. The sequence of instructions used in the washing machine is a function of set of
cams.
In modern automatic washing machine, the cam operated switches are replaced
with the microprocessor based controllers where the software programs are fed to perform
various sequential operations. In addition to the microprocessor controller, various
sensors and drivers are used to effectively and automatically carry out these operations.
The timer installed in the system determines the time for which the cycles to be activated.
The various sensors such as level sensor, position sensor, temperature sensor and speed
sensor provide input signal to the microprocessor.

The working of modern automatic washing machine is explained with the help ofblock
diagram shown in Figure
Step 1: Pre-wash cycle
In this cycle, an electrically operated valve opens to allow cold water into the
drum for a period of time determined by the output from the microprocessor. A level
sensor is used to check whether the drum is filled to the present level. When the water
reaches a preset level, the sensor gives output to the microprocessor which in turn stops
the water supply to the drum by switching off the current to the valve. Now, clothes in
the drum are given a starting wash with cold water. After completing cold wash for preset
time, the microprocessor operates the drain pump to drain the water from drum.
Step 2: Main wash cycle
When the pre-wash is completed, the microprocessor activates an electrically
operated valve to open and allow the cold water into the drum for a period of time. The
level is sensed by a level sensor and the water is shut off when the required level reaches
in the drum. Now, the microprocessor activates the switch to supply current to electric
heater to heat the water for main wash. The temperature sensor gives input to the
microprocessor after reaching particular preset temperature to switch off the current to
the heater. Then the drum motor is activated by the microprocessor to the predetermined
time with slow speed and switched off after completion. Finally, the microprocessor
operates the drain pump to drain the water from the drum
Step 3: Rinse cycle
When the main wash is completed, the microprocessor gives an output for the
rinse cycle, it opens the valve to allow cold water to the drum and it closes when it reaches

block diagram of automatic washing machine system

a preset level. A drum motor is operated to rotate the drum and the drain pump is operated
to drain the water after preset time. This sequence is repeated for a number of times.
Step 4: Spin cycle
The microprocessor switches on the drum motor and it is signaled to rotate at a
higher speed than rinsing cycle. Due to the centrifugal action, the water drains out from
the clothes.
 EMERGING AREAS OF MECHATRONICS
Mechatronics is an emerging field and it presents flexible opportunities with
diverse engineering backgrounds. There is a lot of scope for Mechatronics as it
incorporates the integration of a variety of different technologies such as mechanical,
electronics, fluid power (hydraulics and pneumatics) and computer engineering into one
entity. Some of the emerging fields of mechatronics are as follows.

Machine vision.

Automation and robotics.

Development of Unmanned Vehicles.

Design of subsystems for automotive engineering. Sensing and control systems.

Operations and maintenance of CNC machines.

Expert systems and Artificial Intelligence.

Industrial electronics and consumer products.

Medical mechatronics and medical imaging systems. Structural dynamic systems

Transportation and vehicular systems.

Diagnostic and reliability techniques

Computer Integrated Manufacturing (CIM) Systems

Micro/Nano mechatronics Mechatronics in energy systems

Human-Machine interface

Mechatronics applications in Cyber-physical systems.

CLASSIFICATION OF MECHATRONICS
Based on the application of basic theories used, mechatronic systems are classified
as follows.
1. Conventional mechatronic systems
2. Microelectromechanical - Micro mechatronic systems (MEMS) and
 3. Nano electromechanical - Nano mechatronic systems (NEMS).
The operational principles and basic foundations of conventional mechatronic
systems and MEMS are the same while NEMS can be studied using different concepts
and theories. In particular, the designer applies classical mechanics and electromagnetics
to study conventional mechatronic systems and MEMS. Quantum theory and nano electro
mechanics are applied for NEMS (refer Figure 1.18).
MEMS products not only contain micro machined components but they typically
include electronic signal conditioning circuits, self-testing and calibration. Also, they are
packaged with all required I/O ports and terminals. MEMS products represent completely
autonomous miniaturized systems which are capable of performing specified sensing and
actuation functions in themselves or acts as subsystems in larger products.

Classification of Mechatronics System

SENSORS AND TRANSDUCERS
Sensors are devices which produce a proportional output signal (mechanical,
electrical, magnetic, etc.) when exposed to a physical phenomenon (pressure,
temperature, displacement, force, etc.). Many devices require sensors for the accurate
measurement of pressure, position, speed, acceleration or volume.
Transducers are devices which converts an input of one form of energy into an
output of another form of energy. The term transducer is often used synonymously with
sensors.

Classification of Sensors and Transducers

Sensors are generally classified into the following two types based on its power requirement.
(a) Active sensor
In active sensors, the power required to produce the output is provided by the
sensed physical phenomenon itself. The active sensors are also called self-generating
transducers. Examples: thermocouples, photovoltaic cells, piezoelectric transducers,
thermometer etc.
(b) Passive sensor
The passive sensors require external power source. Examples: resistance
thermometers, potentiometric devices, differential transformers, strain gauge etc. Passive
sensors work based on one of the following principles: resistance, inductance and
capacitance.
Sensors can also be classified into the following two types based on the type of
output signal.
(c) Analog sensor
Analog sensors produce continuous signals that are proportional to the sensed
parameters. These sensors generally require analog-to-digital conversion before sending
output signal to the digital controller. Examples: potentiometers, linear variable
differential transformers (LVDTs), load cells and thermistors, bourdon tube pressure
sensor, spring type force sensors, bellows pressure gauge etc.

(d) Digital sensor

Digital sensors on the other hand produce digital outputs that can be directly
interfaced with the digital controller. Examples: incremental encoder, photovoltaic cells,
piezoelectric transducers, phototransistors, photodiodes etc. Often, the digital outputs are
produced by adding an analog-to-digital converter to the sensing unit. If many sensors are
required, it is more economical to choose simple analog sensors and interface them to the
digital controller equipped with a multi-channel analog-to- digital converter.
Another way of classifying sensor refers to the following two types based on the
type of output.

Static Characteristics of Sensors

Static characteristics of an instrument are parameters which are more or less
constant or varying very slowly with time. The following are static characteristics,
1. Range
Every sensor is designed to work over a specified range i.e. certain maximum and
minimum values. The design ranges are usually fixed and if exceeded results in a
permanent damage or destruction of a sensor. For example, a thermocouple may have a
range of -100 to 1260°C. If it is exposed to a higher or lower than the specified
temperature range, it may be permanently damaged.
2. Span.
It represents the highest possible input value which can be applied to the sensor
without causing unacceptably a large inaccuracy. Therefore, it is the difference between
maximum and minimum values of the quantity to be measured.
Span - Maximum value of the input - Minimum value of the input
3. Error
Error is the difference between measured value and true input value.
Error Measured value - True input value
4. Accuracy
A very important characteristic of a sensor is accuracy which really means
inaccuracy. Inaccuracy is measured as a ratio of the highest deviation of a value
represented by the sensor to the ideal value. The accuracy of a sensor is inversely
proportional to error, i.e., a highly accurate sensor produces low errors.
5. Precision
Precision is the estimate which signifies the number of decimal places to which a
property can be reliably measured. It relates to how carefully the final measurement can
be read but not how accurate the measurement is.
6. Resolution
Resolution is defined as the smallest change that can be detected by a sensor. It
can also be defined as the minimum value of the input required to cause an appreciable
change or an increment in the output.
7. Repeatability
Repeatability may be defined as the ability of the sensor to give the same output
reading for the same applied input value repeatedly under the same operating conditions.
8. Reproducibility
Reproducibility may be defined as the degree of closeness among the repeated
measurements of the output for the same value of input under the same operating
conditions at various times.
9. Stability
Stability refers the ability of the sensor to indicate the same output over a period
of time for a constant input.
10. Sensitivity
Sensor's sensitivity is defined as the change in output per change in input. The
factor may be constant over the range of the sensor (lincar) or it may vary (nonlinear)
Change in output Sensitivity Change
When an instrument consists of different elements connected in series and have
static sensitivities of S1, S2, S3.. etc., then, the overall sensitivity is expressed by
11. Selectivity
Selectivity is a sensor's ability to measure a single component in the presence of
others. For example, an oxygen sensor that does not show a response to other gases such
as CO, CO, and NO, may be considered as selective. Noise refers to the random
fluctuations in the output signal for the constant input.
12. Noise
Its cause may be either internal or external to the sensor. Mechanical vibrations
and electromagnetic signals such as radio waves and electromagnetic noise from power
supplies and ambient temperatures are all examples of external noise. Internal noises are
generated due to the electron/photon flow within the components of the system.
13. Minimum detectable signal
It is the minimum detectable signal that can be extracted in a sensing system when
noise is taken into account. If the noise is large relative to the input, it is difficult to extract
a clear signal from the noise.
14. Detection limit
It is the smallest magnitude of the measurand that can be measured by a sensor.

15. Hysteresis
Hysteresis is defined as the maximum difference in output for a given input when
this value is approached from the opposite direction. It is a phenomenon which shows
different output when loading and unloading. Simply, hysteresis means that both loading
and unloading curves do not coincide. that the deviation of unloading from loading
condition due to hysteresis effect.
16. Linearity
Linearity of a sensor refers to the output that is directly proportional to input over
its entire range so that the slope of a graph of output versus input describes a straight line.
If the response of a system to input A is output X and the response to input B is output Y,
then the response to input C (input A+ input B) will be output D(-output X+output Y).
17. Non Linearity
Non-linearity of a sensor refers to the output that is not proportional to input over
its entire range so that the slope of a graph of output versus input describes a curve. Non-
linearity error is the deviation of output curve from a specified straight line .

18. Dead band and Dead time

Dead band of a sensor is the range of input values for which the instrument does
not respond. The dead band is typically a region of input close to zero at which the output
remains zero. Dead time is the time taken by the sensor from the application of input to
begin its response and change.
19. Zero Drift
Drift is the variation of change in output for a given input over a period of time.
When making a measurement, it is necessary to start at a known datum and it is often
convenient to adjust the output of the instrument to zero at the datum. The signal level
may vary from its set zero value when the sensor works. It introduces an error into the
measurement equal to the amount of variation or drift. Zero drift may result due to the
change in: temperature, electronics stabilizing, and aging of the transducer or electronic
components.
20. Output impedance
Impedance is the ratio of voltage and current flow for a sensor. Two types of
impedance are important in sensor applications: input impedance and output impedance.
Input impedance is a measure of how much current must be drawn to power a sensor.
Output impedance is a measure of a sensor's ability to provide current for the next stage
of the system.
Dynamic Characteristics of Sensors
Sensors and actuators respond to input that changes with time. Any system that
changes with time is considered a dynamic system. Dynamic characteristics of an
instrument are the parameters which are varying with time. Dynamic characteristics tell
us about how well a sensor responds to changes in its input. For dynamic signals, the
sensor or the measurement system must be able to respond fast enough to keep up with
the input signals. The following characteristics are dynamic characteristics.
1. Response time
The time taken by a sensor to approach its true output when subjected to a step
input is referred as response time. However, it is more usual to quote a sensor as having
a flat response between specified limits of frequency. It is known as frequency response
and it indicates that if the sensor is subjected to sinusoidal oscillating input of constant
amplitude, the output will faithfully reproduce a signal proportional to the input.
2. Time constant
It is the time taken by the system to reach 63.2% of its final output signal
amplitude i.e. 62.3% of response time. A system having smaller time constant reaches its
final output faster than one with larger time constant. Therefore, it possesses high speed
of response.
3. Rise time
Rise time is the length of time taken for the output to reach 90% of full response
i.e. steady-state output when a step pulse is applied to input.
4. Setting time
It is the time taken by a sensor to be within a close range of its steady-state value.
5. Transfer function
It is a simple, concise and complete way of describing the sensor or system
performance. H(s) = Y(s)/X(s) where Y(s) and X(s) are the Laplace Transforms of the
input and output respectively. Sometimes, the transfer function is displayed graphically
as magnitude and phase plots vs. frequency (Bode plot).
POTENTIOMETERS
The potentiometer is also called linear position sensors or resistors ruler and it is
one of the most commonly used devise for measuring the displacement. Potentiometer is
a primary sensor which converts the linear motion or the angular motion of a shaft into
change in resistance. It is a type of resistive displacement sensor. Linear potentiometers
are sensors that produce a resistance output proportional to the linear displacement or
position. Linear potentiometers are essentially variable resistors whose resistance is
varied by the movement of a slider over a resistance element.
Rotary potentiometers are sensors that produce a resistance output proportional to
the angular displacement or position. They can be either wire-wound or conductive plastic
or either rectangular or cylindrical.

Linear potentiometer

Figure illustrates the basic principle of a linear potentiometer. The linear

potentiometer employs an electrically conductive linear slide member (also called wiper)
connected to a variable wire wound resistor (winding) that changes resistance to be
equated to the linear position of the device which is monitored. As the sliding contact
moves along the winding, the resistance is changed in linear relationship with the distance
from one end of the potentiometer. To measure the displacement, a potentiometer is
typically wired as a "voltage divider" so that the output voltage is proportional to the
distance traveled by the wiper. A known voltage is applied to resistor ends. The contact
is attached to the moving object of interest. The output voltage at the contact is
proportional to the displacement. The resolution is defined by the number of turns per
unit distance and it is affected by the loading effects of the voltage divider circuit.

Figure Ratio potentiometer

 A rotary potentiometer employs a rotary slide member connected to a variable wire
wound resistor that changes the resistance to be equated to the angular position of the
device which is monitored Other principles of operations are similar to a linear
potentiometer. The potentiometer can be used as a voltage divider to obtain a manually
adjustable output voltage at the slider (wiper) from a fixed input voltage applied across
two ends of the resistance wire winding.
The following factors are to be considered while selecting the potentiometers.
(i) Operating temperature
(ii) Shock and vibration
(iii) Humidity
(iv) Contamination and seals
(v) Life cycle
(vi) Dither
Applications
(i) Linear displacement measurement
(ii) Rotary displacement measurement
(iii) Volume control
(iv) Brightness control
(v) Liquid level measurements using floats
Advantages
(i) It is easy to use
(ii) The cost is low
(iii) It has high-amplitude output signal
(iv) It is a proven technology
(v) It has rugged construction
(vi) Electrical efficiency is very high
(vii) (vii)It is available in different forms, ranges and sizes
Disadvantages
(i) It has limited band width
 (ii) Frictional loading is more
(iii) It has limited operating cycle

LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL TRANSFORMER(LVDT)

The most widely used variable-inductance displacement transducer in Industry is
Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT). It is a passive type sensor. It is an
electro-mechanical device designed to produce an AC voltage output proportional to the
relative displacement of the transformer and the ferromagnetic core. The physical
construction of a typical LVDT consists of a movable core of magnetic material and three
coils comprising the static transformer shown in Figure. One of the three coils is the
primary coil or excitation coil and the other two are secondary coils or pick-up coils. An
AC current (typically 1 kHz) is passed through the primary coil and an AC voltage is
induced in secondary coils. The magnetic core inside the coil winding assembly provides
the magnetic flux path linking the primary and secondary coils.

LVDT (linear variable differential transformer)

When the magnetic core is at the centre position or null position, the output voltages
are being equal and opposite in polarity and, therefore, the output voltage is zero. The
Null Position of an LVDT is extremely stable and repeatable. When the magnetic
core is displaced from the Null Position, a certain number of coil windings are
affected by the proximity of the sliding core and thus, an electromagnetic imbalance
occurs. This imbalance generates a differential AC output voltage across the
secondary coil which is linearly proportional to the direction and magnitude of
thedisplacement.
 The output voltage to displacement plot is a straight line within a specified
range. Beyond the nominal range, the output deviates from a straight line in a gentle
curve shown.

Rotary Variable Differential Transformer (RVDT)

The Rotational Variable Differential Transformer (RVDT) is used to measure
rotational angles and it operates under the same principles as LVDT sensor whereas
LVDT uses a cylindrical iron core. RVDT uses a rotary ferromagnetic core. A schematic
of RVDT is shown in Figure.
Calculation of output voltage
The motion of a magnetic core changes the mutual inductance of two secondary
coils relative to a primary coil.
Primary coil voltage: V in =sin( t)
Induced emf in secondary coils:
V1 = k1 sin( t) and
V2 = k2 sin( t)
 The values of k, and ky depend on the amount of coupling between primary and
secondary coils which is proportional to the position of the coil.
When the coil is in the central position, k1 = k2
V out =V1 -V2 = 0
When the coil is displaced for x units, k1 = k2

V out =( k1 -k2)sin( t)
Positive or negative displacements are determined from the phase of V out
Applications
LVDT can be used to measure the displacement, deflection, position and profile
of a work piece.
Advantages
(i) It is relatively low cost due to its popularity
(ii) It is solid and robust capable of working in a wide variety of environments
(iii) There is no friction resistance since the iron core does not contact the transformer
coils thereby resulting in an infinite (very long) service life
(iv) High signal to noise ratio and low output impedance can be obtained (v) It has
negligible hysteresis
(v) It has short response time, only limited by the inertia of the iron core and the rise
time of the amplifiers
(vi) There is no permanent damage to the LVDT if measurements exceed the
(vii) designed range
(viii) It can operate over a temperature range of-265°C to 600°C
(ix) It is has high sensitivity up to 40 V/mm
(x) It has less power consumption (less than 1W)
Disadvantages
(i) The performance of these sensors is likely affected by vibration etc
(ii) Relatively large displacements are required for appreciable output
(iii) It is not suitable for fast dynamic measurements because of mass of the core
(iv) It is inherently low in power output
CAPACITANCE SENSORS
A transducer that uses capacitance variation is known as capacitance sensors. The
elastic deflection of a membrane due to the applied force is detected by a capacitance
variation. A highly sensitive displacement and proximity transducers can be constructed
because the capacitive transducer senses very small deflections accurately. Capacitive
sensors can directly sense a variety of things such as motion, displacement, chemical
composition, electric field and indirectly sense many other variables which can be
converted into motion or dielectric constant such as pressure, acceleration, fluid level and
fluid composition.
A capacitance sensor consists of two metal plates separated by an air gap. The
capacitance C between terminals is given by the expression

C = Capacitance in Farads (F) & Relative dielectric constant of the insulator &
Dielectric constant of free space
A=Overlapping area for the two plates
h = Thickness of the gap between two plates
Different forms of capacitive sensor are shown in Figure 1.29where one plate of
the capacitor is placed inside a probe which is sealed in an insulator and the external target
object forms the other plate of the capacitor. The operating principle is based on either
the geometry (i.e. the distance d) or capacitance variations in the presence of conductive
or dielectric materials. Distance variation of parallel plates [Figure a] is often used for
proximity or motion detection if the distance change (d) is less than the plate size.
Transverse displacement is easily detected by overlap or under lap areas of the parallel
plates [Figure(b)]. In the distance variation motion detectors, when displacement
increases to the dimension of the plates, the measurement accuracy suffers from vanishing
a signal level.
 Different forms of capacitive sensor
Area variation is then preferred. As these plates slide transversely, the capacitance
is changed linearly with motion. Quite long excursions are possible with good linearity
but the gap needs to be small and well-controlled. It is used as proximity sensors.
Capacitive sensors can detect metallic or nonmetallic objects, liquids or any object with
a dielectric constant greater than air. The dielectric object is kept between plates shown
in Figure(c). As the dielectric object moves between plates, the capacitance changes
linearly with motion
While using two plates capacitive sensor, there is a non-linear relationship
between displacement and the change in capacitance exists. It can be overcome by using
three plates capacitive sensor called push-pull displacement sensor. In this type, the upper
pair of plates forms one capacitor and the lower pair forms another capacitor shown in
Figure. When the central plate moves upward, the separation of upper pair is decreased
and the separation of lower pair is increased. Therefore, the capacitance of a parallel
plate capacitor is given by

Push-pull capacitive displacement sensor

Capacitive proximity sensor

Where = Relative permittivity of the dielectric between the plates,
= Dielectric constant of free space,
x = Displacement of central plate,
A = The area of overlap between the two plates,
d = Distance of the plate separation.
One form of capacitive proximity sensor is shown in Figure 1.31 where one plate
of a capacitor is connected to the central conductor of a coaxial cable while the other plate
is formed by a target object. The operating principle is based on either the geometry (i.e.
the distance, d) or capacitance variations in the presence of conductive or dielectric
materials.
Applications
This type of sensor can be employed for measuring position, displacement,
gauging or any other similar parameter in a machine tool.
Advantages
(i) Excellent linearity over entire dynamic range when area is changed (since stray
electric fields are small)
(ii) It has high sensitivity
(iii) Capacitive displacement detectors can detect 10 m displacement with good
stability, high speed and wide extremes of environment
(iv) The system responds to an average displacement of a large area of a moving
electrode
(v) It has freedom of electrode (plate) materials and geometry for demanding
environments and applications
(vi) Fractional change in capacitance can be made large
(vii) Capacitive sensors can be made to respond to displacement in one direction only
(viii) The forces exerted by the measuring apparatus are electrostatic and usually small
enough so that they can be disregarded
 (ix) Capacitors are noiseless (x) High accuracy and resolution are possible. A
resolution of 2.5×10 can be obtained.
Disadvantages
(i) The performance of these sensors is likely affected due to the environmental
conditions such as dust, moisture, vibration etc.
(ii) The metallic parts of the capacitor must be insulated from each other.

STRAIN GAUGES
A strain gauge is an example of passive transducer that converts a mechanical
displacement into a change of resistance. It is a thin, wafer-like device which can be
attached to a variety of materials by a suitable adhesive to measure the applied strain. As
the structure is stressed, the resulting strain deforms the strain gauge attached with the
structure. It causes an increase in the resistivity of the gauge which produces an electrical
signal proportional to the deformation. The strain gauge displacement sensor consists of
a structure attached with the strain gauge that elastically deforms when subjected to a
displacement shown in Figure (a).

Strain gauge with Wheatstone bridge circuit

The change of resistance is very small and it is usually measured using a
Wheatstone bridge circuit where a strain gauge is connected into the circuit with a
combination of four active gauges for full bridge, two gauges for half bridge or a single
gauge for quarter bridge. In half and quarter circuits, the bridge is completed with
precision resistors. Figure (b) shows the basic configuration where the strain gauge is
one leg of the bridge i.e. quarter bridge.
For metallic foil gauges, the gauge factor is usually taken as 2. As stress is applied
to the bonded strain gauge, a resistive change takes place and unbalances the Wheatstone
bridge. The change in the resistance of a bonded strain gauge is usually less than 0.5%.
This change of the resistance per unit resistance (AR/R) is proportional to the strain (c).
It is given by the relation.
Based on principle of working, strain gauges are classified into
Mechanical
Electrical
Piezoelectric
Based on mounting, they are classified into
Bonded strain gauge
Unbounded strain gauge
Based on construction, they are classified into
Foil strain gauge
Semiconductor strain gauge
Photoelectric Strain gauge
A wide variety of gauge sizes and grid shapes are available. The metallic strain
gauge consists of a very fine wire or metallic foil arranged in a grid pattern. The grid
pattern maximizes the amount of metallic wire or foil subject to strain in the parallel
direction. The cross sectional area of the grid is minimized to reduce the effect of shear
strain and Poisson's strain. The grid is bonded to a thin backing called carrier which is
attached directly to the test specimen.
The majority of strain gauges are bonded foil types available in a wide choice of
shapes and sizes to suit a variety of applications and typical examples are shown in
Figure. They consist of a pattern of resistive foil which is mounted on a backing
material. They operate on the principle that as the foil is subjected to stress, the
resistance of the foil changes in a defined way. Bonded foil strain gauges can be as
small as 16 mm² and have strain sensitivity or gauge factor of 2.

Bonded foil strain gauges

Wire wound gauges are made of round wire of copper nickel, chrome nickel or
nickel iron alloys about 0.0064 cm diameter.
 Strain gauge is attached to the object or the strained element where the force is
being applied. As the object is stressed due to the applied force, the resulting strain
deforms the strain gauge attached with it. It causes an increase in resistivity of the gauge
which produces electrical signal proportional to the deformation. The measurement of
resistivity is the measure of strain which in turn gives the measurement of force or load
applied on the object. The change of resistance is generally very small and it is usually
measured using a. Wheatstone bridge circuit where strain gauges are connected into the
circuit. The strain gauges are serving as resistors in the circuit. The Wheatstone bridge
circuit produces analog electrical output signal. In a typical strain gauge load cell for
measuring force, four strain gauges are attached to the surface of the counterforce and
they are electrically connected in a full Wheatstone bridge circuit shown in Figure. Load
cells have different shapes (cylindrical tubes, rectangular or square beams, and shaft) for
different applications and load requirements. To ensure that the desired component of
force is measured, strain gauges having different shapes are positioned in various
orientations upon the load cell body.

Strain gauge load cell

Applications
(i) Strain measurement
(ii) Residual stress measurement
(iii) Vibration measurement
(iv) Torque measurement
 (v) Bending and deflection measurement
(vi) Compression and tension measurement
Advantages
(i) There is no moving part and hence no wear
(ii) Strain gauges are very precise
(iii) It is small and inexpensive
(iv) It has a high frequency bandwidth
Applications
Hall sensors are used for proximity switching, positioning, speed detection and
current sensing applications Hall sensors are commonly used to time the speed of
wheels and shafts such as for internal combustion engine ignition timing or
tachometers.
They are used in brushless DC electric motors to detect the position of the
permanent magnet
Typical applications are the detection of a moving part replacing a mechanical
limit switch. Another common use is in indexing of rotational or translational
motion.
Advantages
It is relative low cost compared to electromagnetic switches
High frequency operation is possible
It is used for multiple purpose usage as displacement, position and proximity
sensors.
It is solid and robust and capable of working in severe environmental conditions
as they are immune to humidity contamination There is no contact bounce
problem
Disadvantages
Sensor becomes weak during offset effects caused by misalignment of contact in
Hall element and piezo-resistive effects
EDDY CURRENT SENSOR
Eddy current sensors detect the proximity or presence of a target by sensing the
magnetic fields generated by a reference coil. Eddy current sensors detect ferrous and
non-ferrous metals. They can be used as proximity sensors to detect the presence of a
target or it can be configured to measure the position or displacement of a target.
An eddy current is a local electric current induced in a conductive material due
to the magnetic field produced by the sensor or active coil. It is sensed by a reference
coil to create an output signal. When the distance changes between target and probe,
the impedance of the coil will correspondingly change. The change in impedance can
be detected by a carefully arranged bridge circuit shown in Figure.

Eddy Current Porximity Sensor

The eddy currents are confined to shallow depths near the conductive target surface.
Their effective depth is given by

The target material must be at least three times thicker than the effective depth of the
eddy currents to make the transducer successful because the transducer assumes that
the eddy currents are localized near the surface of a semi-infinite solid and the actual
eddy current amplitude decreases quadratically with distance.
Applications
Since it is a non-contact device, it is suitable for higher resolution measurement
applications. The device is used for finding out the position of an object that is
conductive in nature. Various applications are as follows.
 (i) Position measurement
Since the output of an eddy current transducer represents the size of the distance
between transducer and conductor, the device can be calibrated to measure the position
or displacement of the target. Thus, it can be applicable in monitoring or sensing the
precise location of an object such as a machine tool. It can also be used to locate the
final position of precise equipment such as a disk drive.
(ii) Vibrating motion measurement
The device is also suitable for finding the alternate positions of a vibrating
conductor. Since a contact device is impracticable for this application, a non-contact
device such as eddy current transducer is highly recommended. Thus, it can be
applicable in measuring the distance of a shaft from a reference point or the to-and- fro
movement of vibrating instruments.
Advantages
(i) It is compact in size
(ii) Cost is low
(iii) Reliability is high
(iv) It produces high frequency response
(v) Sensitivity for small displacement is high
(vi) It is insensitive to material in the gap between transducer and conductor
Disadvantages
(i) The result will be precise only if the gap between transducer and conductor is small.
(ii) The device cannot be used for finding the position of non-conductive materials
(iii) There always occurs a non-linear relationship between distance and
impedance of the active coil of the device
(iv) The device is highly temperature sensitive

HALL EFFECT SENSOR

Hall Effect sensor is a type of magnetic sensor. A Hall Effect sensor is a
transducer that varies its output voltage in response to changes in magnetic field. In
1879 Edwi
flowing in one direction was introduced perpendicular to a magnetic field a voltage
which could be measured at right angles to the current path". The voltage is directly
proportional to the number of flux lines passing through the conductor, angle at which
they pass through it and amount of current used.
When a current-carrying conductor is placed into a magnetic field, a voltage
will be generated perpendicular to both the current and the field. This principle is
known as Hall Effect.
 Principle of Hall Effect
Figure illustrates the basic principle of the Hall Effect. It shows a thinsheet
of semiconducting material (Hall element) through which a current is passed.
The output connections are perpendicular to the direction of current. When no
magnetic field is present shown in Figure(a), the current distribution is uniform and no
potential difference is seen across the output.
When a perpendicular magnetic field is present shown in Figure(b), a forceis
exerted on the current. This force disturbs the current distribution in resulting a
potential difference (voltage) across the output. This voltage is the Hall voltage (H).
Hall voltage is proportional to the vector cross product of the current (1) and the
magnetic flux density (B).

VH
KH = IB / t
where
K is the Hall coefficient
t is the thickness of the Hall element
The Hall element is the basic magnetic field sensor. It requires
 the signal conditioning to make the output usable for most applications. The
signal conditioning electronics needed are amplifier stage and temperature
compensation. Voltage regulation is needed when operating from an
unregulated supply. Figure illustrates a basic Hall Effect sensor.

Hall Effect Sensor

The Hall effect sensor can also be used to measure the fuel level in a
fuel tank. The float has buoyancy in the fuel. It floats up as the fuel becomes
more. The gap between magnet and hall sensor will changed. It results the
changing of the output. The springs allow the float to move only vertically

Fluid level Hall effect sensor

TEMPERATURE SENSORS
Temperature measurements are most widely monitored parameter in science and
industry. Temperature is defined as the average kinetic energy of individual molecules
that comprise the system. As the temperature increases, the molecular activity will also
increase and thus, the average kinetic energy increases. Most of the temperature
measuring or monitoring systems use the principle of expansion or contraction of liquids,
gases, or solids. Most often, a simple mercury thermometer is needed to measure the fluid
or process temperature. This uses the principle of expansion or contraction of liquid to
measure the change in temperature. There are also other techniques such as change in
electrical resistance of conductors and semiconductors and thermoelectric e.m.f. used to
measure the temperature. The following are the common methods used to measure the
temperature which are described in detail.

1. Bimetallic strips
2. Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs)
3. Thermistors
4. Thermocouples
5. Thermo diodes and transistors.

1.Bimetallic Strips
Bimetallic strip thermometers are mechanical thermometers. They are widely used in
industry for temperature control because of their robustness, temperature range and

simplicity. It consists of a bimetallic strip which is made of two dissimilar metals

bonded together with one end fixed and the other free. A bimetallic strip is used to convert
a temperature change into mechanical displacement. The principle is that as the
temperature changes, one strip will expand more than the other causing the pair to bend
at the free end. Most bimetallic strips use a high thermal expansion alloy such as steel or
stainless steel coupled with a low thermal expansion alloy such as Invar. Steel and copper
or in some cases, brass is also used instead of copper for bimetallic strips. Figure shows
the configuration of bimetallic temperature controlled switch or thermostat. The metal
with the higher coefficient of thermal expansion is on the outer side of the curve when
the strip is heated and it is lower on the inner side when cooled. When the temperature
of the switch is increased, the thermal expansion material will be higher thanother side of
low thermal expansion material. It causes the strip to bend upward in making contact so
that the current can flow. By adjusting the size of the gap between strip andcontact,
the temperature can be adjusted or set.
Advantages of bimetallic strips
Power source is not required
Cost is low
It is robust construction
It is easy to use and it can be used up to 500°C.
Disadvantages of bimetallic strips
It is less accurate
It is limited to applications where manual reading is acceptable, eg, a household
thermometer.
It is not suitable for very low temperatures because the expansion of metals tend
to be too smaller. So, the device becomes a rather insensitive thermometer.

2. Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDS)

When a metal wire is heated the resistance increases. So, a temperature can be
measured using the resistance of a wire. RTD incorporates pure metals or certain alloys
that increases resistance as temperature increases and it conversely decreases resistance
as temperature decreases. RTDs act similar an electrical transducer and it converts
changes the temperature to voltage signals by the measurement of resistance. The metals
that are best suited for use as RTD sensors are pure of uniform quality and stable within
given range of temperature and able to give reproducible resistance- temperature
readings. Only a few metals have the properties necessary for use in RTD elements.
RTD elements are normally constructed of platinum, copper, nickel or nickel-iron
alloys. These metals are best suited for RTD applications because of their linear
resistance-temperature characteristics shown in Figure, their high coefficient of
resistance and ability are to withstand repeated temperature cycles. The linear relationship
of resistance-temperature is given by the equation.
R=Ro (1+ T)
where R is the resistance at a temperature 7°C, Ro is the resistance at 0°C and a
is the temperature co-efficient of resistance
The coefficient of resistance is the change in resistance per degree change in
temperature usually expressed as a percentage per degree of temperature. The material
used must be capable of being drawn into fine wire so that the element can be easily
constructed.

Electrical resistance vs Temperature curve

Construction of RTD
RTD elements are usually long, spring-like wires surrounded by an insulator and
enclosed in a sheath of metal for protection. the internal construction of an RTD,
platinum is used as RTD element that is surrounded by a porcelain insulator. The
insulator prevents a short circuit between wire and metal sheath. Inconel, a nickel-iron-
chromium alloy is normally used in manufacturing the RTD sheath because of its
inherent corrosion resistance. When it is placed in a liquid or gas medium, the Inconel
sheath quickly reaches the temperature of the medium. The change in temperature will
cause the platinum wire to heat or cool thereby resulting a proportional change in
resistance. This change in resistance is then measured by a precision resistancemeasuring
device which is calibrated to give the proper temperature reading. This device is
normally a bridge circuit.
Advantages of RTDs
It is suitable for measuring high temperatures
It has high degree of accuracy
It ensures good stability and repeatability
It does not need a reference temperature junction
Disadvantages of RTDs
Size is more than the thermocouple
Power supply is required
It needs auxiliary apparatus to get required form of output
Resistance element is more expensive than a thermocouple.
There is a possibility of error due to self-heating and thermo-electric effect of the
resistive element

3.Thermistors
Thermistor is a word formed by combining thermal with resistor. Thermistors
such as RTDs are temperature sensitive resistors. Thermistors are non-linear devices.
Their resistance will decrease with an increase in temperature but at a much faster rate
than that of RTDs. The resistance can change by more than 1000 times. As a result,
thermistors can sense minute changes in temperature which are undetected by RTDs and
thermocouples. The basic equation is given by

Thermistors
 There are two types of thermistors based on the lead attachment: 1. Beads and 2.
Metallized surface-contact. Bead types have platinum wires sintered into a ceramic body
(bead) as shown in Figure (a). Metallized surface-contact thermistors are called chips or
flakes. In contrast to bead types, leads are not sintered directly into the ceramic, Instead,
the sintered ceramic is coated with a metallic contact shown in Figure (b). Either thechip
manufacturer or user attaches leads to this contact. One advantage of chip thermistors over
bead types is that chips are easily trimmed by cutting or grinding. Thus, they are easy to
match and therefore, they are interchangeable. While matched bead thermistors are
available, they cost more than interchangeable chips.
Thermistors can be classified into two types depending on the temperature
coefficient of resistance (k). If k is positive, the resistance will increase with increasing
temperature and the device is called positive temperature coefficient (PTC) thermistor or
posistor. If k is negative, the resistance will decrease with increasing temperature and the
device is called negative temperature coefficient (NTC) thermistor. NTC thermistors are
mostly used in temperature sensing devices whereas PTC thermistors are mostly used in
electric current control devices.
Thermistors respond quickly to temperature changes and they have a higher
resistance. So, the junction effects are not an issue. Typical accuracies are 1% but the
devices are not linear. They have a limited temperature/resistance range and can be self-
heating. Compared to other sensors, thermistors have a limited measuring range typically
from 80 to 150°C. Also, they can sustain the permanent damage at temperatures above
their specified operating range because they are often made from semiconductors or
sintered mixtures of metal oxides.
Advantages of thermistors
It produces more accurate output and fast
It is suitable for the usage in remote location
It can be manufactured in almost any shape and size
A high degree of accuracy is obtained
Good stability and repeatability are ensured
It has the ability to withstand mechanical and electrical stresses
Disadvantages of thermistors
It produces highly non-linear behavior over its range of operation
It has a limited measuring range Self-heating may occur
 Power supply is required
It is fragile in nature

4.Thermocouple
The thermocouple is a device that converts thermal energy into electrical energy.
Thermocouples are very simple and durable temperature sensors. Thermocouples use a
junction of dissimilar metals to generate a voltage proportional to temperature.
Thermocouples are based on the Seebeck effect. ln(1821) , a physicist TJ See back
discovered that "when two conductors of dissimilar metals are joined together to form a
loop and two unequal temperatures are interposed at the junctions, then an emf will exist
between two points A and B which is primarily a function of the junction temperature. It
is known as thermoelectric effect or Seebeck effect. Figure illustrates Seebeck effect
where two dissimilar metals A and B are used. to close the loop connecting junctions at
two different temperatures T1 and T2 The e.m.f. produced is found to be almost linear in
temperature and very repetitive for constant materials. The e.m.f. produced by the
thermocouple loop is approximately given by
E=
Where is the constant in volts/oC and
are the actual and reference temperatures respectively.

Seebeck effect

Table shows different thermocouple junction types and the normal temperature
ranges. Both thermocouples and signal conditioners are commonly available and
relatively inexpensive. They are usually selected based on the temperature range and
sensitivity needed. Thermocouples with low sensitivities (B, R and S types) have
correspondingly lower resolutions. Other selection criteria include the inertness of the
thermocouple material and whether or not it is magnetic. Figure 1.45 shows the
temperature-voltage relationships of some commonly used types of thermocouples.
 For convenience of measurement and standardization, one of the two junctions is
usually maintained at a known temperature of reference. The most common reference is
0°C which is the temperature of an ice bath. A 0°C reference insures repeatability and
accuracy because the ice point of water is a constant. A thermocouple can be used with
the reference junction other than 0oC In such case, a correction has to be used before using
the standard table of reference by using thermocouple law called law of intermediate
temperatures.

Temperature voltage relationships of thermocouples Law of intermediate

temperatures

If two dissimilar materials produce thermal e.m.f. E12 when the junctions are at
and T1 an T2 they produce thermal e.m.f. E23 when the junction are at T2 and T3 , e.m.f.
generated when the junctions are at T1 and T3 will be E12+E23. Figure illustrates the
concept of law of intermediate temperatures.
E13 = E12 + E23

Low of intermediate Temperature

 The shows the internal construction of a typical thermocouple. The leads of the
thermocouple are encased in a rigid metal sheath. The measuring junction is normally
formed at the bottom of the thermocouple housing. Magnesium oxide surrounds the
thermocouple wires to prevent vibration that could damage fine wires and to enhance
heat transfer between measuring junction and medium surrounding the thermocouple.

Simple thermocouple circuit

Figure illustrates a simple thermocouple circuit. Heating the measuring junction
of the thermocouple produces a voltage which is greater than voltage across the
reference junction. The difference between two voltages is proportional to the difference
in temperature and it can be measured on the voltmeter (in mill volts). For ease of operator
use, some voltmeters are set up to read out directly in temperature through use of
electronic circuitry.
Advantages of thermocouples
It is simple in construction
It is inexpensive
It is rugged in construction

It has wide variety to choose for particular applications It has wide temperature
range
It has the ability to withstand mechanical and electrical stresses.
Disadvantages of thermocouples
It is highly non-linear behavior over its range of operation
It is capable of generating low voltage
It has low stability
 Reference source is required
It is least sensitive.

5.Thermodiodes and Transistors

1. Thermodiode
A junction semiconductor diode is widely used in temperature-measuring
instruments. The mobility of semiconductor diode will change whenever the temperature
changes. It affects the rate at which electrons and holes can diffuse across a PN junction.
The difference in voltage and current through the junction is a function of the temperature.
The measurement of the voltage across a diode at constant current can be used as a
measure of temperature. Such a sensor is compact in size and it has the advantage of
giving a response which is a linear function of temperature.
2. Thermo transistor
The base-to-emitter voltage drop of a transistor operating at a constant current is
a simple function of absolute temperature. Thus, any transistor can be used as a
temperature sensor. In practice, it is difficult to build thermally stable electronics than a
conventional means of measuring temperature. Integrated circuits are available that
monitor the collector current, amplify and linearize the base-to-emitter voltage to yield
an output that is proportional to absolute temperature. Common integrated circuit
temperature sensors are available with outputs of 10 mV/K, or 1 µA/K. The temperature
range over which they may be used is limited to -50°C to 150°C by the construction
techniques of integrated circuits. It makes them very useful for referencing one junction
of the thermocouple and most ambient temperature measurements.
Thermo diodes and transistors are also called IC temperature sensors.

Advantages of IC sensors
It produces almost linear output
It is inexpensive
It produces the highest output
It is compact in size
It produces high accuracy.
 Disadvantages of IC sensors It is applicable for the measurement of less than
150°C Power supply is required
It produces slow output
It has the problem of self-heating.

LIGHT SENSORS
A light sensor or detector converts the radiant power. It absorbs into a change of
a device parameter such as resistance, surface charge, current or voltage. Some signal
conditioning electronics may also be needed to convert the basic output from the detector
into a more useful voltage signal. For example, digitization is done by an analog-to-digital
converter (ADC). It may be integrated into the detector or require external components.
There are several types of light sensors in common use. The principles of operation and
characteristics of the most widely used including photo resistor, photodiode and
phototransistor are summarized in this section. These light sensors depend on the
generation of free charge by the absorption of individual photons. This photon-induced
charge causes a change in device resistance in the case of photo resistors or an output
current or output voltage is produced in the case of photodiodes and transistors.
1.Photo Resistor

Photo resistor Circuit and structure

A photo resistor consists of a slab of semiconductor material on the faces of
electrodes. They are deposited to allow the resistance to be monitored. The increase in
conductivity is caused by the absorption of photons increasing electrons and holes are the
basis for the operation of the photo resistive detector. Cadmium sulfide is commonly used
as a detector of visible radiation because of its low cost and its response is similar to
human eyes. Other photoconductive materials include lead sulfide, indium antimonite and
mercury cadmium telluride. A simple light detector circuit employing a photo resistor is
shown in figure. An increase in light illumination causes the resistance of the photo
resistor to decrease and the output voltage to increase. The photon-induced current is
proportional to the length of electrodes and inversely proportional to their separation.
Therefore, the typical comb-like electrode geometry of photo resistors is used. The comb-
like pattern typically employed in photo resistors gives a relatively large active area of
photo conducting material and a small electrode spacing resulting in high sensitivity.
Photoconductive devices used for the detection of long wavelength infrared radiation
should be cooled because of the noise caused by fluctuations in the thermal generation of
charge.

2.Photodiode
In photo resistors, the rate of generation of electrons and holes pairs by the
absorption of radiation results the increase in free charge and therefore, electrical
conductivity will also increase. In photodiodes and phototransistors, newly generated p-
n pairs separate before they can recombine so that a photon-induced electric current can
be detected. The separation of electrons and holes takes place in the electric field
associated with a P-N junction fabricated in a semiconductor material which is usually
silicon.

Structure of photodiode
The basic structure of a typical silicon photodiode is illustrated in Figure 1.51.
The substrate material is lightly doped n-type silicon. It contributes free electrons to the
conduction band of the silicon leaving the impurity atoms ionized and with a positive
charge. A region of heavily doped p-type silicon is formed on the top face of the substrate.
P-N junction is the boundary surface between p-type and n-type regions. A space charge
or depletion region is formed by the diffusion of mobile charge across the surface between
p-type and n-type silicon. It extends furthest into n-type silicon because it is more lightly
doped than p-type silicon. Any electron hole pairs generated in this region are prevented
from recombining by the presence of the electric field. It sweeps them apart and allowing
them to contribute to the photon generated current. The p-type region is made thin to
allow photons to penetrate into the depletion region.

3.Phototransistor
The phototransistor has a light-sensitive collector-base p-n junction. When there
is no incident light radiation on the transistor, there will be a small collector-to-emitter
current.
When incident light radiation falls on the transistor, a base current is produced
that is directly proportional to the intensity of light. A simple phototransistor light detector
circuit is shown in Figure.

Phototransistor light detector circuit

Photon-generated current flowing in the base-collector diode may be amplified
several hundred times by transistor action. Although the photon-generated current is
much larger than an equivalent photodiode, the response time of the phototransistor will
be much longer.

SELECTION OF SENSORS
A number of static, dynamic and other factors must be considered in selecting a
suitable sensor to measure the desired physical parameter. The following factors are
considered while selecting sensors.
1. Accuracy required: It is the difference between measured value and true value.
Accuracy of the sensor should be as high as possible
2. Precision: It is the ability to reproduce repeatedly with a given accuracy. It should
be very high. Error between sensed and actual values should approach zero.
3. Sensitivity: It is the ratio of change in output to a unit change of the input. It
 should be chosen to allow sufficient output.
4. Operating range. It is the difference between maximum and minimum value of
the sensed parameter. Sensors should have wide operating range and good
accuracy over the range.
5. Resolution: It is the smallest change in the sensor which can differentiate. Sensors
should have high resolution.
6. Speed response: Time taken by the sensor to respond should be minimum.
Response time should be very less.
7. Reliability: Reliability of the sensor should be high. Mean time to failure (MTTF)
should be high. It results the increased life.
8. Maintenance should also be easy and frequency of maintenance required should
be less over the period.
9. Calibration Sensors need frequent calibration for many reasons. Hence, it should
be easy to calibrate. Drift should be as minimum as possible.
10. Cost: Cost of the sensor should be low.
11. Linearity: Sensor's curve should linear. The percentage of deviation from the
best-fit linear calibration curve should be less
12. Environmental conditions: Sensors should operate over wide environmental
conditions such as temperature, corrosion, pressure, shocks etc.
13. Interfacing: Sensors should be compatible with different instruments for
interfacing.
14. Size and weight: Sensors should have small size and less weight.