Index

Topic Page.no.

Observation of Permanent Slides of Mitosis

Experiment on Diffusion

Experiment on Osmosis

Experiment on Transpiration

Photosynthesis

Study of Structures through Models & Charts

Blood Cells

Study of Human Ear and Eye through Models & Charts

Endocrine Glands

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Experiment 1: Observation of Permanent Slides of Mitosis

Mitosis type of cell division by which a single parent cell divides, reproduce 2 genetically
identical daughter cells. It is an equational division where the chromosome number is
maintained at all stages of cell division. Mitosis occurs in all body except for the cells in
ovaries and testis.

Aim of the Experiment:

To observe the permanent slides of a plant cell showing different stages of miotic cell
division.

1. Interface
• The interval between 2 successive cell divisions
• Genetic material appears as a fine network of chromatin fibres
• Nuclear membrane is the intact and nucleolus is visible

2. Prophase
• The chromatin fibres become gradually shorter and thicker to form chromosomes
• Each chromosome gets replicated to form 2 chromatids
• The 2 chromatids appear joined at the centromere

3. Metaphase
• Chromosomes are further condensed
• Sister chromatids of each chromosome are attached to the centromere
• Chromosomes are aligned at the equatorial plane of the cell
• Half of the chromatic phase, one pole and half the other

4. Anaphase
• The centromere of each chromosome divides, allowing the separation of the
chromatids
• The chromatids migrate to the opposite poles as the spindles fibres contract

5. Telophase
• Each chromatid or daughter chromosome at its respective poll things out and
reorganize itself into chromatin network
• Nucleolus and nuclear membrane reappeared
• Cell plate is laid down long the equatorial plane of the cell, resulting in the
formation of two daughter cells

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 Experiment 2: Experiment on Diffusion

Diffusion is the movement of molecules of a service distance, from the region of their higher
concentration to the region of their lower concentration till the concentration becomes equal

Aim of the Experiment:

Demonstration of Diffusion

Requirements:
A beaker, potassium permanganate crystals and tap water

Procedure:
Place a crystal of potassium permanganate in the beaker containing tap water

Observation:
The potassium permanganate crystal slowly dissolves and spread in the liquid. Eventually, the
molecules of the substance are diffused or distributed uniformly throughout the water. The diffusion
could be observed visually.

Conclusion:
• Potassium permanganate diffused evenly throughout the water
• Potassium permanganate is soluble in water

In this experiment, there was no obstacle or hindrance of any kind in the part of the molecules of the
solute and could move freely in water in all directions.

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 Experiment 3: Experiment on Osmosis

Osmosis is the process in which water molecules move through semipermeable membrane from
the region of their higher concentration to the region of their lower concentration.

Method-1

Aim of the Experiment:

Demonstration of Osmosis by Potato osmoscope.

Requirements:
A large sized long potato tuber, sugar solution and a Petri dish.

Procedure:
Cut both ends of the potato evenly. Using a cork borer or a small-bladed knife, make a pit at any
one end of the potato. It makes a potato cup. Place some dry sugar or thick syrup in the pit up to
nearly the middle. This cup to be set in a petri dish containing water. Gently peel the portion of the
potato which is to be submerged in water. Now place it in the petri dish.

Observation:
Within a few hours, the sugar will be dissolved and the cup will be filled with liquid. When the
syrup is used, its level will rise showing that the volume of the syrup has increased.

Conclusion:
The water has diffused from the potato tissues into the sugar/syrup in the cup through osmosis.

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 Method-2

Aim of the experiment:

Demonstration of osmosis by Potato osmoscope

Requirements
Two large potatoes, concentrated sugar solution, two glass tubing and a large petri dish.

Procedure:
Take two potatoes. Cut off one end of each potato so that it can stand upright. Peel off the skin near
the cut edge in each. Drill a hole through the centre of each potato taking care not to bore right
through the base. Fix a glass tubing tightly into the hole. Pour a little quantity of concentrated sugar
solution into one glass tubing (A) and a little plain water into the other tube (B). This second potato
with water in the tube acts as a control. Allow the two potatoes to stand in a dish of water and mark
the level of the liquid in the two tubes with a thread or with a marker. Leave for 2-3 hours.

Observation:
The level of the liquid in A rises due to the inward diffusion of water and the level
in B either remains same or even falls slightly due to the movement of water
molecules from the tube into the potato cells which have a slightly higher
concentration than the water.

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 Method-3

Aim of the experiment:

Demonstration of osmosis by Potato osmoscope

Requirements
Three large potatoes cut in half, sugar, blade or knife, petri dish, burner

Procedure:
1. Make three potato cups from raw potatoes cut in half by boring a depression in top. Peel the
skin from the sides and make a flat base
2. Boil one cup, keep the other two as raw. Keep all the three cups in separate petri dishes
containing ordinary tap water
3. Put sugar into the cups of raw potato (A) and boiled potato (B). Leave the third cup of the raw
potato (C) empty
4. Leave all the three cups for 1-2 hours

Observation:
1. Cup A (raw with sugar) - water enters the cup and by dissolving the sugar makes a solution
whose level rises further
2. Cup B (boiled, with sugar) — there is hardly any dissolution of the sugar, water does not enter
the depression
3. Cup C (raw and empty) - water does not enter the depression

Conclusion:
1. Osmosis occurs in A because raw potato cells are alive and the inflow of water molecules
occurs through the living cell membranes which act as semi- permeable membranes
2. No osmosis occurs in B because boiled potato has dead cell membranes
3. Cup C acts as a control

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 Experiment 3: Experiment on Osmosis

Aim of the experiment:

Demonstration of osmosis by thistle funnel method

Requirements:
A thistle funnel, parchment or cellophane paper, iron stand, sugar solution

Procedure:
Take a wide mouth thistle funnel with a narrow stem. Cover its mouth with the cellophane paper and
tie it securely. Invert the thistle funnel in a beaker (A) containing plain water or a very dilute sugar
solution. Mark the level of the sugar solution on the stem. As a control for comparison, take another
thistle funnel with plain water filled in it and suspend it on another beaker (B) also containing water.
Also mark the level on its stem of the thistle funnel.

Observation:
After a few hours, the level of the liquid in the thistle funnel in A will rise; the level in
the thistle funnel in B will remain unchanged. The level of water in the beaker in A
will drop slightly while the one in the beaker in B will remain unchanged. If the
water in the beaker A is tasted, it is not found to be sweet.

Conclusion:
1. In the experimental set - up A, some water of the beaker has passed through the cellophane paper to enter
the sugar solution.
2. The sugar from the thistle funnel (A) has not passed into the beaker.
3. The cellophane paper acts selectively or differentially. It allows water molecules to pass through but not the
sugar molecules.

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 Experiment 4: Experiment on Transpiration

Aim of the experiment:

To show that plants transpire through leaves

Requirements
Three bell jars, two similar well-watered preferably broad-leaved potted plants, two large polythene
bags, a cork sheet and a cobalt chloride paper.

Procedure:
Keep all the three bell jars in the sun and leave for about half an hour.

Observation:
The first bell jar (A) will show water vapour condensing on its inner walls. The second bell jar (B)
would also show a similar condensation and a t the same time, the initially blue cobalt chloride paper
in it would turn pink. The blue colour of the cobalt chloride paper in the third bell jar (C) does not
change at all and there are no water drops on the jar's inner walls either.

Conclusion:
Because the blue cobalt chloride paper changes its colour to pink in the presence of moisture, the
experiment proves that the aerial parts of a plant give out water vapour

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 Experiment 4: Experiment on Transpiration

Aim of the experiment:

To demonstrate unequal transpiration from the two surfaces of a leaf

Requirements
A plotted plant, cobalt chloride paper, glass slides, rubber bands

Procedure:
Set up the experiment. Note how the two glass slides are holding the cobalt chloride paper on two
sides of the leaf.

Observation:
The piece of cobalt chloride paper which is facing the lower surface of the leaf turns pink in shorter
time than the one on the upper surface.

Conclusion:
More the transpiration occurs from the lower surface of the leaf

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 Experiment 5: Experiment on Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis is a process by which the living plant cells containing chlorophyll produce food
substances from carbon dioxide and water by using light energy. Oxygen is released in the process as
a byproduct.

Aim of the experiment:

To show that light is necessary for photosynthesis

Requirements:
A potted plant with entirely green leaves, black paper, clips, iodine solution, beaker, methylated
spirit and water

Procedure:
Destarch the plant. Test one of the leaves with iodine solution to ensure that the plant is destarched.
Cover one of the leaves with black paper on which a design is cut. Place this plant in open
sunshine ensuring that sunlight falls directly on the cut design and also on the rest of the leaf. After a
few hours, remove this leaf from the plant and test it for starch in the usual manner

Observation:
Only the parts of the leaf which could get light through the cutout design as well
as those that were left uncovered by the black paper turn blue-black, the rest
remain brownish.

Conclusion:
Only the parts exposed to sunlight showed the presence of starch, i.e. only
those parts performed photosynthesis. It proves that light is necessary for
photosynthesis!

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Aim of the experiment:
To show that carbon dioxide is necessary for photosynthesis

Requirements:
A well-watered potted plant, a conical flask, a split cork, a clamp stand, potassium hydroxide, iodine
solution, water

Procedure:
Destarch the plant. Test one of the leaves with iodine solution to ensure that the plant is destarched.
Insert one of the leaves keeping it intact on the plant, through the split cork into the conical flask in
which some potassium hydroxide has been place. Leave the plant in this set-up in sunlight for a few
hours. While the plant is still in sunlight, remove this leaf from the conical flask along with any other
leaf of the plant and test both of them for starch in the usual manner.

Observation:
The leaf which was exposed to the atmospheric air becomes blue-black, and the
one in the flask containing potassium hydroxide does not turn blue-black

Conclusion:
The leaf that was placed inside the conical flask did not produce starch, as no carbon dioxide was
available to it. It proves that carbon dioxide is necessary for photosynthesis.

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Aim of the experiment:
To show that chlorophyll is necessary for photosynthesis

Requirements:
A potted plant with variegated (partly green and partly whitish/yellowish)
leaves such as coleus, geranium or croton, iodine solution, a beaker, methylated
spirit and water.

Procedure:
Destarch the leaves by keeping the plant in a dark room for 24 to 48 hours. To ascertain destarching.
pluck one of the leaves, make its outline on a piece of paper and mark on it the green and non-green
areas. Test the leaf for starch in the manner described previously. Neither the green parts nor the
non- green parts of the leaf would turn blue-black on testing, proving that there is no starch in the
leaves of this plant. Now place the plant in sunlight. After a few hours pluck another leaf. Make its
outline a n d mark the green and non-green areas as before. Next, test this leaf for starch in the same
manner .

Observation:
Only those parts of the leaf which were green turned blue-black

Conclusion:
Starch was present only in the green parts of the leaf (green parts contained chlorophyll). Non-green
parts had no chlorophyll and no starch was formed in them (i.e., no photosynthesis had occurred). It
proves that chlorophyll is necessary for photosynthesis.

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Aim of the experiment:
To show that oxygen is released during photosynthesis

Requirements:
Hydrilla plant, a beaker, a short-stemmed funnel, a test-tube and water.

Procedure:
Place the hydrilla plant in the funnel and invert it in the beaker containing water. Fill the test-tube
with water completely, gently close the test-tube with your thumb and invert it in the water of the
beaker bringing it over the stem of the funnel. Rest the funnel on a small support to keep it off the
bottom to allow free continuity of water in and out of the funnel. Initially the water in the test tube
must be fully filling up to its bottom.

Observation:
Bubbles of a gas will collect in the test-tube. Test the gas in the test-tube. The glowing splinter bursts
into flame which shows the presence of oxygen.

Conclusion:
The gas released during photosynthesis is oxygen.

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