Cell and

Molecul
ar
Biology
 DNA
The Structure of
DNA and the
Central Dogma
Guide Questions
1. What does DNA stands for?
2. What are the parts of a DNA?
3. What is the function of DNA?
4. What happens when DNA strand is replicated?
5. What is the difference between lagging strand
and leading strand of DNA during replication
process?
Dolly, female Finn
Dorset sheep that lived
from 1996 to 2003, the
first clone of an
adult mammal, produced
by British developmental
biologist Ian Wilmut and
colleagues of the Roslin
Institute,near Edinburgh,
Scotland.
Watson and Crick state
that their model of DNA
consists of two helical
strands twisted around
each other in a double
helix. Each strand, the
authors explain,
contains a chain of
repeating units called
nucleotides, where each
nucleotide contains a
sugar, a phosphate
group, and a base.
Rosalind Franklin photographed
her fifty-first X-ray diffraction
pattern of deoxyribose nucleic
acid, or DNA. Photograph 51, or
Photo 51, revealed information
about DNA´s three-dimensional
structure by displaying the way a
beam of X-rays scattered off a
pure fiber of DNA.
01
Nucleotid
e
The building blocks of DNA
are nucleotides, which are
made up of three parts:
• a deoxyribose (5-carbon
sugar),
• a phosphate group, and
• a nitrogenous base
There are four types of
nitrogenous bases in DNA.
❑ Adenine (A) and guanine
(G) are double-ringed
purines
❑ cytosine (C) and
thymine (T) are smaller,
single-ringed
pyrimidines.
The nucleotide is named
according to the
nitrogenous base it
contains.
Carbons in the
pentose are
numbered 1′
through 5′ (the
prime distinguishes
these residues from
those in the base,
which are
numbered without
using a prime
notation).
Base Pairing
DNA Packaging
• DNA is a working molecule; it must be replicated when a cell is
ready to divide, and it must be “read” to produce the molecules, such
as proteins, to carry out the functions of the cell.
• For this reason, the DNA is protected and packaged in very specific
ways.
• Thus, the DNA for a cell must be packaged in a very ordered way to
fit and function within a structure (the cell) that is not visible to the
naked eye.
• The chromosomes of prokaryotes are much simpler than those of
eukaryotes in many of their features.
• Most prokaryotes contain a single, circular chromosome that is
found in an area in the cytoplasm called the nucleoid.
 DNA to
Chromosome
 DNA
Replicati
on
❑ DNA is the genetic material that defines every cell.
❑ Before a cell duplicates and is divided into new daughter cells
through either mitosis or meiosis, biomolecules and
organelles must be copied to be distributed among the cells.
❑ DNA, found within the nucleus, must be replicated in order to
ensure that each new cell receives the correct number of
chromosomes.
❑ The process of DNA duplication is called DNA replication.
❑ DNA Replication follows several steps that involve multiple
proteins called replication enzymes and RNA.
❑ In eukaryotic cells, such as animal cells and plant cells, DNA
replication occurs in the S phase of interphase during the cell
cycle.
❑ The process of DNA replication is vital for cell growth, repair,
and reproduction in organisms.
❑ During DNA replication, each of the two strands
that make up the double helix serves as a
template from which new strands are copied.
❑ The new strand will be complementary to the
parental or “old” strand.
❑ Each new double strand consists of one
parental strand and one new daughter strand.
❑ This is known as semiconservative replication.
❑ When two DNA copies are formed, they have an
identical sequence of nucleotide bases and are
divided equally into two daughter cells.
Semi- conservative Model
Of DNA Replication
02
DNA
Replicatio
n Process
 Enzymes for DNA Replication
❖ Process
DNA helicase - unwinds and separates double stranded DNA as it moves
along the DNA. It forms the replication fork by breaking hydrogen bonds
between nucleotide pairs in DNA.
❖ DNA primase - a type of RNA polymerase that generates RNA primers.
Primers are short RNA molecules that act as templates for the starting
point of DNA replication.
❖ DNA polymerases - synthesize new DNA molecules by adding nucleotides
to leading and lagging DNA strands.
❖ Topoisomerase or DNA Gyrase - unwinds and rewinds DNA strands to
prevent the DNA from becoming tangled or supercoiled.
❖ Exonucleases - group of enzymes that remove nucleotide bases from the
end of a DNA chain.
❖ DNA ligase - joins DNA fragments together by forming phosphodiester
bonds between nucleotides.
The major difference
between a lagging and
leading strand is that the
lagging strand replicates
discontinuously forming
short fragments,
whereas the leading
strand replicates
continuously.
Lagging Strand Leading Strand
Description
The strand that opens in the 3’ to 5’ direction towards the The strand that runs in the 5’ to 3’ direction in the
replication fork is referred to as the lagging strand. replication fork is referred to as the leading strand.

Replication
The strand is replicated discontinuously. The strand is replicated continuously.
Fragments
Short stretches called okazaki fragments are formed during No short fragments are formed.
replication.
Primer Requirements
Each fragment requires its own set of primers. It requires only one primer.
Ligase Requirement
It requires DNA ligase enzymes for the joining of short It does not require DNA ligase.
okazaki fragments.
Direction of Growth
It grows away from the replication fork. It grows in the direction of the replication fork.
Speed
The synthesis of new strands is slow. The synthesis of new strands is fast.
 Step 1 : Replication Fork
Formation
Before DNA can be replicated, the double stranded
molecule must be “unzipped” into two single
strands.
DNA has four bases called adenine (A), thymine (T),
cytosine (C) and guanine (G) that form pairs
between the two strands.
This is performed by an enzyme known as DNA
helicase.
DNA helicase disrupts the hydrogen bonding
between base pairs to separate the strands into a Y
shape known as the replication fork.
 Step 2 : Primer Binding
The leading strand is the simplest to
replicate.
Once the DNA strands have been separated,
a short piece of RNA called a primer binds
to the 3' end of the strand.
The primer always binds as the starting
point for replication.
Primers are generated by the enzyme DNA
primase.
 Step 3 : Elongation
Enzymes known as DNA polymerases are
responsible creating the new strand by a process
called elongation.
There are five different known types of DNA
polymerases in bacteria and human cells.
In bacteria such as E. coli, polymerase III is the main
replication enzyme, while polymerase I, II, IV and V
are responsible for error checking and repair.
DNA polymerase III binds to the strand at the site of
the primer and begins adding new base pairs
complementary to the strand during replication.
 Step 3 : Elongation
In eukaryotic cells, polymerases
alpha, delta, and epsilon are the
primary polymerases involved in DNA
replication.
Because replication proceeds in the
5' to 3' direction on the leading
strand, the newly formed strand is
continuous.
 Step 3 : Elongation
The lagging strand begins replication by
binding with multiple primers. Each primer
is only several bases apart.
DNA polymerase then adds pieces of DNA,
called Okazaki fragments, to the strand
between primers.
This process of replication is discontinuous
as the newly created fragments are
disjointed.
 Step 4 : Termination
Once both the continuous and discontinuous strands
are formed, an enzyme called exonuclease removes
all RNA primers from the original strands.
These primers are then replaced with appropriate
bases. Another exonuclease “proofreads” the newly
formed DNA to check, remove and replace any
errors.
Another enzyme called DNA ligase joins Okazaki
fragments together forming a single unified strand.
The ends of the linear DNA present a problem as
DNA polymerase can only add nucleotides in the 5′
to 3′ direction.
 Step 4 : Termination
The ends of the parent strands consist of repeated DNA
sequences called telomeres.
Telomeres act as protective caps at the end of
chromosomes to prevent nearby chromosomes from
fusing.
A special type of DNA polymerase enzyme called
telomerase catalyzes the synthesis of telomere sequences
at the ends of the DNA.
Once completed, the parent strand and its complementary
DNA strand coils into the familiar double helix shape.
In the end, replication produces two DNA molecules, each
with one strand from the parent molecule and one new
strand.
 Summary of DNA Replication
Process
1) DNA unwinds at the origin of replication.
2) New bases are added to the complementary
parental strands. One new strand is made
continuously, while the other strand is made in
pieces.
3) Primers are removed, new DNA nucleotides are
put in place of the primers and the backbone is
sealed by DNA ligase.
The ends of linear
chromosomes are maintained
by the action of the
telomerase enzyme.
Telomerase is typically found
to be active in germ cells,
adult stem cells, and some
cancer cells. Elizabeth
Blackburn was recognized for
her discovery of telomerase
and its action.
02
Errors in
DNA
Replicatio
n
❖ During the process of DNA replication,
errors can sometimes occur.
❖ Nucleotide bases may be inserted,
deleted, or mismatched into the DNA
strand incorrectly.
❖ For this reason, it is important for the
biological system to have mechanisms
in place to detect and repair these
errors.
❖ Cells have a variety of mechanisms to prevent
mutations, or permanent changes in DNA
sequence.
❖ During DNA synthesis, most DNA polymerases
"check their work," fixing the majority of
mis-paired bases in a process called
proofreading.
❖ DNA polymerase prevents errors in DNA
replication by proofreading or. If errors are
found, DNA polymerase will correct them before
continuing with replication.