WASTE MANAGEMENT

(BETCK105F/205F)
MODULE 4: WASTE PROCESSING TECHNIQUES
AND SOURCE REDUCTION, PRODUCT RECOVERY
AND RECYCLING

Mrs Chindu Mohan, Department of Civil Engineering, VVIT

WASTE MANAGEMENT (BETCK105F/205F)

MODULE 4
WASTE PROCESSING TECHNIQUES & SOURCE
REDUCTION, PRODUCT RECOVERY &BRECYCLING

PURPOSE OF PROCESSING
The processing of wastes is very important to transform the waste, so as to recycle and reuse it.
Processing of waste can:
i. Improve the efficiency of SWM system: Various processing techniques are available to
improve the efficiency of SWM system. For example, before waste papers are reused, they are
usually baled to reduce transporting and storage volume requirements. In some cases, wastes
are baled to reduce the haul costs at disposal site, where solid wastes are compacted to use the
available land effectively. If solid wastes are to be transported hydraulically and pneumatically,
some form of shredding is also required. Shredding is also used to improve the efficiency of
the disposal site.
ii. Recovering material for reuse: Materials that can be recovered from solid wastes include
paper, cardboard, plastic, glass, ferrous metal, aluminium and other residual metals.
iii. Recovering conversion products and energy: Combustible organic materials can be
converted to intermediate products and ultimately to usable energy. This can be done either
through incineration, pyrolysis, composting or bio-digestion. Initially, the combustible organic
matter is separated from the other solid waste components. Once separated, further processing
like shredding and drying is necessary before the waste material can be used for power
generation.

WASTE PROCESSING
Solid waste processing is classified into 3 as
1. Mechanical reduction (size and volume reduction, chemical volume reduction)
2. Component separation (air separation, magnetic separation and screening)
3. Drying and Dewatering

1. MECHANICAL REDUCTION
Mechanical reduction is an important factor in the development and operation of any SWM system.
The main purpose is to reduce the volume (amount) and size of waste, as compared to its original
form, and produce waste of uniform size.

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WASTE MANAGEMENT (BETCK105F/205F)

a. Volume reduction or compaction

Volume reduction or compaction refers to densifying wastes in order to reduce their volume. Some of
the benefits of compaction include:
• reduction in the quantity of materials to be handled at the disposal site;
• improved efficiency of collection and disposal of wastes;
• increased life of landfills;
• Economically viable waste management system.
But there are few disadvantages associated with compaction like
• difficulty in segregation or sorting (since the various recyclable materials are mixed and
compressed in lumps);
• Bio-degradable materials (e.g., leftover food, fruits and vegetables) destroy the value of paper
and plastic material.

Equipment used for compaction

The compaction equipment used in volume reduction are called as compactors, they are classified on
the basis of motion and pressure;

a) Classification of Compactors based on motion

(i) Stationary equipment: These are equipments, in which wastes are brought to, and loaded
into, either manually or mechanically. In fact, the compaction mechanism used to compress
waste in a collection vehicle, is a stationary compactor. According to their application,
stationary compactors can be described as light duty (e.g., those used for residential areas),
commercial or light industrial, heavy industrial and transfer station compactors.
(ii) Movable equipment: This represents the wheeled and tracked equipment used to place
and compact solid wastes, as in a sanitary landfill.

b) Classification of Compactors based on pressure

According to their compaction pressure, the compactors used at transfer stations are as follows:
(i) Low-pressure (less than 7kg/cm2) compaction: This includes those used at apartments and
commercial establishments, bailing equipment used for waste papers and cardboards and
stationary compactors used at transfer stations. In low-pressure compaction, wastes are
compacted in large containers.
(ii) High-pressure (more than 7kg/cm2) compaction: Compact systems with a capacity up to
351.5 kg/cm2 come under this category. In such systems, specialized compaction equipment is
used to compress solid wastes into blocks or bales of various sizes. In some cases, pulverized
wastes are extruded after compaction in the form of logs.

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WASTE MANAGEMENT (BETCK105F/205F)

Selection of Compaction Equipment

To ensure effective processing, we need to consider the following factors, while selecting compaction
equipment:
• Characteristics such as size, composition, moisture content, and bulk density of the waste to
be compacted.
• Method of transferring and feeding wastes to the compactor, and handling.
• Potential uses of compacted waste materials.
• Design characteristics such as the size of loading chamber, compaction pressure, compaction
ratio, etc.
• Operational characteristics such as energy requirements, routine and specialized maintenance
requirement, simplicity of operation, reliability, noise output, and air and water pollution
control requirement.
• Site consideration, including space and height, access, noise and related environmental
limitations.

b. Size reduction or shredding

This is required to convert large sized wastes into smaller pieces. Size reduction helps in obtaining the
final product in a reasonably uniform and considerably reduced size in comparison to the original
form. In the overall process of waste treatment and disposal, size reduction is implemented ahead of
• land filling to provide a more homogeneous product. This may require less cover material and
less frequent covering than that without shredding. This can be of economic importance, where
cover material is scarce or needs to be brought to the landfill site from some distance.
• recovering materials from the waste stream for recycling.
• baling the wastes – a process sometimes used ahead of long-distance transport of solid wastes
– to achieve a greater density.
• making the waste a better fuel for incineration waste energy recovery facilities.
• reducing moisture, i.e., drying and dewatering of wastes

Equipments Used for Size Reduction

1. Hammer mill: These are used most often in large commercial operations for reducing the size
of wastes. Hammer mill is an impact device consisting of a number of hammers, fastened
flexibly to an inner disk, which rotates at a very high speed.
Solid wastes, as they enter the mill, are hit by sufficient force, which crush or tear them with a
velocity so that they do not adhere to the hammers. Wastes are further reduced in size by being
struck between breaker plates and/or cutting bars fixed around the periphery of the inner
chamber. This process of cutting and striking action continues, until the required size of
material is achieved and after that it falls out of the bottom of the mill.

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WASTE MANAGEMENT (BETCK105F/205F)

ii. Hydropulper: An alternative method of size reduction involves the use of a hydropulper.

Solid wastes and recycled water are added to the hydropulper. The high-speed cutting blades, mounted
on a rotor in the bottom of the unit, convert pulpable materials into a slurry with a solid content varying
from 2.5 to 3.5%. Metal, tins, cans and other non-pulpable materials are rejected from the side of the
hydropulper tank. The rejected material passes down a chute that is connected to a bucket elevator,
while the solid slurry passes out through the bottom of the pulper tank and is pumped to the next
processing operation.

Factors Affecting Selection of size reduction equipment

The factors that decide the selection of size reduction equipment include the following
• The properties of materials before and after shredding.
• Size requirements for shredded material by component.
• Method of feeding shredders, provision of adequate shredder hood capacity

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• Types of operation (continuous or intermittent).

• Operational characteristics including energy requirements, routine and specialized
maintenance requirement, simplicity of operation, reliability, noise output, and air and water
pollution control requirements.
• Site considerations, including space and height, access, noise and environmental limitations.
• Metal storage after size reduction for the next operation.

c. Chemical volume reduction

Chemical volume reduction is a method, wherein volume reduction occurs through chemical changes
brought within the waste either through an addition of chemicals or changes in temperature.
Incineration is the most common method used to reduce the volume of waste chemically, and is used
both for volume reduction and power production. These other chemical methods used to reduce
volume of waste chemically include pyrolysis, hydrolysis and chemical conversions.

2. COMPONENT SEPARATION
Component separation is a necessary operation in which the waste components are identified and
sorted either manually or mechanically to aid further processing. This is required for the recovery of
valuable materials for recycling, preparation of solid wastes by removing certain components prior to
incineration, energy recovery, composting and biogas production.
The most effective way of separation is manual sorting in households prior to collection. In many
cities (e.g., Bangalore, Chennai, etc., in India), such systems are now routinely used. The municipality
generally provides separate, easily identifiable containers into which the householder deposits
segregated recyclable materials such as paper, glass, metals, etc. Other than manual separation,
components can be separated using other techniques, like Air separation, magnetic separation and
screening.
I. Air separation
This technique has been in use for a number of years in industrial operations for segregating various
components from dry mixture. Air separation is primarily used to separate lighter materials (usually
organic) from heavier (usually inorganic) ones. The lighter material may include plastics, paper and
paper products and other organic materials. There are various types of air classifiers commonly used,
some of which are listed below
i. Conventional chute type: In this type, when the processed solid wastes are dropped into
the vertical chute, the lighter material is carried by the airflow to the top while the heavier
materials fall to the bottom of the chute.

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WASTE MANAGEMENT (BETCK105F/205F)

ii. Zigzag air classifier: It consists of a continuous vertical column with internal zigzag
deflectors through which air is drawn at a high rate:

Shredded wastes are introduced at the top of the column at a controlled rate, and air is introduced at
the bottom of the column. As the wastes drop into the air stream, the lighter fraction is fluidized and
moves upward and out of column, while the heavy fraction falls to the bottom.
iii. Open inlet vibrator type: In this type of air classifier, the separation is accomplished by
a combination of the following actions:

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WASTE MANAGEMENT (BETCK105F/205F)

a) Vibration: This helps to stratify the material fed to the separator into heavy and light
components.
b) Inertial force: In this action, the air pulled in through the feed inlet imparts an initial
acceleration to the lighter particle, while the wastes travel down the separator as they are being
agitated.
c) Air pressure: This action refers to the injection of fluidizing air in two or more high velocity
and low mass flow curtains across the bed.
II. Magnetic separation
The most common method of recovering ferrous scrap from shredded solid wastes involves the use of
magnetic recovery systems. When wastes are mass-fired in incinerators, the magnetic separator is used
to remove the ferrous material from the incinerator residue. Magnetic recovery systems have also been
used at landfill disposal sites.
Various types of equipment are in use for the magnetic separation of ferrous materials includes
i. Suspended magnet: In this type of separator, a permanent magnet is used to attract the ferrous
metal from the waste stream. When the attracted metal reaches the area, where there is no
magnetism, it falls away freely. This ferrous metal is then collected in a container. This type
of separation device is suitable for processing raw refuse, where separators can remove large
pieces of ferrous metal easily from the waste stream.

ii. Magnetic pulley: This consists of a drum type device containing permanent magnets or
electromagnets over which a conveyor or a similar transfer mechanism carries the waste
stream. The conveyor belt conforms to the rounded shape of the magnetic drum and the
magnetic force pulls the ferrous material away from the falling stream of solid waste.

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WASTE MANAGEMENT (BETCK105F/205F)

The following factors affects the selection of magnetic separation equipment:

• Characteristics of waste from which ferrous materials are to be separated
• Equipment used for feeding wastes to separator and removing the separated waste streams.
• Characteristics of the separator system engineering design, including loading rate, magnet
strength, conveyor speed, material of construction, etc.
• Operational characteristics, including energy requirements, routine and specialized
maintenance requirements, simplicity of operation, reliability, noise output, and air and water
pollution control requirements.
• Locations where ferrous materials are to be recovered from solid wastes.
• Site consideration, including space and height, access, noise and environmental limitations.

III. Screening
Screening is the most common form of separating solid wastes, depending on their size by the use of
one or more screening surfaces.
Screening has a number of applications in solid waste resource and energy recovery systems. Screens
can be used before or after shredding and after air separation of wastes in various applications dealing
with both light and heavy fraction materials. The most commonly used screens are rotary drum screens
and various forms of vibrating screens.

3. DRYING AND DEWATERING

Drying and dewatering operations are used primarily for incineration systems, with or without energy
recovery systems. These are also used for drying of sludges in wastewater treatment plants, prior to
their incineration or transport to land disposal. The purpose of drying and dewatering operation is to
remove moisture from wastes and thereby make it a better fuel. Sometimes, the light fraction is
pelletized after drying to make the fuel easier to transport and store, prior to use in an incinerator or
energy recovery facility.

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WASTE MANAGEMENT (BETCK105F/205F)

I. Drying
The following three methods are used to apply the heat required for drying the wastes:
(i) Convection drying: In this method, hot air is in direct contact with the wet solid waste
stream.
(ii) Conduction drying: In this method, the wet solid waste stream is in contact with a heated
surface.
(iii) Radiation drying: In this method, heat is transmitted directly to the wet solid waste stream
by radiation from the heated body.

It consists of a rotary drum dryer which has a rotating cylinder, slightly inclined from the horizontal
through which the material to be dried and the drying gas are passed simultaneously. The drying of
material in a direct rotary dryer occurs in the following stages:
• Heating the wet material and its moisture content to the constant-rate drying temperature.
• Drying the material substantially at this temperature.
• Heating of material to its discharge temperature and evaporation of moisture remaining at the
end of the stage.
II. Dewatering
Dewatering is more applicable to the problem of sludge disposal from wastewater treatment of plants,
but may also be applicable in some cases to municipal/industrial waste problems. When drying beds,
lagoons or spreading on land are not feasible, other mechanical means of dewatering are used. The
emphasis in the dewatering operation is often on reducing the liquid volume. Once dewatered, the
sludge can be mixed with other solid waste, and the resulting mixture can be incinerated to reduce
volume; used for the production of recoverable by-products; used for production of compost; buried
in a landfill etc.
Centrifugation and filtration are the two common methods for the dewatering of sludge. Sludges with
solid content of a few percent can be thickened to about 10 – 15% in centrifugation and about 20 –
30% in pressure filtration or vacuum filtration.

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WASTE MANAGEMENT (BETCK105F/205F)

SOURCE REDUCTION: BASICS

Source reduction mainly refers to the reduction in the amount of waste generated at source as well as
activities that involve any change in the design, manufacture, purchase or usage of materials/products
to reduce their volume and/or toxicity, before they become part of the solid waste stream. Reducing
waste before it is generated is a logical way to save costs and natural resources, and preserve the local
environment. For instance, waste reduction cuts the municipal and commercial costs involved in waste
collection and disposal, and improves the productivity by targeting wasteful processes and products.

Purpose of Source Reduction

(i) Product reuse: Using reusable products, instead of their disposal equivalents, reduce the
amount of materials that are to be managed as wastes. An example of product reuse is the
reusable shopping bag.
(ii) Material volume reduction: Reducing the volume of material used changes the amount of
waste entering the waste stream. This helps in controlling the waste generated and its disposal.
For example, buying in bulk or using large food containers reduces the amount of packaging
waste generated.
(iii) Toxicity reduction: Source reduction reduces the amount of toxic constituents in products
entering the waste stream and reduces the adverse environmental impacts of recycling or other
waste management activities. For example, substitution of lead and cadmium in inks (solvent-
based to water-based) and paints is a source reduction activity.
(iv) Increased product lifetime: Source reduction facilitates the use of products with longer
lifetime over short-lived alternatives that are designed to be discarded at the end of their useful
lives. Manufacturing long-life tyres is a good example of increasing product lifetime.
(v) Decreased consumption: This refers to the reduced consumption of materials that are not
reusable (e.g., using a reusable shopping bag instead of picking up plastic bags from the store).
1. Implementation
There are several specific actions that can take place at the local level to encourage source reduction,
some of which are given below:
(i) Education and research: Consumers, businesses, industries, schools, etc., can implement
education and research activities to address the need for source reduction, its consequences,
available choices, benefits and costs.
(ii) Financial incentives and disincentives: Linking an economic benefit to the
implementation of source reduction activities encourages source reduction. For example,
financial disincentives represent additional costs to the waste producing activities that
could be avoided through source reduction activities.
(iii) Regulation: Although most regulation occurs at the national and state level, local
authorities can participate in legislative activities in developing regulations that affect
municipal SWM.

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WASTE MANAGEMENT (BETCK105F/205F)

2. Monitoring
Monitoring helps in evaluating source reduction, the identification of possible source reduction
measures and programme revisions and the obtaining of funds and resources for source reduction
initiatives/programmes.
3. Life cycle analysis
An environmental economic analysis will help us understand the trade-offs between source reduction,
durability, recyclability, use of recycled material and other environmental benefits. Life cycle
assessment or ‘cradle to grave’ analysis involves the evaluation of some aspects, particularly most
often the environmental aspect, of a product through all stages of its life cycle.
4. Evaluation
Before adopting source reduction policies, it is important that we develop a framework for evaluating
various options. Some of the criteria to be considered in this regard are:
• Social and economic equity.
• Economic and administrative feasibility, efficiency and cost.
• Volume requirement and scarcity of materials and natural resources in product manufacture.
• Volume of product and its by-products that must be eventually disposed.
• Useful life, reusability and/or recyclability of a product.
• Priority of source reduction of more hazardous products to less hazardous ones

SIGNIFICANCE OF RECYCLING
Recycling is one of the fundamental parts of the waste management plan. Recycling has a lot of direct
and indirect significance for the society, and this can be grouped under the following three broad areas
1. Economic significance:
• Cost reduction: It leads to reducing the waste disposal cost. It can save cost from fuel for
transportation, operation and maintenance, and generate revenue by sale of recyclables, etc.
• Employment: Recycling of waste is a labour-intensive activity, and its potential to ease
the unemployment problem is high. Enhanced recycling activities, for example, can create
an additional job market for skilled and unskilled workforce, and they can adapt to any of
the occupations such as a labourer in recycling business or industry or a dealership.
• Energy saving: Use of recyclables in some industrial processes is known to consume less
energy than the use of any other raw material. The reduction in energy consumption in one
industry could mean its availability for some other industry in need.
• Reduced health care costs: Improved health and sanitary conditions in urban areas
resulting from indirect benefits of waste recycling can reduce the investment in public
health programme.
• Saving costs for other public utilities: Enhanced solid waste recycling practices can
reduce the frequency of sewer clogging, blocking of natural watercourses and pollution of
water bodies.

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2. Environmental and health significance:

The volume of waste is increasing rapidly because of population growth and economic development.
At the same time, polluted waste fractions are increasing because of increasing complex processes
being used in industries, and these contribute increasingly to environmental degradation.
• Improved environment: Recycling reduces the volume of waste that has to be finally dumped,
and thereby causing reduction in pollution at the waste disposal sites.
• Natural resource conservation: Use of more and more recyclable solid wastes in industrial
production will relieve the tremendous pressure on these precious resources. For example,
recycling of waste paper means a lower demand for wood, which means less cutting of trees
and an enhanced possibility for sustainable use of the forest.
3. Social significance:
People engaged in waste collection activities are normally of low social and economic standing.
Different groups of people engaged in waste recycling have a hierarchical social and economic status,
in which, processors are at the top of the hierarchy followed by waste dealers and wholesalers, waste
buyers and waste collectors in that very order, while scavengers are at the bottom. In addition, the
improved recycling activity will increase the economic value of the waste and will reduce waste
scavenging activity providing opportunity for scavengers to switch to a more socially acceptable
occupation.

PLANNING OF A RECYCLING PROGRAMME

Numerous recycling options are available, and recycling programme development requires strategic
planning. The factors involved in the planning process include the following
(i) Build local expertise: Small projects help build local expertise in recycling and minimize
the problems associated with poor planning.
(ii) Understand and develop a recycling market: While planning for a recycling programme,
it is important to find an outlet for the recyclable material. Market analysis is both a
planning and ongoing activity, as even the most successful recycling programme can be
severely affected by market fluctuations.
(iii) Foster public education and involvement: Public participation is one of the most
important factors deciding a programme’s success. The public has a right and a
responsibility to understand the full costs and liabilities of managing the waste they
produce.
(iv) Assess local waste stream: Planning any recycling programme requires the knowledge of
the local waste stream
(v) Augment existing programme: Recycling should augment the success that has been
attained by other groups operating recycling programmes.
(vi) Set goals and objectives: Part of the planning process involves setting goals and
objectives.

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WASTE MANAGEMENT (BETCK105F/205F)

(vii) Coordinate the programme: Like any other public service, recycling programmes should
be consistent, predictable, equitable and efficient.
(viii) Evaluate the programme: New programmes and technologies are evolving continuously,
which make the planning for recycling an ongoing process. This requires experiment and
evaluation.

RECYCLING PROGRAMME ELEMENTS

Recycling programmes are designed according to the needs and priorities of the communities.
Elements of a recycling programme include source separation, curbside collection, material resource
facilities and full stream processing. The major elements of recycling programme are,
i. Source separation
Source separation refers to the segregation of the recyclable and reusable materials at the point of
generation.
ii. Drop-off/buy-back:
A drop-off programme requires residents to separate the recyclable materials and bring them to a
specified drop-off or collection centre. However, we must take into account local conditions when
designing a collection programme. Buy-back refers to a drop-off programme that provides
monetary incentives to participate. In this type of programme, the residents are paid back for their
recyclable material directly or indirectly through the reduction in collection and disposal fees.
iii. Curbside programme:
In a curbside system, source separated recyclables are collected separately from regular refuse
from the curbside, alley, or commercial facility. Some programmes require residents to separate
different materials that are stored in their own containers and collected separately.
iv. Storage and collection of recyclables:
Collection of source-separated materials is a necessary component of recycling programme.
Establishing a collection system for source-separated materials will require more careful planning
than regular trash collection. These are the principles of storage and collection
• Resident convenience: The easier it is for residents to separate materials, the higher the
participation and recovery rates will be.
• Collection crew convenience: The system should be convenient for collection crews. For
example, loading and sorting activities should be as simple as possible
• Cost effectiveness: Equipment and procedures must be designed to maximize collection
crew and vehicle productivity.
• Integrity of materials: The storage and collection system should keep recyclables in the
best shape possible. It should be properly handled, dry and contaminant free.

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COMMONLY RECYCLED MATERIALS AND PROCESSES

1. Paper and cardboard
• Paper and cardboard form the second biggest component of domestic waste after organic
waste, and contribute to about 13% of the total domestic solid waste.
• Paper recycling is one of the most profitable activities and is practiced extensively.
• It reduces the demand for wood and energy and helps solve littering problem in the city
and around dumping site.
• The paper industry is making a significant investment in manufacturing capacity for
making paper and paper products with recycled content.
• Recovered paper is classified as newsprint, corrugated cardboard, mixed paper (including
magazines, junk mail and cardboard), high-grade paper (white office paper, photocopying
paper), and pulp substitute paper (usually mill scrap).
• Paper mills, the most common end users of recovered paper, use the material as a feedstock
to manufacture recycled paper and paper products. Shredded paper is used to make animal
bedding, hydro mulch, molded pulp products and cellulose insulation.
A typical input-output model of the paper processing technique consists of the following:
Material inputs: Paper/cardboard scrap, magazines, newspapers, computer paper, wrapping paper,
craft sacks, cartons, etc.
Product outputs: Paper sheets, boxes, filter paper, mosquito mats (to absorb chemical repellent),
merchandising packets, decorative items, etc.
The technology in the recycling of paper and cardboard involves the following processes:
Cardboard processing (semi-mechanical) plant: In semi-mechanical plants, paper scrap is pulped
in a beater machine. The paper pulp is spread on a rotating sieve and pressed mechanically. Cutting is
done manually and after cutting and sun-drying, the cardboard is calendered and sheared into sheets,
from which boxes for shoes, sweets, etc., are made:
The various machineries used in the processes include:
• Beater: This consists of a masonry and concrete tank and a mild steel beater roll, driven by an
electric motor.
• Sieving screen: These separates materials of different size.
• Cardboard making unit: This is a nylon conveyor screen driven by an electric motor.
• Calendering machine: This is used to finish the surface of paper and is electrically operated.

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Hand-made paper: In hand-operated units, pulping and beating of paper is done manually in an open
masonry or concrete tank. The material is sieved in a second tank and diluted with water to a specific
consistency. A wooden framed screen is dipped in the tank in order to form an even layer of the wet
pulp to a desired thickness .
The layer is skillfully removed and transferred from the mat and the sheets are sun dried on smooth
walls or on other smooth surfaces. The dried sheets are then pressed and cut into required sizes. The
Calendering is performed in an electrically operated machine.

ii. Glass
• Glass is one of the most commonly recycled materials, and the market for post-consumer glass
has historically been steady.
• Glass generally accounts for 2.5% by weight of the total solid waste generated. Though it does
not contribute to the environmental problem, glass does cause a serious problem of littering.
• Recycling of broken glass reduces the risk of diseases caused by cuts and wounds.
• Glass recycling is a labour-intensive process and provides employment opportunity.
• The waste glass cullet is sorted according to color and melted in an oven at 14000 C.
• To improve the un-breakability of the glass product, chemicals such as soda ash, potassium
carbonate, borax, lime, etc., are added to the cullet before melting.
• When the metal has completely melted, the temperature is raised to refine the glass. After
refining, the temperature is lowered to carry out the moulding operation.
• After the glass takes the shape of the mould and hardens, unwanted portions are cut and
removed, and sharp edges are smoothened in a machine.
• The product is then annealed by cooling and heating for three to four hours at 600 – 9000 C to
reduce the brittleness of the glass. After quality inspection, defective glass products are
returned to the recycling process.

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WASTE MANAGEMENT (BETCK105F/205F)

The following machinery is used in the process:

i. Furnace: It is used to melt the glass cullet. The glass cullet is melted at 14000 C (locally
fabricated) and the product obtained is annealed at 6000C (locally fabricated).
ii. Semi-mechanical die: It is used to cast the die. It uses both mechanically and manually
operated moulds.
iii. Air compressor: It is used for blowing molten glass into dyes.
iv. Printing machine: It is used for printing trademark

iii. Metals
• Ferrous metals like iron, steel, etc., and non-ferrous metals like aluminium, copper, zinc, lead,
silver, etc., are some of the metals, which exist in the waste stream.
• On an average, metals account for 2% of total solid waste generated.
• Extraction of metals from natural ores depletes the mineral resources.
• Metals when dumped at landfill sites produce hazardous leachate with heavy metals in solution.
• Using recycled metals substantially reduces operating costs of industries.
• Metal scrap is cheap and the energy consumption is lower when products are manufactured from
scrap.
• The long-standing track record makes ferrous and non-ferrous metal market among the most
stable of all recyclable materials.
• Ferrous and non-ferrous metals can be bought and sold through processors and vendors.
• Ferrous scrap includes household appliances, equipments, cans, and other iron and steel
products.
• Non-ferrous scrap metals include aluminium, copper, lead, tin, etc.
• Both ferrous and non-ferrous metals can be prepared for sale through some combination of
processing by flattening, baling, and shredding of the material.

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WASTE MANAGEMENT (BETCK105F/205F)

The typical material inputs and product outputs in this industry are the following:
(i) Material inputs: Aluminium, brass, copper, zinc, tin, iron, steel, etc.
(ii) Product outputs: Sanitary and gas fittings, funnels, buckets and storage bins,
reinforced steel bars, hand tools, etc.

iv. Plastic
• These days, plastic is posing serious littering problem in cities and around collection points
and dumping sites.
• With an average 8% by weight of the total amount of domestic waste, plastic is one of the
major constituents in waste stream.
• Un-recycled plastic, when burned, contributes to greenhouse gases.
• The direct benefits of recycling plastic waste are reduction in the cost of raw material and
energy saving.
• Plastic recycling also helps in employment generation along with reduction of volume
transport and space requirements for dumping.
• Most plastics are densified locally by flattening, baling, or granulating, and sold either to
converters, where the resins are turned into pellets, or directly to domestic or export end users
for remanufacture into products such as bottles, carpet and carpet backing, flower pots, and
insulation material.
• Post consumer plastic-resin recycling technology has developed more rapidly than
technologies for any other recovered material in the last half century.
The input materials, the output products involved in the recycling of plastics are given below:
(i) Material input: Plastic scrap (thermoplastic and thermosetting).
(ii) Product output: Toys, boxes, slippers, shoes, pellets, buckets, cans, etc.

Plastic processing
• In plastic processing, the primary steps are sorting by color and quality, and cutting and
crushing the sorted material.
• The crushed product (granules) of plastic is melted, color dyed and manually moulded into a
cheaper product.
• The poly vinyl chloride plastic is blended with a specific colour dye in a mixing machine. The
coloured material passes through an extruder machine to produce thick plastic strands.
• The strands are manually cut into lumps and these are used for manufacturing items either
manually or mechanically

18 Mrs. Chindu Mohan, Department of Civil Engg.

WASTE MANAGEMENT (BETCK105F/205F)

v. Batteries and tyres

• Battery recycling is not only a response to market condition (i.e., price of lead) but also is
important due to concern over the toxic compound including lead, cadmium and mercury
present in many batteries.
• Like other materials, battery recycling depends largely on market conditions and requires
consistent collection and processing.
• Household batteries come in a variety of types including alkaline, carbon, zinc, silver, nickel,
cadmium, etc.
• Only those containing mercury and silver are marketed to end users, who extract metals.
• Automobiles use lead acid battery, which contains lead and sulphuric acid, both hazardous
materials.
• Battery reprocessing includes breaking open the batteries, neutralising the acid, chipping the
container for recycling and smelting the lead to produce recyclable lead.
• Tyres represent a special challenge to solid waste and recycling programme managers. The use
of chipped or shredded tyres as a source for fuel is growing. Electricity-generating facilities,
pulp and paper mills and cement kilns are the most common processes using scrap tyres.

CASE STUDY: SOURCE REDUCTION AND RECYCLING IN BANGALORE

• Source reduction, including reuse and recycling, can help reduce waste disposal and handling
costs, because it avoids the costs of municipal composting, landfilling and combustion.
• In Bangalore, 66% of the waste generated is collected for recovery, i.e., about 2,373 tonnes per
day.
• While 722 tonnes per day is reused, the rest (i.e., 1,450 tonnes) goes for recycling.
• The agents involved in the collection and recovery of wastes in the city include waste pickers,
IWB (i.e., itinerant waste buyer), middlemen (or intermediaries), the municipality and
recycling units (both large and small).

19 Mrs. Chindu Mohan, Department of Civil Engg.

WASTE MANAGEMENT (BETCK105F/205F)

• While the three agents in the informal sector and the municipality are directly involved in waste
collection activities, the waste is processed by the recycling units, which receive recyclable
waste from middlemen and municipality.
• Of the 1450 tonnes collected for recycling, 1077.8 tonnes come from intermediaries, 60.4 come
from IWB and 312 tonnes come from waste pickers. This amounts to 40% of the total waste
(i.e., 3613 tonnes per day) generated.

Important Questions (repeatedly asked in VTU exams)

1. Explain the purpose of waste processing.

2. Discuss the mechanical volume and size reduction of waste.
OR
Explain volume reduction or compaction of solid waste and its types.
3. What is the need of screening in waste separation?
4. Explain the different component separation techniques.
Or
Enumerate any 3 methods of component separation technique.
5. Explain the recycling programme elements.
Or
Discuss the economic significance of recycling
6. With the help of a case study from an Indian city, explain source reduction and
recycling.
7. Explain the method of recycling of common recyclable materials.
Or
Briefly explain the recycling process of plastics, paper and metals.
Or
Explain in detail commonly recycled materials and process.
8. Apply the concept of SWM for monitoring and evaluation of source reduction.
Or
Elaborate the basics and purpose of source reduction
Or
What is source reduction? How do we monitor waste reduction?
9. Elaborate the types of equipment used for magnetic separation with a note on factors
in selecting the equipment
10. Discuss the purpose and method of drying and dewatering operation.
Or
Discuss drying and dewatering in waste processing

20 Mrs. Chindu Mohan, Department of Civil Engg.