COMPUTER NETWORKS

BCS502
Textbook:
1. Behrouz A. Forouzan, Data Communications and Networking, 5th Edition, Tata McGraw-
Hill,2013.
 COURSE OUTCOMES
❖ CO1:Explain the fundamentals of computer networks.
❖ CO2:Apply the concepts of computer networks to demonstrate the working of
various layers and protocols in communication network.
❖ CO3:Analyze the principles of protocol layering in modern communication
systems.
❖ CO4:Demonstrate various Routing protocols and their services using tools
such as Cisco packet tracer.
 MODULE-1
INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICAL LAYER
 1-1 DATA COMMUNICATIONS

• The word data refers to information presented in whatever form is agreed

upon by the parties creating and using the data.

• Data communications are the exchange of data between two devices via
some form of transmission medium such as a wire cable.
Data communications system depends on four fundamental characteristics

1. Delivery
2. Accuracy
3. Timeliness
4. Jitter

Delivery. The system must deliver data to the correct destination. Data must be
received by the intended device or user and only by that device or user.

Accuracy. The system must deliver the data accurately. Data that have been altered in
transmission and left uncorrected are unusable.

Timeliness. The system must deliver data in a timely manner.

Jitter. Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time.

Components
Data communications system has five components

Figure 1.1 Components of a data communication system

Components
1. Message: The message is the information (data) to be
communicated.

2. Sender: The sender is the device that sends the data message.

3. Receiver: The receiver is the device that receives the message.

4. Transmission medium: The transmission medium is the

physical path by which a message travels from sender to
receiver.

5. Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules that govern data

communications.
Data Representation(Forms of data)

Text

Numbers

Images

Audio

Video
Data Representation(Forms of data)
Text:
• represented a sequence of bits (0’s or 1’s).
• Different set of bit patterns are designed to represent text
symbols. Each set is called a code.
• process of representing symbols is coding.
• Unicode
• prevalent coding system today.
• uses 32 bits to represent a symbol or character used in any
language
• ASCII
Data Representation(Forms of data)
Numbers:
• represented by bit patterns.
• the number is directly converted to a binary number.

Images:
• represented by bit patterns.
• an image is composed of a matrix of pixels (picture elements)
• pixel is a small dot , the size of the pixel depends on the
resolution.
• methods to represent color images.
Data Representation(Forms of data)
Audio:
• Audio refers to the recording or broadcasting of sound or
music.
• It is continuous, not discrete.

Video:
• refers to the recording or broadcasting of a picture or movie.
• Video can either be produced as a continuous entity or it can
be a combination of images
• each a discrete entity, arranged to convey the idea of
motion.
Data Flow

Figure 1.2 Data flow (simplex, half-duplex, and full-duplex)

Data Flow
1. Simplex:
• Here communication is unidirectional.
• Only one of the two devices on a link can transmit; the other
can only receive.
• Ex: Keyboards and traditional monitors
• The simplex mode can use the entire capacity of the channel
to send data in one direction.
2. Half-duplex:
• Each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same
time.
• When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and
vice versa.
• Ex :one-lane road with traffic allowed in both directions.
• the entire capacity of a channel is taken over by whichever of
the two devices is transmitting at the time.
• where there is no need for communication in both directions at
the same time.
3. Full-duplex:
• Here both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously.
• Ex: Two-way street with traffic flowing in both directions
at the same time.
• The signals going in one direction share the capacity of the
link with signals going in the other directions.

• sharing can occur in two ways:

• Either the link must contain two physically separate
transmission paths, one for sending and the other for
receiving.
• the capacity of the channel is divided between signals
traveling in both directions.
1-2 NETWORKS

• Network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes) connected

by communication links.

• A node can be a computer, printer, or any other device capable of

sending and/or receiving data generated by other nodes on the
network.

• A link can be a cable, air, optical fiber, or any medium which can
transport a signal carrying information.
Network Criteria

Network must meet a certain number of criteria

The most important of the network criterions are:

1. Performance

2. Reliability

3. Security
• Performance can be measured using transit time and response time.

• Transit time: amount of time required for a message to travel from one device to
another.
• Response time: elapsed time between an inquiry and a response.

• Other performance of factors

• Number of users
• Type of transmission medium
• Capabilities of the connected hardware
• Efficiency of the software
• Performance is often evaluated by two networking metrics:
throughput and delay.

• Throughput (high): a measure of how fast we can actually

send data through a network

• Delay (low)
Reliability
• Reliability is measured by:
• Frequency of failure

• Recovery time of a network after a failure

• Network’s robustness in a catastrophe.

Security

• Protecting data from unauthorized access

• Protecting data from damage and development
• Recovery plan
Physical Structures
• network attributes
• Type of connection
• Physical topology
1. Type of connection
• Network: Two or more devices connected through links
• Link: Communication pathway that transfers data from
one device two another.
• Two devices must be connected in some way to the same
link at the same time.
• Two possible types:
1. Point-to-Point
2. Multipoint
Figure 1.3 Types of connections: point-to-point and multipoint
Physical topology
• The way a network is laid out physically
• Two or more links form a topology
• The topology of a network is the geometric representation of
the relationship of all the links and linking devices (nodes) to
one another.

Figure 1.4 Categories of topology

Mesh
• Every link is dedicated point-to-point link
• The term dedicated means that the link carries traffic only between
the two devices it connects

Figure 1.5 A fully connected mesh topology (five devices)

• To link n devices fully connected mesh has:
• n ( n - 1) / 2 physical channels (Full-Duplex)

• Every Device on the network must have (n – 1) ports.

Advantages
• Each connection carry its own data load (no traffic problems)
• A mesh topology is robust
• Privacy or security
• Fault identification and fault isolation
Disadvantages
• Big amount of cabling
• Big number of I/O ports
• Installation and reconnection are difficult
• Sheer bulk of the wiring can be greater than the available space
• Hardware connect to each I/O could be expensive

• Mesh topology is implemented in a limited fashion;

• e.g., as backbone of hybrid network
• connection of telephone regional offices in which each regional
office needs to be connected to every other regional office.
Star topology
• Dedicated point-to-point to a central controller (Hub)
• No direct traffic between devices
• The control acts as an exchange

Figure 1.6 A star topology connecting four stations

Advantages
• Less expensive than mesh
(1 Link + 1 port per device)
• Easy to install and reconfigure
• Less cabling
• Additions, moves, and deletions required one connection
• Robustness : one fail does not affect others
• Easy fault identification and fault isolation

• Disadvantages
• Dependency of the whole topology on one single point (hub)
• More cabling than other topologies ( ring or bus)

• Used in LAN
Bus topology
• It is multipoint
• One long cable acts as a backbone
• Used in the design of early LANS, and Ethernet LANs
• Nodes connect to cable by drop lines and taps
• Signal travels along the backbone and some of its energy is
transformed to heat
• Limit of number of taps and the distance between taps

Figure 1.7 A bus topology connecting three stations

Advantages
• Ease of installation
• Less cables than mesh, star topologies

Disadvantages
• Difficult reconnection and fault isolation ( limit of taps)
• Adding new device requires modification of backbone
• Fault or break stops all transmission
• The damaged area reflects signals back in the direction of the
origin, creating noise in both directions
Ring topology
• Each device has dedicated point-to-point connection with only
the two devices on either side of it.
• A signal is passed along the ring in one direction from device to
device until it reaches its destination
• Each devices incorporates a Repeater

Figure 1.8 A ring topology connecting six stations

Advantages
• Easy of install and reconfigure
• Move two connections for any moving (Add/Delete)
• Easy of fault isolation

Disadvantages
• Unidirectional
• One broken device can disable the entire network.
• This weakness can be solved by using a dual ring
Figure 1.9 A hybrid topology: a star backbone with three bus networks
1.3 Networks types

• Local Area Networks (LANs)

• Short distances
• Designed to provide local interconnectivity
• Wide Area Networks (WANs)
• Long distances
• Provide connectivity over large areas
• Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs)
• Provide connectivity over areas such as a city, a campus
Local Area Networks (LANs)
• Privately owned
• Links devices in the same office, building, or campus
• Simple LAN: 2 PCs & 1 printer in home or office
• Size is limited to a few kilometers
• Each host in a LAN has an identifier, an address, that uniquely
defines the host in the LAN.
• A packet sent by a host to another host carries both the source
host’s and the destination host’s addresses.
• Topology (bus, ring, star)
• Data Rates (speed):
• Early: 4 to 16 Mbps
• Today: 100 to 1000 Mbps
Figure 1.10 An isolated LAN connecting 12 computers to a hub in a closet
Wide Area Networks (WANs)
• Provides long-distance transmission of data over large
geographic areas (country, continent, world)
• WAN interconnects connecting devices such as
switches, routers or modems.
• It is normally created and run by communication
companies and leased by an organization that uses it.

• WANS
1. Switched WAN
Backbone of the Internet
2. point-to-point WAN
Leased line from a telephone company
Figure 1.11 WANs: a switched WAN and a point-to-point WAN
Internetwork
◼ When two or more networks are connected, they make
an internetwork, or internet.

Figure 1.11 An internetwork made of two LANs and one point-to-point WAN
Figure 1.12 A heterogeneous network made of four WANs and two LANs
Switching
• Internet is a switched network in which a switch connects at
least two links together.
• A switch needs to forward data from a network to another
network when required.

• Types of switched networks

1. Circuit switched networks

2. Packet switched networks
Switching
Circuit switched networks
• A dedicated connection, called a circuit, is always available
between the two end systems.
• The switch can only make it active or inactive.
Switching
Circuit switched networks
Advantage:
• A circuit-switched network is efficient only when it is
working at its full capacity.

Disadvantage:
• Most of the time, the network is inefficient because it is
working at partial capacity.
Switching
Packet Switched Network
• the communication between the 2 ends is done in blocks of data
called packets.
• The switch is used for both storing and forwarding because a
packet is an independent entity that can be stored and sent later.
Switching
Packet switched networks
Advantage:
• A packet-switched network is more efficient than a circuit
switched network.

Disadvantage:
• The packets may encounter some delays.
The Internet
• internet is two or more networks that can communicate
with each other.
• Internet is composed of thousands of interconnected
networks.

• Internet is made up of
1) Backbones
2) Provider networks
3) Customer networks

ISP: Internet Service Provider

International ISPs→ Backbones
National/Regional ISPs → Provider Networks
The Internet
Accessing the Internet
1. Using Telephone Networks
1. Dial-up service
2. DSL Service

2. Using Cable Networks

3. Using Wireless Networks
4. Direct Connection to the Internet
1. Using Telephone Networks
• Most residences have telephone service, which means they are
connected to a telephone network.
• Thus, residences can connect to the Internet using a point-to-point
WAN.
• This can be done in two ways:

1. Dial-up service
• A modem can be added to the telephone line.
• A modem converts data to voice.
• The software installed on the computer
• dials the ISP
• imitates making a telephone connection.
Disadvantages:
• The dial-up service is very slow.
• When line is used for Internet connection, it cannot be used for
voice connection.
• It is only useful for small residences.

2. DSL Service
• allows the line to be used simultaneously for voice & data
communication.
• Some telephone companies have upgraded their telephone
lines to provide higher speed Internet services to
residences.
2. Using Cable Networks
• A residence can be connected to the Internet by using cable
service.
• Cable service provides a higher speed connection.

3. Using Wireless Networks

• A residence can be connected to the Internet through a wireless
WAN.
4) Direct Connection to the Internet
• A large organization can itself become a local ISP and be
connected to the Internet.
• The organization
• leases a high-speed WAN from a carrier provider and
• connects itself to a regional ISP.
 CHAPTER 2
NETWORK MODELS
 2-1 PROTOCOL LAYERING

Protocol : defines the rules that both the sender and receiver and
all intermediate devices need to follow to be able to communicate
effectively.

How many protocols Required?

1) simple communication
may need only one simple protocol.
2) complex communication
we may need to divide the task b/w different layers, where
each layer requires a protocol

What is Protocol Layering?

First Scenario
Second Scenario
Protocol Layering
• Protocol layering
• enables us to divide a complex task into several smaller and
simpler tasks.
• Modularity

• Advantages:
1. It allows us to separate the services from the implementation.
2. There are intermediate systems that need only some layers, but not
all.
• Disadvantage:
1. Having a single layer makes the job easier. There is no need for each
layer to provide a service to the upper layer and give service to the
lower layer.
Principles Protocol Layering

1)First Principle
• If we want bidirectional communication, we need to make each
layer able to perform 2 opposite tasks, one in each direction.

2)Second Principle
• The two objects under each layer at both sites should be
identical.
Logical Connections

• layer-to-layer communication.

• There is a logical connection at each layer through which 2 end

systems can send the object created from that layer.

Figure 2.3 Logical connection between peer layers

2-2 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

• TCP/IP is a protocol-suite used in the Internet today.

• Protocol-suite refers a set of protocols organized in

different layers.

• It is a hierarchical protocol made up of interactive

modules, each of which provides a specific functionality.

• The term hierarchical means that each upper level

protocol is supported by the services provided by one or
more lower level protocols.
Layered Architecture
Layered Architecture

Figure2.5 Communication through an internet

Layers in the TCP/IP Protocol Suite
Layers in the TCP/IP Protocol Suite

Figure 2.7 Identical objects in the TCP/IP protocol suite

 1.Physical Layer

• The physical layer is responsible for movements of individual

bits in a frame across the link.
• Communication between two devices at physical layer is
logical.
• Two devices are connected by a transmission medium (cable
or air).
• The physical layer
• receives bits from the data-link layer & sends through the
transmission media.
2. Data Link Layer
• an internet is made up of several links (LANs and WANs)
connected by routers.
• There may be several overlapping sets of links that a datagram
can travel from the host to the destination.
• The routers are responsible for choosing the best links.
• DLL is responsible for moving frames from one node to another
node over a link.
• The link can be wired LAN/WAN or wireless LAN/WAN.
• The data-link layer takes a datagram and encapsulates it in a
packet called a frame.
• Some LL layer protocols provide complete error detection and
correction.
3. Network Layer
• The network layer is responsible for creating a connection
between the source computer and the destination computer.
• The communication at the network layer is host-to-host.
• The routers in the path are responsible for choosing the best
route for each packet.
• The network layer in the Internet includes the main protocol,
Internet Protocol(IP)
• the format of the packet, called a datagram
• responsible for routing a packet from its source to its
destination
• IP is a connectionless protocol that provides no flow
control, no error control, and no congestion control
services.
3. Network Layer
• A routing protocol creates forwarding tables for routers
to help them in the routing process.

• ICMP:-Internet Control Message Protocol

• helps IP to report some problems when routing a packet.

• IGMP:-Internet Group Management Protocol

• helps IP in multitasking.

• DHCP:-Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol

• helps IP to get the network-layer address for a host.

• ARP:-Address Resolution Protocol

• helps IP to find the link-layer address of a host or a router
4. Transport Layer
• The logical connection at the transport layer is also end-to-end.
• It gets the message from the application layer
• encapsulates it in a transport layer packet (segment or a
user datagram) and sends it, through the logical connection,
to the transport layer at the destination host.
• the transport layer is responsible for giving services to the
application layer

• TCP/IP model defines 3 protocols:

1. TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)
2. UDP (User Datagram Protocol) &
3. SCTP (Stream Control Transmission Protocol)
4. Transport Layer
1. TCP
• is a reliable connection-oriented protocol.

• A connection is established b/w the sender and receiver

before the data can be transmitted.

• TCP provides
• flow control
• error control and
• congestion control
4. Transport Layer
2. UDP:
• is an unreliable, connectionless protocol.
• It does not provide flow, error, or congestion control.
• Each datagram is transported separately & independently.
• It is suitable for application program that
• needs to send short messages
• cannot afford the retransmission

3. SCTP:
• support for newer applications such as voice over the Internet.
• It combines the best features of UDP and TCP.
5. Application Layer
• logical connection between the two application layers is
end to end.
• The two application layers exchange messages between
each other
• Communication at the application layer is between two
processes.
• To communicate, a process sends a request to the other
process and receives a response.
• Process-to-process communication is the duty of the
application layer.
5. Application Layer
• HTTP:Hypertext Transfer Protocol
• vehicle for accessing the World Wide Web.

• SMTP : Simple Mail Transfer Protocol

• main protocol used in electronic mail (e-mail)
service.

• FTP:File Transfer Protocol

• transferring files from one host to another.

• TELNET & SSH :Terminal Network & Secure Shell

• are used for accessing a site remotely.
5. Application Layer
• SNMP: Simple Network Management Protocol
• an administrator to manage the Internet at global &
local levels.

• DNS:Domain Name System

• is used by other protocols to find the network-layer
address of a computer.

• IGMP:The Internet Group Management Protocol

• used to collect membership in a group.
Addressing
Encapsulation and Decapsulation

Encapsulation and Decapsulation

• One of the important concepts in protocol layering in the

Internet is encapsulation/decapsulation.

Figure 2.8 Encapsulation/Decapsulation

Multiplexing and Demultiplexing
• TCP/IP protocol suite uses several protocols at some
layers
• multiplexing at the source and demultiplexing at the
destination.
• Multiplexing:means that a protocol at a layer can
encapsulate a packet from several next-higher layer
protocols (one at a time)
• Demultiplexing: means that a protocol can decapsulate
and deliver a packet to several next-higher layer
protocols (one at a time).
2.3 THE OSI MODEL
• OSI model was developed by ISO.
• ISO is the organization, OSI is the model.
• Purpose: OSI was developed to allow systems
with diff. platforms to communicate with each
other.
• Platform means hardware, software or operating
system.
• OSI is a network-model that defines the protocols
for network communications
THE OSI MODEL
OSI vs. TCP/IP
OSI vs. TCP/IP
• The four bottommost layers in the OSI model & the TCP/IP model
are same
• the Application-layer of TCP/IP model corresponds to the Session,
Presentation & Application Layer of OSI model.

• Two reasons for this are:

• TCP/IP has more than one transport-layer protocol.
• Many applications can be developed at Application layer
Lack of OSI Model’s Success

1. OSI was completed when TCP/IP was fully in

place and a lot of time and money had been
spent on the suite ,changing it would cost a lot.

2. Some layers in the OSI model were never fully

defined.

3. When OSI was implemented by an organization

in a different application, it did not show a high
enough level of performance