UNIT 1: BIOMOLECULES, REPRODUCTION AND

DEVELOPMENT

MODULE 2: GENETICS, VARIATION AND

NATURAL SELECTION
These notes were compiled using various resources.
Syllabus Specific Objectives
1. Structure and Role Of Nucleic Acids-

1.1 illustrate the structure of RNA and DNA using simple labelled diagrams; Draw a nucleotide using shapes;
recognise (not draw) the structural formulae of nucleotides, ribose, deoxyribose, pyrimidines, purines; nature of
hydrogen bonds.

1.2 explain the importance of hydrogen bonds and base pairing in DNA replication; Recognise (include) the
significance of 5’ and 3’; semiconservative replication; genetic code; initiation, transcription, translation, termination.

1.3 explain the relationship between the sequence of nucleotides and the amino acid sequence in a
polypeptide;

1.4 describe the roles of DNA and RNA in protein synthesis; Different types of RNA and their respective roles.

1.5 explain the relationship between the structure of DNA, protein structure and the phenotype of an organism;

1.6 describe the relationship between DNA chromatin and chromosomes.

What do we know about DNA?
● DNA is the chemical basis of heredity.
● Bank of genetic information.
● Cellular function is under the control of DNA.
● DNA directs the synthesis of RNA, which in turns directs protein synthesis.

DNA as the genetic material of all living organisms.

● State the two primary functions of nucleic acids.
● State the two types of nucleic acids used in cells.
● Outline the implication of DNA being the genetic material of all living organisms.
Remember, there are four (4) major types of biological
molecules:

● Carbohydrates (C-H-O)
● Lipids (C-H-o-(p))
● Proteins (C-H-O-N-(s))
● Nucleic Acids (C-H-O-N-P)
Organic molecules are the molecules which exist in all living things.
•They are life’s building blocks.
•All things are formed from these organic molecules.
•They consist mainly of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms.

These molecules are large in chemical structure and are sometimes

referred to as Macromolecules or Biomolecules:

- the fundamental building blocks of living organisms as they support

the biological (metabolic) processes essential for life.
Defining Polymers and Monomers
•Macromolecules are polymers.
• Polymers are made up of many molecules (monomers) all strung together
to form long chains and more complicated structures.
•A monomer is the basic unit for all polymers, that is able to bond with other
molecules to form long chains.
Monomer

•Polymer means “many monomers”. These are large-sized molecules.

Polymer
 Macromolecules and Monomers
Macromolecules Monomer
• Carbohydrates Monosaccharide

• Proteins Amino acids

Not always polymers;

• Lipids Hydrocarbon chains

• Nucleic acids Nucleotides

 1.1 illustrate the structure of RNA and DNA using simple
labelled diagrams; Draw a nucleotide using shapes; recognise
(not draw) the structural formulae of nucleotides, ribose,
deoxyribose, pyrimidines, purines; nature of hydrogen bonds.

What are NUCLEIC ACIDS?

Life on earth is very diverse, from single-celled protozoans to complex multicellular
plants and animals.
However, at the molecular level, all life is fundamentally made up of the same
building blocks – DNA and RNA.
One of the primary differences between DNA and RNA is that DNA is double-stranded
while RNA is single-stranded.
Nucleic acids are macromolecules that store genetic information
and code for protein production.
Nucleic acids are chains of nucleotides.
The nucleotide is considered the “monomer” of the nucleic acids.
The nucleic acids DNA and RNA are polymers of
nucleotides.
State the two (2) types of nucleic acids:-
1. DNA - DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID
2. RNA - RIBONUCLEIC ACID.
*DNA lacks an OXYGEN.
They are mainly found in the NUCLEUS of the cells and their tasks are
to produce a genetic code to express certain traits, such as eye colour,
type and whether or not a disease is present, such as haemophilia.
A nucleotide has three (3) main parts:
1. A phosphate group
2. A pentose sugar, deoxyribose or ribose
3. A nitrogenous base (A, C, T, G)

There are FIVE (5) DNA bases:

ADENINE, CYTOSINE, THYMINE and GUANINE.
URACIL (in RNA).

Respectively, these are represented as the letters A, C, T and G, U

A and G have two rings and are called PURINES.
C and T have one ring and are called PYRIMIDINES.
Nucleotides are
composed of:
● a nitrogenous base (A,
T, C, G or U)
● a five-carbon sugar
(ribose or
deoxyribose)
● a phosphate group
(PO4-).
Draw the structure of a nucleotide:-

Phosphate

Base
Sugar

The phosphate group and nitrogenous base must connect at the

correct corners of the pentagon.
There are two types of pentose sugars that are found
in nucleotides
Both ribose and deoxyribose are PENTOSE sugars, meaning they have 5
carbon atoms.

The carbons are numbered sequentially, moving clockwise from the O within
the ring.

The nitrogenous base connects off of carbon-1, carbon 5 branches out of the
ring, and the phosphate group connects off of carbon-5.
The DNA has the shape of a DOUBLE HELIX.
Each chain of this helix is made of NUCLEOTIDES,
which each have organic BASES that are connected
by HYDROGEN BONDS. A nucleotide is the
monomer subunit of the nucleic acids.
There are two types of pentose sugars that are found
in nucleotides

The difference
between ribose
and deoxyribose
is off carbon-2!
The h-bonds form between complementary nitrogenous
bases.
Bases pair up with each other in a
consistent way called
complementary base pairing

● ADENINE pairs with

THYMINE with two hydrogen
bonds
● GUANINE pairs with
CYTOSINE with three
hydrogen bonds
The nitrogenous bases join together
via hydrogen bonds
The two strands of DNA are held together
by hydrogen bonds between the
nitrogenous bases.

Remember, H-bonds are weak chemical

attractions between two polar molecules.
What do 5’ and 3’ mean?
The 5' and 3' (pronounced "five prime" and "three prime") indicate the carbon
numbers in the DNA's sugar. The 5' carbon has a phosphate group attached to it
and the 3' carbon has a hydroxyl (-OH) group.
From the diagram, you will notice numbers marked 3‟ and 5‟. This relates
to how the PHOSPHATES are connected.

5‟ means it is connected to the 5th carbon (just off the deoxyribose ring).
3‟ means it is connected to the 3rd carbon.

When the phosphate links with the sugar, it forms a PHOSPHODIESTER

bond. This is a CONDENSATION reaction.

Both chains actually run in opposite directions (notice the inverted

sugars). They are thus said to be ANTIPARALLEL.
Notice that the two antiparallel strands are connected at the BASES.

These form COMPLEMENTARY BASE PAIRS and are linked by

HYDROGEN bonds.

Observe in the diagram that a purine can only bond with a pyrimidine,
thus:
A can only pair with T
C can only pair with G
Backbone
The “backbone” of a nucleic acid is the formed when nucleotides bind sugar to phosphate to
create a chain. The backbone forms from a condensation reaction (removes water) between
the -OH of a phosphate group of one nucleotide binding to the -OH of the 3’ carbon of
another nucleotide.
The backbone is strong
because it is formed with
COVALENT BONDS
In a condensation reaction, the
phosphate group off of carbon-5 of
one nucleotide forms a forms a
COVALENT bond with the hydroxyl
-OH off of carbon-3 of another
nucleotide.

Because of this, we say the DNA is

built in a 5’ to 3’ direction.
In DNA, two backbones will

backbone of another strand

backbone of one strand
hydrogen bond together to
create a double helix.

two strands wind around

each other
 What does
“antiparallel” mean?

The two different strands in the

helix run in opposite
(anti-parallel) directions.
At each end of the double helix,
one strand is 5' and the other is
3'.
Contrast the structure of pyrimidines
with that of purines.
Purines and pyrimidines are the two families
of nitrogenous bases. The number of rings
the base has determines whether the base
is a purine (two rings) or a pyrimidine (one
ring).
Which nitrogenous bases are purines?
Which are pyrimidines?
There are two main types of purines:
Adenine and Guanine. Both of these occur
in both DNA and RNA.

There are three main types of pyrimidines,

however only one of them exists in both
DNA and RNA: Cytosine. The other two are
Uracil, which is RNA exclusive, and
Thymine, which is DNA exclusive.

One strategy that may help you remember

this is to think of pyrimidines like pyramids
that have sharp and pointy tops. So sharp
and pointy in fact, that they might CUT
(Cytosine, Uracil, Thymine) you.
Nucleotide Polymerisation
Nucleotides polymerizes by forming bonds between C3 of the sugar and an
oxygen atom of the phopshats. The is condensation polymerisation
reaction.
The bases do not take part in the polyermerisation so there is a
sugar-phosphate backbone with the bases extending off of it.
This means that the nucleotides can join together in any order along the
chain.
A polynucleotide has a free phosphate group at one end and a free hydroxyl
group at the other. The repeating, or monomer, units that are linked together
to form nucleic acids are known as nucleotides.
Nucleotide Polymerisation
The deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) of a typical
mammalian cell contains about 3 × 109
nucleotides. Nucleotides can be further
broken down to phosphoric acid (H3PO4), a
pentose sugar (a sugar with five carbon
atoms), and a nitrogenous base (a base
containing nitrogen atoms).
If the pentose sugar is ribose, the nucleotide
is more specifically referred to as a
ribonucleotide, and the resulting nucleic
acid is ribonucleic acid (RNA). If the sugar is
2-deoxyribose, the nucleotide is a
deoxyribonucleotide, and the nucleic acid
is DNA.
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