Ansa Mariya Joy

BA History (H)
22BHST044
History of India III

Que. Trace the growth of trade and urbanisation in Early Medieval India.

The early medieval period in India witnessed the emergence of new lineages alongside economic
dynamism, cultural efflorescence, and religious metamorphosis. The dominant historiography of
the former times dismissed this period as a Dark Age, a long hyphen between the Guptas and the
Delhi Sultanate. The underlying assumption was that political stagnation, the waning of
long-distance trade, and the decline of urban centres were interconnected. Nonetheless, in
contemporary academic discourse, there has been a discernible resurgence in the reconsideration
of prevailing views of this marginalised section in Indian history. The following essay traces the
growth of trade and urbanisation in early medieval India while debunking the flawed myth of
urban decay.

The Marxist historians heralded the writing of socio-economic history of the Post Gupta age
under the feudal thesis. Under the feudal model, it was believed that the economic prosperity
predominantly supported by land grants, was heavily reliant on agriculture. Concurrently, the
non-agricultural segments of the economy experienced a noticeable decline. Scholars such as
Kosambi, Sharma, and Jha argue that the swift shift toward a more ruralized material
environment can be attributed to the diminishing roles of crafts, commerce, and urban centres.
According to their analyses, these sectors underwent a conspicuous downturn, contributing to the
broader trend of economic transformation towards an agrarian-centric structure.

In his seminal work, "Urban Decay in India," R.S. Sharma opined that the findings from
archaeological excavations at urban sites indicate a decline in material culture during the Gupta
and post-Gupta periods when compared to the earlier Kushana period. This, according to him,
can be attributed to the decline of the prosperous long distance trade with the Roman empire.
The deterioration of urban centres had a detrimental impact on the status of urban based artisans;
artisans were compelled to migrate to rural areas, and traders faced challenges in meeting their
tax obligations.This process resulted in the blurring of lines between the rural and urban
economy and society.

Nonetheless, the hypothesis of urban decline can be challenged on multiple fronts. Brajadulal
Chattopadhyaya in his book, “The Making of Early Medieval India”, argued certain urban
centres declined during the early mediaeval period, but others thrived, and some new ones
developed. The cities such as Kaushambi, Shravasti, Vaishal were in decline as indicated by the
accounts of Xuanzang. But archaeological evidence highlights the emergence of new towns such
as Gopagiri (Gwalior), Siyadoni (near Lalitpur in Jhansi district) and Tattandapura (Ahar, near
Bulandshahr. We can draw inferences about the persistent urban life from the abundance of
literary works and architectural sculptures, both of which received substantial patronage from
urban elites. Chattopadhyaya stressed on the fact that the decline in long distance trade in early
medieval India did not lead to an overall urbanisation but rather a shift in urbanisation.

He labelled the period from 9th to 12th century as the period of third urbanisation in the Indian
subcontinent. However, the third phase of urbanisation exhibited qualitative distinctions from
previous phases, as it was not solely reliant on trade or the ascent of political power. It was
rooted firmly in regional exchange networks. The remarkable agrarian expansion and production
facilitated the establishment of hattas or local exchange centres for the efficient distribution and
mobilisation of resources. The tenth-century Siyadoni epigraph references several markets,
including dosihatta, caturhatta, prasannahatta, kallapalanamsatkahatta, and
vasanta-mahattakahatta, each specialising in different commodities.

Ranabir Chakravarti draws attention to the growing significance of mandapikas in the trade
circuits. The mandapikas formed the intermediate level between hatta/ hattika (small, periodic
markets) and larger trade centres called pattana. The mandapikas were integrated into the
hinterlands, and functioned as nodes of exchange of various types of edible and cash crops. The
mandapikas were assimilated into the surrounding regions, serving as pivotal points for the
exchange of edible staples and cash crop. “Trade and Traders in Western India” by V.K Jain
indicates that traders of this region were engaged in commercial dealings of luxury goods as well
as staples such as foodgrains, pulses, spices, salt, oil, textiles, pottery, ivory and gold.

Apart from regional and interregional trade, trade interactions with Arabs and Southeast Asia
became extremely important. Texts such as Ahbar as- Sin wa’l Hind describe the extensive
maritime expeditions undertaken by Arab traders, voyaging from the ports of Oman to
destinations such as Quilon (Kollam) in Kerala and even reaching as far as China. The Geniza
records from the eleventh and twelfth centuries mention shipments originating from Aden to
India, including commodities such as wheat, glass vessels, clothing, copper, lead, household
items, and silk. K.N.Chaudhuri highlighted the importance of silk, porcelain, sandalwood, and
black pepper in the Asian trade. India's maritime networks were notably directed eastwards,
emphasising connections with China and East Asia. The Sino-Indian trade was dominated by the
import of porcelain, camphor, lacquer, gold and silver into India. Sri Lanka was an important hub
of the Indian Ocean trade. The general pattern in Indian trade during the early medieval period
reveals a diversification of trade commodities and trade routes. The growing inclination towards
maritime routes was, in part, influenced by advancements in maritime technology. Additionally,
several developments in the sphere of trade economy such as introduction of hundikas or bills of
exchange, played a pivotal role by enabling large-scale transactions without the direct use of
currency. Inscriptions often mention toll houses and commercial taxes were an important source
of state income.
There seems to be a paucity in the metallic currency, a trend witnessed as a general phenomenon
in the Indian subcontinent. Scholars such as John.S. Deyell dealing with monetary history has
shown that there was a reduction of coin types and a decline in the aesthetic quality of coins,
although the volume of coins in circulation did not experience a decrease. From the fifth century
onward, Indo-Sassanian coins circulated extensively. Gadhiya coins, despite their low value,
were also in common circulation. For smaller transactions, copper coins were preferred, while
cowrie shells were commonly used for more localised exchanges. References indicate the use of
billion drammas, which were mixed silver and copper coins, during the time of the Gujara
Pratihars. Additionally, there were mentions of local issues, including bimetallic or copper coins,
in the northwest and Kashmir regions.

From the tenth century onwards, commercial exchange finds more frequent reference. Certain
guilds, such as those of goldsmiths, caravan organisers, braziers, oil pressers, and stone masons,
are still listed.These may have been headquartered in the capitals of courts rather than in
commercial centres. However, several new commodities were introduced, and routes seem to
have changed. The most striking commodity was the import of horses on a large scale. At Pehoa,
horse dealers included Brahmins who were contravening the Dharmashastra rule prohibiting
Brahmans from sustaining themselves through the trade of animals. V.K. Jain pointed out
merchants hailing from diverse regions in both the northern and southern parts of India
converged at Sopara in western India, participating in a gathering known as
desiya-vanika-meliya. Their discussions unveiled that these traders were engaged in the trade of
various commodities, including horses, elephants, pearls, shells, ivory, silk, and areca nuts etc.
The presence of guilds like shrenis, samudaya and samghata provided protection and smooth
conduction of exchange activities. Merchants derived status from economic propensity as well as
membership in guilds. Influential guild organisations were involved in various administrative
statecraft, temple building, literature and art activities.

Was this pattern of trade and urban processes similar in South India? The early medieval period
marks a significant second phase of urban expansion in South India. Cities during this time
assumed varied and frequently overlapping roles, serving as political hubs, centers for
manufacturing and trade, as well as sacred or ceremonial centers. There were close connections
between cities, kings and temples in South India. The foundations for these connections were
laid against the backdrop of the growing influence of the Chola state, the rising prevalence of
Vaishnava and Shaiva bhakti movements, and the ascent of the temple as a prominent religious
institution within the urban landscape. Urban complexes such as Kudamukka and Palaiyarai
were intricately connected to their rural and coastal hinterlands. Kudamukka served not only as a
sacred centre but also played a crucial role in the trade route. Meanwhile, the Chola palace
complex was situated at Palaiyarai.
Markets or commercial centres were referred to as nagarams. The nagaram served as an urban
space primarily associated with the production and exchange of commodities, operating at the
local, inter-regional, and international levels. The nagaram featured a collective entity of
merchants, whose members were identified as nagarattar. According to R. Champakalakshmi, the
significance of nagarams appears to have grown during the Chola period, with nagarattar
frequently documented as contributors in inscriptions. The urban developments are also visible
in caste organisation. R.N.Nandi noticed the emergence of trading castes such as the Garvares in
Karnataka. They were identified as northern merchants who migrated down south during the
10th-11th centuries. Moreover, there was the emergence of a supra-caste dichotomy - the idangai
(left hand) and valangai (right hand) caste groupings. The latter were associated with agricultural
groups whereas the former belonged to artisanal and trading communities.

Many trade routes intersected at ports on the eastern coast of South India. Mamallapuram
developed under the Pallavas, and Nagapattinam became prominent in the Chola period.
The Chola kings actively promoted trade through various measures, including the establishment
of erivirapattanas. These were protected mercantile towns that emerged as crucial hubs of trade.
Some of the Chola military expeditions to Sri Lanka (in the 1080s), and Indonesian Islands in
1025 have often been cited as attempts to broaden commercial networks by controlling important
trade centres.

The goods involved in the South Indian exchange market involved both staple and luxury
products. Rice, pulses, sesame, metals, betel leaf, oil have been known to be actively involved in
trade transactions within the subcontinent by 11th century inscriptions. Inscriptions found at
Piranmalai reveal imports of aloeswood, rose water, silk, camphor, perfume, horses and
elephants. Horses were acquired from Arabia, silk from China, elephants came from Myanmar,
and rose water from West Asia. J.C. van Leur's theory, which posited that India-Southeast Asia
trade was predominantly facilitated by small-time peddlers, is contradicted by evidence
indicating the existence of influential guilds in South India actively participating in trade with
Southeast Asia. Some of the largest guild associations as indicated by Meera Abraham include
Ayyavole (also known as Ainnurruvar) and Manigramam. In addition to these, Anjuvannam was
an association of foreign merchants who initially engaged in trade activities on the Kerala coast
and subsequently expanded their operations to other regions.

In conclusion, the study of the growth of trade and urbanisation in early medieval India reveals a
complex tapestry of economic, social, and cultural dynamics. The period witnessed both the
decline of certain urban centres and the flourishing of others, challenging simplistic narratives of
uniform decay. Trade networks, both overland and maritime, played a pivotal role in connecting
India with other regions, fostering economic interactions and cultural exchanges. The resilience
of urban centres, particularly evident in the emergence of specialised markets and the continuity
of certain trade guilds, highlights the adaptability of Indian society during this transitional phase.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Chakravarti, Ranabir. 2004. Trade in Early India.Delhi: Oxford University Press, pp. 1-101.
Champakalakshmi, R. 1998. Trade, Ideology and Urbanization: South India 300 BC to AD 1300.
Chattopadhyaya, B.D. 1994. The Making of Early Medieval India. Oxford: Oxford
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Jain, V.K. 1990. Trade and traders in western India (AD 1000-1300). India: Munshiram
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Malik, A. 1987. Trade in Northern India : Its Nature and Scope (c.A.D. 600-1000). Proceedings
of the Indian History Congress, 48, 110–115. http://www.jstor.org/stable/44141657
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