Train the Inspector: Protective Coatings Application

Metallic Coatings

© Copyright 2016 Fitz-Coatings Ltd

 Thermal Metal Spray for Corrosion Protection

Objective
The objective of this training unit is to give a comprehensive review of thermal spray metal coatings used
for corrosion protection.

The unit will detail how thermal sprayed materials such as aluminium and zinc will protect steel substrates
from corrosion.

Introduction
Thermally sprayed metal coatings are metal deposits melted
immediately prior to projection onto the substrate.

The metals and application methods vary, but most applications

result in thin coatings applied to surfaces requiring improvement
to their properties of corrosion or abrasion resistance.

Sprayed metal coatings have been used for a number of years

and have proven to give excellent performance providing they are
applied correctly, adequately sealed and subjected to specific
environments.

Metal on Metal
The thermal spraying process is an excellent means of protecting
iron and steel against corrosion.

If two dissimilar metals or alloys are electrically connected in an

electrolyte (water, soil, etc), current will flow from the more noble
(cathodic) metal to the less noble (anodic) metal. Current will then
flow from the anodic metal to the electrolyte and from the
electrolyte back to the cathodic metal.

If aluminium or zinc are applied to a steel structure via thermally

sprayed wire or powder etc the aluminium or zinc will sacrificially
protect the steel structure from corrosion.

Therefore the key to the success of thermal metal spray for

corrosion protection is to achieve a uniform coating of the required
film thickness with a suitable adhesion value.

Zinc Vs Aluminium:
There are a number of advantages of zinc and aluminium
coatings.

Aluminium

High temperature resistance

Lightweight
Excellent resistance to polluted and marine environments
Forms oxide layer to reduce permeability and reduced
corrosion

Zinc

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 Excellent for cathodic protection
Excellent resistance to mechanical damage
Life proportional to thickness.

Al-Zn

Some operators have found good results using aluminium zinc as

a mixture rather than the individual wire. The choice will depend
upon the location, temperature, cost etc.

What is Thermal Spraying

Thermal spraying is the term given to a group of processes that
utilise thermal energy to melt a material and project the molten
material as a spray plume.

The molten particles impact onto a specially prepared surface and

deform to form a splat. This splat sticks to the surface and
subsequent splats stick to each other to build up as a discrete
coating.

The diagram illustrates the process.

1 – Raw Materials (zinc, aluminium etc)

2 – Electric or gas (heating of particles)
3 – Particles projected onto the surface
4 – Material hits the surface
5 – A coating is formed on the surface

The Basics
All methods of thermal spraying involve the projection of small
molten particles onto a prepared surface where they adhere and
form a continuous coating.

To create the molten particles, a heat source, a spray material

and an atomisation/projection method are required. Upon contact,
the particles flatten on the surface, cool and mechanically bond.

Firstly onto the roughened substrates and then onto each other as
the coating thickness is increased.

There are four commonly used application processes for thermal

spraying:

1. Flame spray
2. Arc spray
3. Plasma spray
4. High velocity oxygen fuel (HVOF)

We will only detail the flame and arc spray process which are the
most commonly used application processes used for finishing
coatings.

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 Thermal Spray Materials Selection
The main materials used for corrosion control which are thermally
sprayed are zinc and aluminium. It is possible to have a zinc and
aluminium alloy system such as 85% zinc and 15% aluminium.

The choice of materials to be used is a vast topic with many

factors to be taken into consideration such as environment
(corrosive atmosphere, temperature etc), specifications, life
expectancy of the coating, adhesion requirements, availability of
materials etc.

In general terms, zinc is used in reasonably less corrosive

environments while aluminium is used in harsher corrosive
environments.

Thermally Sprayed Aluminium

Thermal sprayed aluminium (often referred to as TSA) has
obtained an extensive track record in corrosive environments
such as offshore platforms, piping and structures.

As aluminium has a melting point of 660°C (1220°F) it is used on

hot structures such as flare booms and piping.

Thermal spray aluminium has found a popular place on new build

projects which are subject to hostile environments and locations
where maintenance can be difficult.

Although the initial application cost of thermal spray aluminium is

higher than paint coatings the annualised cost will be lower over
the life of the structure (20+ years).

Surface Preparation
It is essential that a high level of surface preparation is conducted
before the application of thermal spray coating.

Pre-preparation will consist of removing all the sharp edges, weld

spatter and general contamination such as grease, oil and
moisture.

The structure should be designed in such a way that the spray

gun (arc or gas) can gain access to all areas.

Surface preparation should be conducted with metallic abrasive

such as chilled iron grit to an Sa3 standard (SSPC-SP5/NACE
No.1) with a surface profile of 75-100 microns with a good anchor
pattern.

The preparation equipment should be free from oil and moisture

during surface treatment.

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 Surface Preparation
The prepared surface must be vacuum cleaned to ensure there is
no dust, debris or abrasive left on the surface before application of
the thermal sprayed coating.

The adhesion of thermal coating is mechanical and surface

cleanliness is essential to obtain a high degree of adhesion.

The steel surface temperature should be above 10°C (50°F) and

at least 3°C (37.4°F) above the dew point.

Environmental conditions must be monitored throughout the

preparation and coating process.

Material Application
Although materials can be applied in a powder composition, metal
wire is common practice and most popular for anti-corrosion
materials such as zinc and aluminium.

The wire material is applied by one of two methods:

Gas Spray
Arc Spray

Although both gas and arc apply a melted material to a prepared

substrate the equipment is fundamentally different and the
process of application differs also.

Flame Spray Process

In the wire flame process a wire is fed by a driven roller system
through the centre of an oxygen propane flame where it is melted.

An annular air nozzle then applies a jet of high pressure air, which
atomizes and projects the molten material onto the work piece.

The driving of the wire is typically via an air motor and gearbox
that forms part of the Pistol. Wire diameters that can be flame
sprayed as standard range from 1.6mm to 4.76mm (1/16” to
3/16”).

Wire is typically dispensed from coils or production packs or

drums.

Flame Spray Process

This animation is a schematic of a flame spray Pistol in operation.

The wire is fed through the wire drive mechanism where it is

mixed with the compressed air and fuel and projected onto the
substrates.

Animation of Thermal Spray Equipment

The metal is supplied in wire form and fed through the gun which
melts the wire and projects it onto the prepared surface.

Both gas guns and electric arc types of equipment are available

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 for this process.

Video of Thermal Metal Spray Coatings

This video demonstrates the use of a thermal spray coating

applied to a suitably prepared surface.

The metal used is aluminium, however zinc can also be used.

This process is ideal for long term corrosion protection.

The metal coatings can also be overcoated with paints.

Wire Flame Spraying:

The wire is fed into a flame gun and mixed with fuel gas, usually
acetylene and propane, melted and applied to the prepared
substrate.

The acetylene and propane melt the wire and compressed air is
used for the atomisation and transporting process.

This photograph illustrates a flamespray set-up showing the fuel

bottles, mounting panel with flow meters, regulators and filtration
unit, and compressed air is also required.

Arc Spray Process

In the arc spray process, two electrically charged wires are driven
and guided so that they converge at a point and form an arc.

An air nozzle atomises the molten metal produced and projects it

towards the work piece.

The driving of the wires is typically either by air motor or electric

motor and gearbox arrangement.

The wires can be driven in three individual ways:

1 – Push only - the wire is pushed from the drive unit to the pistol.

2 – Pull only – the wire is pulled by the drive unit mounted in the
pistol.

3 – Push / pull – A combination of items 1 and 2.

Arc Spray Process

This animation is a schematic of an arc spray process.

The electric arc spraying is performed by feeding two electrically

conducting metal wires towards each other.

An electric arc is produced at the point just before the wires meet.

Compressed air is used to project the molten metal onto the

prepared substrate.

Arc spray creates considerable energy which in turn produces

high temperatures and higher adhesion values.

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 Arc Spray Process
This photograph illustrates an arc spray process unit.

The energiser is available in a number of sizes depending upon

the size and configuration of the structure.

A larger energizer will produce more productively and more

effectively over large flat areas. There will however be more
operator fatigue.

The arc spray pistols are typically designed for 1.6 – 3.2mm wires
(1/16 to 1/8”).

Compressed air is also required to complete the unit.

Arc Spray Process

This video demonstrate the application of thermal spray
aluminium to a abrasive blast cleaned surface.

The video illustrates the energy produced by the process and the
requirement for suitable PPE and RPE along with adequate
training of the operative.

Application of Metal Sprayed Coating

When using arc or gas application, operator experience will
develop with time but some general guidelines include the
development of an optimum distance between the pistol and
substrate. This is needed to maintain a satisfactory temperature
at which the sprayed metal hits the surface.

This distance, combined with the speed of lateral movement of

the pistol, controls the rate and hence the thickness of metal
deposited.

In order to maintain an even thickness on large flat areas, smaller

areas, about 0.5m² (5.5 sq.ft), are usually marked out by the
operative with the sprayed metal and then ‘filled in’.

Application of Metal Sprayed Coating

This video demonstrates application of flame spray aluminium to
an offshore flare boom.

The process is considerably slower than paint application and the

programme of works must consider the high level of surface
preparation and the metal spray time.

Operator fatigue must be also considered as manual application of

sprayed metal coatings involves repetitive and prolonged
movement under physical strain, which can easily lead to injury.

Dry Film Thickness

The dry film thickness of thermal coatings can be done
immediately after application when the surface has cooled.

The inspection must be very thorough for application of thermal

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 coatings.

Under thickness may not perform or even seal the surface and
over thickness may create adhesion problems.

Full time inspection is always advisable.

Plasma Spray
For some specialist applications, plasma spray application is
used.

This process does not use a wire and the metal is supplied as a
powder and fed into the flame and projected onto the prepared
surface.

For general corrosion control the use of arc spray and flame spray
is the preferred option.

Adhesion Values
As the coating bonds by mechanical strength, the adhesion value
of the sprayed metal is important.

The specification will detail the minimum adhesion values,

however in general the minimum adhesion values should be:

Gas application – 600psi / 4.05mpa

Arc application – 1000psi / 6.76mpa

Adhesion tests are generally conducted on test plates at the start

of the shift and then on the structure if adhesion values do not
meet the minimum requirement of the test plate.

There are various adhesion standards used globally but most will
use a dolly which is glued to the surface and pulled off (pull off
gauge) to demonstrate the adhesion values.

A skilled coating inspector/supervisor should perform this test

using the appropriate standards.

Specifications and Standards

There will be various specifications and standards used for the
thermal sprayed coating.

These documents will generally detail:

The specified process (arc or gas)

The type of wire (zinc or aluminium or a mixture)
Surface preparation, including pre-preparation
Environmental conditions
Applied film thickness
Adhesion values
Operator skill and training requirements
Application of sealer coat / top coats

The contractor and coating inspectors should be fully conversant

with the specification and standards.

Examples include ISO, SSPC and AWS Specifications

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 Sealing of Sprayed Metal Coatings
There is a radical difference between sealing and painting coats
which cover the sprayed metal surface.

A sealer is a low viscosity material which penetrates into the

pores in the sprayed metal and seals them off, without
necessarily adding to the total thickness of the protective
scheme.

Advantages of sealing are:

1. The sealer penetrates the pores

2. The sealer smoothes the surface texture
3. The sealer can be coloured to add an aesthetic finish and is
easier to keep clean (if required)

Topcoats such as epoxy or urethane acrylic can also be used if a

high quality finish is required.

Sealer Application
Sealers are typically applied by airless spray and are generally
applied as soon as practical after the application of the sprayed
metal coating.

If the structure to receive thermal spray coatings is operating at a

high temperature i.e. above 120°C (248°F) then a silicone
aluminium sealer is generally used.

There are a number of sealers available for use below this

temperature range, however the most popular is an epoxy sealer.

The silicone aluminium may need to be post heated (in service) to

fully cure.

Repairs to Metal Spray Coatings

Thermal spray coatings are very tough and durable, however
repairs may be necessary during construction.

It is essential that these areas are treated in the same way as the
original application.

Correct ambient and environmental conditions

Abrasive blast clean
Abrade the overlap locations and ensure the adhesion to
existing metal spray is good and not lifting
Apply the metal coating to the repair location with 25-50mm
(1 to 2”) overlap on to unsealed metal.
Check adhesion to both existing steel substrate and metal
overlap.

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 Inspection
Quality control is an essential element when conducting metal
coatings.

The work should be pre-planned with the use of inspection test

plans using hold and witness points is essential.

The coating inspector should be qualified and experienced and

have a good knowledge of the process.

A pre-job conference should be conducted with the contractor,

fabricator, inspection personnel etc to discuss all aspects of the
process.

Programme
Quality and Environmental
Specifications and standards
Equipment and application type
Inspection and testing
Operator skill and qualification

Applicator Testing
Most thermal spray coating specifications include applicator
testing to ensure the equipment is set up correctly and the
applicator has been trained correctly.

The initial training is usually conducted by the coating supplier

with additional training conducted by the contractor.

Test plates are generally specified at the start of a shift. These

can be checked visually and subjected to a bend test or adhesion
test.

There are usually pass/fail criteria for the bend test.

Always refer to the appropriate standard such as ASTM, ISO or

contract specific procedure.

Training of Operative
There will be a number of activities during sprayed metal coatings
including:

Equipment set-up
Surface preparation
Surface cleanliness
Application of metal coatings
Dust / grit removal
Application of sealer

For the metal spray coatings specifically, the operator should be

trained on the equipment and the process.

Equipment manufacturers conduct training on equipment and an

introduction to the process. Trade testing on sample pieces
followed by adhesion checks is usually conducted prior to
commencement of the works to ensure the metal sprayer is
competent in the application process.

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 Applicator Trade Tests
Applicator trade testing is required at the start of many contracts
or projects.

The exact method of test will be specified by the customer or

client, however the test is as follows;

1. The steel test plates are abrasive blast cleaned with the
specified standard, abrasive and surface profile
2. The steel test plates are metal sprayed to the specified film
thickness
3. Adhesion tests are conducted, usually with a 'pull-off' type
gauge to achieve the specified adhesion values

The operative should be using the same equipment for the test
piece as for the main works.

These test plates can be specified at the start of a shift or

periodically as necessary.

Applicator Trade Tests

Bend test can also be conducted by the applicator.

This test is usually conducted at the start of every shift and

should be carried out with the same abrasive and application
equipment that will be used on the contract.

There is typically three levels of criteria:

1. Pass - No cracking or flaking

2. Pass - Cracking but not flaking
3. Fail - Cracking and loss of adhesion or flaking

Health and Safety

There are no global specific regulations or legislations which
covers metal spraying, however most countries have regulations
which cover the process and potential hazards.

Most of the processes will be covered by legislation intended to

reduce danger to personnel or to protect the environment.

Main considerations are:

Dusts
Health
Environment
Plant and equipment
Training

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 Dusts
From a health and safety aspect, several problems or hazards are
caused through the dusts produced while metal spraying.

The quantities of dust involved are very much dependent upon the
efficiency of deposition of the process.

It is estimated that approximately 30% of metal wire is turned into

respirable dust.

Dusts can pose a hazard because of a combination of particle

size and concentration in the immediate atmosphere.

With a high concentration of dust it is possible to create an

explosive environment in some circumstances.

Extraction is the method most usually used to maintain dust

levels below the explosive limits.

Dusts
The extraction must be sufficiently efficient to ensure all dust
particles are removed from the air during operations.

The quantities required to be extracted should be calculated using

the efficiencies of the spraying as a guide.

Dust built up in the extraction ducts is a particular hazard which

should be considered whilst designing the equipment layout.

Handling of dry dusts causes some problems when extracted

dusts are collected in a hopper or chamber. The collection areas
will have a high concentration of dusts.

The filters should be specifically developed to be used with metal

coatings.

Wet dust collection systems can be used especially for fixed

location.

Dust debris must be carefully and safely disposed of in

accordance with local waste regulations.

Health
There are a number of health issues with the use of sprayed metal
coatings which must be addressed prior to commencement of a
contract (or general use).

Noise levels can be up to 110db

Dusts will be created and will vary depending upon the
application type and working environment
Ultraviolet and infrared radiation from the arc spray process

Respiratory dust is a major hazard and can only reasonably be

protected against by the use of respiratory protective equipment
(RPE).

Full breathing equipment enclosing the head is the only

acceptable protection when using arc spray equipment and full
visor protection when using gas spray application.

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 Health
The possibility of absorption through the skin or even skin
penetration by particles must be considered a real risk.

The operator must have all parts of the body fully covered.

Other likely effects or over exposure to the substances used in

both arc and gas metal spraying include:

Metal fume fever

Arc eyes
Skin rash

A full health assessment must be conducted on the process prior

to commencement of the works.

Environment

The contractor (user) must consider any environmental

legislations or local regulations when using metal spray
equipment.

The main points of concern are the release of airborne dusts and
the handling and disposal of other dust particles produced and
collected manually or automatically.

The contractor has to consider any local environmental

regulations that may apply.

Environmental conditions must be given to:

Enclosures or working area

Extraction systems
Monitoring the emissions
Waste particulate and handling
Waste disposal

Plant and Equipment

A through understanding of the mechanics and operation of the
metal spray equipment is essential to its safe use and
maintenance.

Arc

Arc spraying equipment is dangerous simply because of the use

of high voltage electricity.

In itself the equipment is designed and built generally, to be totally

safe. The potential danger arises when the equipment is not
maintained properly or when the operator is untrained in the
setting up or handling.

The air feed to the equipment must be maintained as clean as

possible to ensure both proper operation and also to avoid
potentially flammable substances being fed into the delivery
system.

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 Arc
Component breakage must be allowed for and the potential mis-
feed of wire both at the spray head and in the wire feed system
can cause injury to the operator.

The equipment should be earthed and must be maintained in a

clean area otherwise the cooling fans will draw in large quantities
of particulate sprayed.

Gas

The safe operation of gas equipment is perhaps more widely

respected due to its common site in fabrication industries.

The handling of gas equipment and gas bottles is discussed in

various regulations.

The mixing of gas and poor maintenance of gauges seems to

account for most incidents involving gas metal spraying.

Training
Most training for health and safety is undertaken during production
or discipline training.

General safety training is obviously essential but added to this

should be more in depth understanding of the specific hazards of
metal spraying processes.

The extra hazards can entail:

Noise
High pressure gases and arc
Ultra violet radiation
Working with electricity
Operation of breathing equipment
High temperature operation
Negatively pressurised enclosures
Extraction

Summary
In this training unit we have reviewed the surface preparation and
application of thermal metal spray coatings for corrosion
protection.

We reviewed the metal spraying process specifically related to

gas and arc application.

We reviewed the importance of correct surface preparation and

sealer coatings.

We also discussed the applicator training and Health and Safety

issues when using arc and gas methods of application.

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 Galvanizing

Objective:
The objective of this training unit is to give an overview to galvanizing and its use as a corrosion protection
product.

Overcoating the galvanizing with paints and coatings will also be reviewed.

The advantages and disadvantages of galvanizing will also be reviewed.

Introduction:
Zinc was first recognised as a metal in the 14th Century.

It is a silvery metal with a melting point of 419ºC (786o F) and has

a similar density to iron.

Zinc corrodes slower than steel so it is used as a means of

protecting steel against corrosion.

This process is known as galvanizing and has gained a reputation

for good corrosion control properties in certain environments.

Zinc:
Metal ore is mined out of the ground.

The mining takes place globally with deposits in USA, Canada,

Austria, Peru, China, Scandinavia and Ireland.

The process of mining to production has various stages

commencing with the collection of the zinc sulphide from the
ground through to the treatment plant.

Zinc-Galvanizing:
Zinc coatings protect steel in two main ways:

Zinc weathers at a slow rate which can give a predictable life.

Zinc provides cathodic protection to the steel substrate. If
there is damage to the zinc these areas may be protected
from corrosion as the zinc will sacrifice itself rather than the
steel.

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 Galvanizing Surfaces

You will see galvanizing used in everyday life from electrical

pylons, architectural steelwork, handrails and stairwells to garden
gates and garage doors.

In some environments galvanized steel has been known to last

over 50 years.

The zinc coating itself may not always be easy to see as it is

often topcoated for aesthetics and additional protection.

Galvanizing Surfaces
The galvanizing process is frequently used for corrosion
protection where access for maintenance will be difficult when the
structure is in operation.

An example of this is Railway overhead gantries.

Hot dip galvanizing is commonly used for overhead gantry

steelwork as illustrated.

Other examples of widespread use includes motorway gantries,

lamp posts, parapets and handrails.

It is possible to over paint these items at a later stage in their life

providing proper preparation and cleaning is conducted prior to
overcoating.

Cathodic Protection
Cathodic protection is based on the knowledge that anodic metals
have a greater tendency to lose electrons than more noble metals.

Zinc is more anodic than steel.

When the two are connected in the presence of an electrolyte, the

zinc becomes the anode on the corrosion cell and is slowly
consumed, while the steel is the cathode and is protected.

The zinc in the galvanizing process provides the cathodic

protection.

Zinc and Steel

Zinc is generally referred to as a 'sacrificial' Coating.

By design, the zinc coating corrodes preferentially over time,

sacrificing itself to retard corrosion of the steel.

Its life is directly proportional to its thickness and the elements to

which it is exposed.

This galvanic activity is a desirable characteristic with respect to

the corrosion behaviour of steel, especially at surface scratches
and cut edges, where the base steel will be exposed to the
elements.

The galvanising will protect these surface scratches and cut

edges.

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 Hot Dip Galvanizing
The galvanized coating process consists of four separate but
integral layers.

Top Layer – Eta layer

100% zinc outer layer

Zeta Layer – Zinc iron alloy

Approx 94% zinc and 6% iron

Delta Layer
Approximately 88% zinc and 12% iron

Gamma Layer
Approximately 75% zinc and 25% iron

The Process
Hot dip galvanizing is a commonly used method of applying a
protective coating to iron and steelwork by dipping the object into
a bath of molten zinc.

The galvanizing process is over 100 years old and has been used
to provide corrosion protection for steel structures in a wide range
of environments.

The process also offers excellent mechanical handling resistance.

Galvanizing Process

The process essentially involves degreasing the work, chemical

cleaning and then immersion in a bath of molten zinc at a
temperature around 450°C (842o F).

As the clean iron or steel is immersed in the galvanized bath, zinc

wets the surface and a reaction takes place to form a series of
zinc/iron alloy layers, metallurgically bonded to the substrate.

The thickness and appearance will be influenced by various

factors including composition and roughness of the steel.

Galvanizing Process – Stages

The galvanizing process has five main stages.

1. Surface preparation

Surface preparation includes the removal of welding slag, scale,

paint, oil, grease etc.

2. Fluxing

The acid cleaned steel article is immersed in a flux solution which

consists of zinc ammonium chloride and wetting agents.

The flux solution removes the oxide film which forms on the highly
reactive steel surface and prevents further oxidation before
galvanizing.
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 Galvanizing Process – Stages
3. Galvanizing

The prepared items are galvanized by immersion in molten zinc.

The steel surface is completely covered by the molten zinc, which
reacts with the steel to form a series of zinc iron alloy layers,
producing a uniform coating.

The thickness and appearance is determined principally by the

mass of the steel being galvanized, bath composition, steel
composition, bath temperature, immersion time, rate of withdrawal
and cooling rate.

The steel is withdrawn at a controlled rate and carries with it an

outer layer of molten zinc which solidifies to form the relatively
pure outer zinc coating.

Galvanizing Process – Stages

4. Post Treatment

Post treatments can be conducted which:

Reduce the amount of molten metal adhering to the structure

and reducing the thickness
Improve the properties or appearance of the coating
Change in character such as annealing

5. Inspection

Full inspection of the galvanized structure should be conducted to

check for:

Bare spots
Roughness, blisters, lumps and runs
Flux, ash, dross protrusions, stains etc.
Dull grey or mottled appearance
Slivers and icicles
Overall integrity and film thickness

Bare Spots
It is possible to have bare spots on the galvanized structure.

Mill Scale / Rust Scale

If there is scale, developed during the manufacturing process and

is not removed, the molten zinc may not adhere to these
locations.

Residues

If the structure still has residues on the surface such as paint,

grease, oil etc. the molten metal will not adhere and you will get a
localised grey /black spot.

Rolling Defects

If the structure has steel rolling defects such as laminations,

shelling etc, bare spots on the galvanized surface will occur.

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 Overdrying

If a pre-fluxed structure is left too long before galvanizing you may

encounter bare spots.

Contact Locations

If a number of items are to be hot dipped ensure there are no

article contact areas.

Liquid Metal Assisted Cracking (LMAC)

LMAC is a form of cracking that may occur when steel
components come into contact with molten zinc.

This form of cracking is uncommon but if it is not detected and

repaired it can have serious consequences on the performance of
the structure.

LMAC is a phenomenon that may occur when steel components

are hot dip galvanized, but it is important to note that this form of
cracking can only happen when the steel is in contact with molten
zinc.

LMAC may be characterised by a crack through the entire cross

section that is clearly evident when the component is lifted from
the bath.

Liquid Metal Assisted Cracking (LMAC)

It is also possible that the crack will not have travelled through the
whole cross-section, will have filled with zinc, and the zinc will
have uniformly deposited over the surface of the steel, rendering
the crack invisible to visual inspection.

Nevertheless 100% inspection is recommended.

It is generally accepted that there are three prerequisites for

LMAC to occur:

1. Stress Levels
2. Material Susceptibility (where the local stress is greater than
the yield stress)
3. Liquid Metal

Liquid Metal Assisted Cracking (LMAC)

Repair of LMAC

Most cracks in a galvanized component can be repaired using an

approved welding repair procedure.

During the repair the procedure should ensure that the crack is
completely removed and Magnetic Partial Inspection (MPI) should
be used to ensure that this is the case.

The grinding should continue approx 50 mm (2 inches) back from

the crack.

The repair should then be touched up, either with a zinc rich paint
or zinc metal spray. The latter will require a high level of surface
preparation.

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 Coating Thickness
The thickness of the zinc can be influenced by the chemical
composition of the steel such as the silicon content.

It should also be noted that other factors including immersion time

for the metal and surface roughness affect the nature and
thickness of coatings produced.

Coating thickness can be increased by abrasive blast cleaning the

structure prior to galvanizing.

Design
The decision to protect steel by hot dip galvanizing should always
be taken at the design stage.

Consultation between the designers, fabricator and galvanizer is

essential to achieve the best results from the process.

A correct design will allow easy handling and the free flow of
molten zinc will enhance the quality of the coating from an
aesthetic and technical point of view.

Design Considerations
It is important that the design of the structure is considered before
considering a galvanized process.

Skip weld and crevices may trap acid which causes damage
to the galvanizing as it could vaporize during the process or
stain the coating at a later date
Ensure there are no areas where air pockets or air bubbles
may form preventing full contact with the molten zinc
Ensure the structure is of a size that can fit into the zinc tank
Warpage of the article is a possibility due to unequal
thickness of the article or structure
The article or structure should be made of the same alloy
Faying surfaces should not be galvanized as this would have
to be removed later

Environments
The designer must check the specific environment that the hot dip
galvanizing can be exposed too.

Various ISO and other standards give advice on the use of hot dip
galvanizing or zinc in specific environments.

The hot dip galvanizing can also be topcoated to suit specific

environments, give additional life and look more pleasing to the
eye.

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 Paint and Duplex Coatings
When paint is applied over a hot dip galvanized surface, the
resulting combination is known as a duplex coating.

The service life of a duplex coating generally exceeds the sum of

the separate lives of the component parts.

The first decision is should galvanizing be over-painted and

whether painting is necessary.

The decision is best made during the design stage.

Examples of duplex coating guides; SSPC Guide 19

Painting Galvanized Steel

The two main reasons for painting galvanized surfaces are:

Increase the life of the coating.

Offer colour and aesthetics.

Painting also offers the opportunity to conduct additional

maintenance.

The important aspect to over painting the galvanizing is achieving

good adhesion.

Without the good adhesion, paint will fail prematurely leading to

flaking and peeling.

Paint Adhesion
There are many cases where paints and other coatings have
failed on top of a galvanized surface as the galvanized surfaces
are not prepared and the coating is applied directly without any
pre-treatment.

If a galvanized and paint duplex system is being considered, a

pre-treatment of the galvanizing is required, especially a newly
galvanized surface.

Galvanized Coating Age

Knowing the age of the galvanizing steel should determine the
surface preparation requirements.

Early on, zinc oxides and hydroxide hinder the paints ability to
adhere to the galvanized coating.

Over the course of 6 to 24 months the zinc surface weathers and

forms a thin, dense film of mostly zinc carbonate called the zinc
patina.

Once the patina has fully formed, the particles no longer interfere
with the paint adhesion.

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 Galvanized Coatings

Galvanized coatings can generally be grouped into three

categories:

Newly formed galvanized

Partially weathered
Fully weathered

The length of time it takes to reach each age level depends upon:

Environmental conditions:
Humidity
Temperature
Wind etc.

Pre-treatment
There are four recognised methods of surface pre-treatment that
produce a sound substrate for the duplex coating:

Mordant solution (T-wash).

Allowing the surface to weather for a minimum of 12 months.
Etch primer.
Sweep blasting.

Examples of surface preparation of galvanizing documents

includes SSPC-SP 16 brush-off blast cleaning of non-ferrous
metals.

T-Wash
This process has been successfully available for a number of
years.

Newly galvanized steel is thoroughly degreased and then treated

with the T-wash.

The T-wash reacts with the galvanizing to form a surface onto

which a paint coating can be applied.

The reaction is a visual one in that a successful application of T-

wash produces a black surface colouration.

Avoid puddling or ponding. Apply as per suppliers application data

sheets.

Weathering
The weathering process becomes fully effective after a galvanized
surface has been exposed to the atmosphere for a period of
approximately 12 months.

Preparation generally consists of removing loose adherent

materials by using abrasive pads or stiff brushes.

A detergent and fresh water wash is then conducted.

The surface must be fully dried before application of the coating.

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 Etch Primer
The major disadvantage of etch primers, is the absence of any
visible colour change after the application as in the case of T-
wash.

Therefore, there can never be complete confidence that all

surfaces have fully reacted to the primer.

Both single and two-part etch primer are available, however, best
results are found with the two-part. Always check the suppliers
application data sheets on pre-cleaning, application and
environmental criteria etc.

Sweep Blasting
Sweep blasting can be conducted at low pressures with the use of
fine grade non-metallic abrasives.

It is a process which can be very effective, but only when

undertaken with a high a degree of expertise.

Excessive blast cleaning must be avoided as this can remove the

zinc coating.

Animation of Abrasive Flash Blasting

Abrading the surface mechanically.

Gives key for subsequent coats of paint.

Used on hard surfaces and surfaces difficult to overcoat.

Painting Galvanized Surfaces

Various coatings have been successfully applied over prepared
and clean galvanized surfaces.

The use of alkyd paints should be avoided due to the possibility of

saponification*.

Two part materials such as epoxies give good protection.

There are a number of paint suppliers who offer specialist coating

for galvanised surfaces.

If in doubt, conduct a test piece and assess adhesion over a

period of time.

For best results check the product track record.

* formation of a soap by the reaction between a fatty acid ester

and an alkali

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 Over painting Galvanized Surfaces
Galvanized surfaces do not last forever and applying coating
every time maintenance is conducted can lead to coating
adhesion problems.

Over thickness will eventually lead to stress and flaking etc.

As the air and moisture gets full access to the zinc metal, zinc
corrosion will occur. The zinc will dissolve and you will see 'zinc
salts' as illustrated.

Coating surveys are an essential part of maintenance painting.

Galvanizing Repair
Damaged galvanizing such as mechanical damage or site welding
etc is generally repaired by pre-pairing the surface with disking
and grinding (without polishing) and applying a zinc rich primer.

The coating should be above 85% by weight zinc and not a zinc
coloured spray or aerosol which is a thin, virtually zinc 'free'
primer,

This is an illustration of the aforementioned and should not be

encouraged.

Hot Dip Galvanized Steel Standards

The ISO standard for hot dip galvanized coatings on fabricated
iron and steel articles. Specifications and test methods is ISO
1461.

The ASTM standard is the ASTM A123 Standard Specification for

Zinc (Hot-Dip Galvanized) Coatings on Iron and Steel Products

Single pieces of steel or fabrications with different types of steel

products are covered.

These international standards specify the general properties of

and methods of test for coatings applied by hot dipping in zinc.

They provide general requirements on hot dip galvanized baths,

information supplied by the purchaser, and safety specific
requirements are given on sampling, coating, properties,
inspection and acceptance criteria etc.

Note: A users guide TPC9 is also available from NACE

International.

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 Advantages and Disadvantages
Hot dip galvanizing has a number of advantages and
disadvantages.

Advantages:

Proven performance.
Economical.
Can be topcoated/painted.
Can be maintained.

Disadvantages:

Factory application required.

Limited to size of galvanizer's bath.
Potential adhesion problems with overcoating.
Zinc oxide deposits (white salts) if exposed and not painted.

Other forms of metallic coatings used in specialist industries

includes Anodizing, Sheradizing and Calorizing.

Anodizing is a process that increases the resistance to corrosion

of a metal such as aluminium by building up a protective oxide
layer on the surface.

The natural corrosion resistance of aluminium is provided by a

thin layer of aluminium oxide and the anodizing process increases
the thickness of this film.

Often used in the window frames for large buildings.

Sheradizing
Sheradizing is a diffusion process in which the components are
heated in the presence of zinc dust at temperatures in the range
of 320°C (608o F). The resultant zinc/iron layer is zinc phosphated
leaving a passivated matt grey surface.

A range of uniform coating thickness from 15 to 80 microns (.5 to

3 mil) can be produced.

This process is used for small items such as nuts and bolts.

Calorizing
Calorizing is the application of metallic diffusion coatings for the
protection of iron and steel.

It is a chemical vapour deposition reaction where an aluminium

halide is produced at high temperature to react with the iron or
steel to form an aluminium oxide layer on the surface.

© Copyright 2016 Fitz-Coatings Ltd Page 24

 Summary
Within this training unit we have reviewed the galvanizing process
used to protect steel form corrosion.

We reviewed the galvanizing process and inspection criteria, the

problems with over painting and the relevant standards used for
galvanized structures.

© Copyright 2016 Fitz-Coatings Ltd Page 25