TEMA 1.

MÁQUINAS Y
MOTORES TÉRMICOS (II).
SEGUNDO PRINCIPIO DE LA
TERMODINÁMICA. CICLO DE CARNOT
INGENIERÍA TÉRMICA.
GRADO EN INGENIERÍA EN TECNOLOGÍAS INDUSTRIALES Y
GRADO EN INGENIERÍA MECÁNICA. GRUPOS 3 ITI - 3 ME.

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 THERMAL ENERGY RESERVOIRS

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• A hypothetical body with a relatively large thermal energy capacity (mass
x specific heat) that can supply or absorb finite amounts of heat without
undergoing any change in temperature is called a thermal energy
reservoir, or just a reservoir.
• In practice, large bodies of water such as oceans, lakes, and rivers as well
as the atmospheric air can be modeled accurately as thermal energy
reservoirs because of their large thermal energy storage capabilities or
thermal masses.

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HEAT ENGINES HEAT ENGINES: The devices that convert heat to work.

1. They receive heat from a high-temperature source (solar

energy, oil furnace, nuclear reactor, etc.).
2. They convert part of this heat to work (usually in the
form of a rotating shaft.)
3. They reject the remaining waste heat to a low-
temperature sink (the atmosphere, rivers, etc.).

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4. They operate on a cycle.

Heat engines and other

cyclic devices usually
involve a fluid to and from
which heat is transferred
while undergoing a cycle.
This fluid is called the
working fluid.

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A steam power plant

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Thermal
efficienc
y

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 Can we
save Qout?
In a steam power plant,
the condenser is the
device where large
quantities of waste heat
is rejected to rivers,
lakes, or the
atmosphere.
Can we not just take the
condenser out of the
plant and save all that
waste energy?
The answer is,
unfortunately, a firm no
for the simple reason
that without a heat
Every heat engine must waste some energy rejection process in a
by transferring it to a low-temperature condenser, the cycle
cannot be completed.
reservoir in order to complete the cycle,
even under idealized conditions. 7

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Net Power
Production of a Heat
Engine

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The Second Law of
Thermodynamics:
Kelvin–Planck
Statement
It is impossible for any
device that operates on a
cycle to receive heat from a
single reservoir and produce
a net amount of work.

No heat engine can have a thermal

efficiency of 100 percent, or as for a
power plant to operate, the working
fluid must exchange heat with the
environment as well as the furnace.
The impossibility of having a 100%
efficient heat engine is not due to
friction or other dissipative effects. It
is a limitation that applies to both the
idealized and the actual heat engines.
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REFRIGERATORS AND HEAT PUMPS

• The transfer of heat from a

low-temperature medium to a
high-temperature one requires
special devices called
refrigerators.
• Refrigerators, like heat
engines, are cyclic devices.
• The working fluid used in the
refrigeration cycle is called a
refrigerant.
• The most frequently used
refrigeration cycle is the
vapor-compression
refrigeration cycle.
In a household refrigerator, the freezer
compartment where heat is absorbed by
the refrigerant serves as the evaporator,
and the coils usually behind the
refrigerator where heat is dissipated to
the kitchen air serve as the condenser. 10

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Coefficient of Performance
The efficiency of a refrigerator is
expressed in terms of the coefficient of
performance (COP).
The objective of a refrigerator is to
remove heat (QL) from the refrigerated
space.

Can the value of COPR be

greater than unity?
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Heat Pumps

for fixed values of QL and QH

Can the value of

COPHP be lower than
unity?
What does COPHP=1
represent?

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• Most heat pumps in operation today have a
seasonally averaged COP of 2 to 3.
• Most existing heat pumps use the cold outside air
as the heat source in winter (air-source HP).
• In cold climates their efficiency drops considerably
when temperatures are below the freezing point.
• In such cases, geothermal (ground-source) HP that
use the ground as the heat source can be used.
• Such heat pumps are more expensive to install,
but they are also more efficient.
• Air conditioners are basically refrigerators
whose refrigerated space is a room or a building
instead of the food compartment.
• The COP of a refrigerator decreases with
decreasing refrigeration temperature.
• Therefore, it is not economical to refrigerate to a
lower temperature than needed.

Energy efficiency rating (EER): The amount

of heat removed from the cooled space in Btu’s
for 1 Wh (watthour) of electricity consumed.

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The Second Law of
Thermodynamics: Clasius
Statement
It is impossible to construct a device that
operates in a cycle and produces no effect
other than the transfer of heat from a
lower-temperature body to a higher-
temperature body.

It states that a refrigerator cannot operate

unless its compressor is driven by an external
power source, such as an electric motor.
This way, the net effect on the surroundings
involves the consumption of some energy in the
form of work, in addition to the transfer of heat
from a colder body to a warmer one.
To date, no experiment has been conducted that
contradicts the second law, and this should be
taken as sufficient proof of its validity.

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 Equivalenc
e of the Two
Statements

Proof that the

violation of the
Kelvin–Planck
statement
leads to the
violation of the
Clausius
statement.
The Kelvin–Planck and the Clausius statements are
equivalent in their consequences, and either statement can be
used as the expression of the second law of thermodynamics.
Any device that violates the Kelvin–Planck statement also
violates the Clausius statement, and vice versa. 15

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REVERSIBLE AND IRREVERSIBLE
PROCESSES
Reversible process: A process that can be reversed without leaving any
trace on the surroundings.
Irreversible process: A process that is not reversible.
• All the processes occurring in nature are
irreversible.
• Why are we interested in reversible
processes?
• (1) they are easy to analyze and (2) they serve as
idealized models (theoretical limits) to which
actual processes can be compared.
• Some processes are more irreversible than others.
• We try to approximate reversible processes. Why?

Reversible processes deliver the most

and consume the least work. 16

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 • The factors that cause a process to be
irreversible are called irreversibilities.
• They include friction, unrestrained expansion,
Friction mixing of two fluids, heat transfer across a
renders a finite temperature difference, electric
process resistance, inelastic deformation of solids, and
irreversibl chemical reactions.
e. • The presence of any of these effects renders a
process irreversible.

Irreversibilities

(a) Heat
transfer
through a
temperature
difference is Irreversible
irreversible, compression
and (b) the and
reverse process expansion
is impossible. processes. 17

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 THE CARNOT
CYCLE

Execution of the Carnot cycle in a closed system.

Reversible Isothermal Expansion (process 1-2, TH = constant)
Reversible Adiabatic Expansion (process 2-3, temperature drops from TH to TL)
Reversible Isothermal Compression (process 3-4, TL = constant)
Reversible Adiabatic Compression (process 4-1, temperature rises from TL to TH) 18

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The Reversed Carnot Cycle
The Carnot heat-engine cycle is a totally reversible cycle.
Therefore, all the processes that comprise it can be
reversed, in which case it becomes the Carnot 19

refrigeration cycle.

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 THE CARNOT CYCLE AND ITS VALUE IN
ENGINEERING
The Carnot cycle is composed of four totally reversible
processes: isothermal heat addition, isentropic expansion,
isothermal heat rejection, and isentropic compression.

For both ideal and actual cycles: Thermal efficiency increases

with an increase in the average temperature at which heat is
supplied to the system or with a decrease in the average
temperature at which heat is rejected from the system.

A steady-flow Carnot engine.

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Derivation of the Efficiency
of the Carnot Cycle

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THE CARNOT PRINCIPLES

1. The efficiency of an
irreversible heat engine is
always less than the
efficiency of a reversible one
operating between the same
two reservoirs.
2. The efficiencies of all
reversible heat engines
operating between the same
two reservoirs are the same.

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THE CARNOT HEAT ENGINE

Any heat
engine

Carnot
heat engine

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Analysis of a Carnot Heat
Engine

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The Quality of Energy

Can we use C unit

for temperature
here?

How do you increase the thermal

efficiency of a Carnot heat engine?
How about for actual heat 28
engines?

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THE CARNOT REFRIGERATOR AND HEAT
PUMP
Any
refrigerator or
heat pump

Carnot
refrigerator or
heat pump

How do you increase the

COP of a Carnot
refrigerator or heat pump?
How about for actual ones? 29

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The COP of a reversible refrigerator or heat pump is
the maximum theoretical value for the specified
temperature limits.
Actual refrigerators or heat pumps may approach these
values as their designs are improved, but they can
never reach them.
The COPs of both the refrigerators and the heat pumps
decrease as TL decreases.
That is, it requires more work to absorb heat from
lower-temperature media.

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The Quality of Energy

Can we use C unit

for temperature
here?

How do you increase the thermal

efficiency of a Carnot heat engine?
How about for actual heat 31
engines?

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THE CARNOT REFRIGERATOR AND HEAT
PUMP
Any
refrigerator or
heat pump

Carnot
refrigerator or
heat pump

How do you increase the

COP of a Carnot
refrigerator or heat pump?
How about for actual ones? 32

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The COP of a reversible refrigerator or heat pump is
the maximum theoretical value for the specified
temperature limits.
Actual refrigerators or heat pumps may approach these
values as their designs are improved, but they can
never reach them.
The COPs of both the refrigerators and the heat pumps
decrease as TL decreases.
That is, it requires more work to absorb heat from
lower-temperature media.

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Bibliografía.
• Yunus A. Cengel & Michael A. Boles. Termodinámica. Editorial: Editorial McGraw – Hill. 2009.
• Yunus A. Cengel. Transferencia de calor y masa. Editorial: Editorial McGraw – Hill. 2007.
• Muñóz Domínguez, Marta; Rovira de Antonio, Antonio José. Ingeniería térmica. Editorial: UNED.
• Muñóz Domínguez, Marta; Rovira de Antonio, Antonio José. Máquinas térmicas. Editorial: UNED.
• Muñóz Domínguez, Marta. Problemas resueltos de motores térmicos y turbomáquinas térmicas. Editorial: UNED.
• Muñóz Domínguez, Marta; Muñoz Torralbo, Manuel; Valdés del Fresno, Manuel. Turbomáquinas térmicas. Fundamentos del diseño
termodinámico. Editorial: ETS Ingenieros Industriales.
• Nuria García Herranz. Prácticas Virtuales de Ingeniería Térmica. Editorial UNED.
• M. J. Morán, y H. N. Shapiro. Fundamentos de Termodinámica Técnica. Editorial: Reverté, S.A.
• J. R. Howell y R. O. Buckius. Termodinámica para ingenieros. Editorial: McGraw – Hill. 1990.
• Potter, Merle C. Principios de Termodinámica para Ingenieros. Editorial: McGraw – Hill. 2004.
• K. Wark. Termodinámica. Editorial: McGraw - Hill, 1987.
• Yunus A. Cengel & John M. Cimbala. Mecánica de Fluidos. Fundamentos y aplicaciones. Editorial Mc Graw-Hill.

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