PHYSICS RECORD

L T P C
0 0 2 1

BS3171-PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY LABORATORY

(Common to All B.E/ B.Tech. Programmes)
PHYSICS LABORATORY

OBJECTIVE: To provide the basic practical exposure to all the

engineering and technological streams in the field of physics
LIST OF EXPERIMENTS (Any FIVE Experiments)
1. Torsional pendulum – Determination of rigidity modulus of wire and
moment of inertia of regular and irregular objects
2. Simple harmonic oscillations of cantilever
3. Non-uniform bending – Determination of Young’s modulus
4.Uniform bending - Determination of Young’s modulus
5. Laser – Determination of the wavelength of the laser using grating
6. Air Wedge – Determination of thickness of a thin sheet /wire
7. (a) Optical fiber -Determination of Numerical Aperture and
acceptance
angle
(b) Compact disc – Determination of width of the groove using laser
8. Acoustic grating – Determination of velocity of ultrasonic waves in
liquids.
9.Ultrasonic interferometer - Determination of velocity of sound and
compressibility of liquid
10. Post office box – Determination of band gap of a semiconductor
11.Photoelcetric effect
12. Michelson Interferometer
13. Melde’s string experiment
14.Experiment with lattice dynamics kit

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INDEX AND EVALUATION

I SEMESTER

Staff
Sl. No Date Name of the experiment Marks
Signature
Determination of Young’s modulus by Non
uniform bending method
1
Determination of Young’s modulus by
uniform bending method
2

Determination of thickness of thin sheet -

3
Air Wedge

Determination of wavelength of the laser using

grating
4

a.Determination of Acceptance angle and

Numerical aperture of an optical fiber
5
b.Determination of width of the groove using
laser – Compact disc
Determination of velocity of sound and
compressibility of liquid – Ultrasonic
6
interferometer.

7 Simple harmonic oscillations of a cantilever

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To find depression(y):

The distance between two knife edges l = 70 × 10-2 m

Microscope Reading
Load (M) Increasing load Decreasing load Mean Depression
S.No ×10 -3
MSR VSC TR MSR VSC TR ×10-2
y× 10-2 m
Kg ×10
-2 (div) ×10
-2
×10
-2 (div) ×10
-2
m
m m m m

1 W

2 W+50

3 W+100

4 W+150

W+200
5

6 W+250

Mean y = ___________x
-2
10 m

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1. DETERMINATION OF YOUNG’S MODULUS OF THE MATERIAL

- NON UNIFORM BENDING

Exp.No:
Date:

AIM:

To determine the Young’s Modulus of the given material of the beam by

non uniform bending method.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

The give beam (metre scale), traveling microscope, weight hanger with
slotted weights, pin, screw gauge, vernier calipers, knife edges etc.

FORMULA:

The Young’s Modulus of the material of the beam,

3
gl m 2
Y= 3
N /m
4bd y

Where,

g → Acceleration due to gravity (9.8 m/s2)

l → Distance between the two knife edges in metre.

b → Breadth of the beam in metre.

d → Thickness of the beam in metre.

y → Depression produced for the ‘m’’ Kg of load in metre.

m → Load applied in Kg.

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Breadth of the beam (b) using vernier calliper:

LC = 0.01 × 10-2 m TR = MSR+ (VSC×LC)

S.No MSR VSC TR

×10-2 m (div) ×10-2 m

Mean b = …………………...×10 -2
m

Thickness of the beam (d) using screw gauge:

LC= 0.01× 10-3 m Z.E = div

Z.C = div
Z.C = × 10-3 m

S.No PSR HSC OR=PSR+(HSC×LC) CR=OR+Z.

× 10-3 (div) × 10-3 m C
m × 10-3 m
1

Mean d = ……………. ×10 -3

m
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PROCEDURE:

The given beam is placed over the two knife edges (A and B) at a
distance of 70 cm.A weight hanger is suspended at the centre of the beam and
a pin is fixed vertically exactly, at the Centre of the beam.A traveling
microscope is placed in front of this arrangement. Taking the weight hanger
alone as the dead load, the tip of the pin is focused by the microscope and is
adjusted in such a way that the tip of the pin just touches the horizontal cross
wire. The reading on the vertical scale of the traveling microscope is noted.
Now, the weight is added in steps of 50 grams. Each time the position of
the pin is focused and the readings are noted from the microscope. The
procedure is followed until the maximum load is reached.
The same procedure is repeated by unloading the weight in steps of same
50 grams and the readings are tabulated in the tabular column. From the
readings, the mean of (M/y) is calculated.
The thickness and the breadth of the beam are measured using screw
gauge and vernier calipers respectively and are tabulated. By substituting all
the values in the given formula, the Young’s Modulus of the given material of
the beam can be calculated.

Calculation:
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Aim/Apparatus Required/Formula 15
Tabulation 15
Calculation 10
Result 5
Viva 5
Total 50

RESULT:

The Young’s modulus of the material of the beam Y=………………….. Nm -2

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To find depression(y):

The distance between two knife edges l = 70 × 10-2 m

Microscope Reading
Load (M) Increasing load Decreasing load Mean Elevation
S.No ×10 -3
MSR VSC TR MSR VSC TR ×10-2
y× 10-2 m
Kg ×10
-2 (div) ×10
-2
×10
-2 (div) ×10
-2
m
m m m m

1 W

2 W+50

3 W+100

4 W+150

W+200
5

6 W+250

Mean y = ___________x
-2
10 m

2. DETERMINATION OF YOUNG’S MODULUS OF THE MATERIAL

UNIFORM BENDING

Exp.No:
Date:

AIM:

To determine the Young’s Modulus of the given material of the beam by

uniform bending method.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

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The give beam (metre scale), traveling microscope, weight hanger with
slotted weights, pin, screw gauge, vernier calipers, knife edges etc.

FORMULA:

The Young’s Modulus of the material of the beam,

2
3 gDl m
Y= 3
2bd y
N/m2

Where,

g → Acceleration due to gravity (9.8 m/s2)

l → Distance between the two knife edges in metre.

D → Distance between the weight hanger and any one of the adjacent
knife edge

b → Breadth of the beam in metre.

d → Thickness of the beam in metre.

y → Elevation produced for the ‘m’’ Kg of load in metre.

m → Load applied in Kg.

Breadth of the beam (b) using vernier calliper:

LC = 0.01 × 10-2 m TR = MSR+ (VSC×LC)

S.No MSR VSC TR

×10-2 m (div) ×10-2 m

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Mean b = …………………...×10 -2
m

Thickness of the beam (d) using screw gauge:

LC= 0.01× 10-3 m Z.E = div

Z.C = div
Z.C = × 10 -3 m

S.No PSR HSC OR=PSR+(HSC×LC) CR=OR+Z.

× 10-3 (div) × 10-3 m C
m × 10-3 m
1

Mean d = ……………. ×10 -3

PROCEDURE:

The given beam is placed over the two knife edges (A and B) at a
distance of 70 cm.A weight hanger is suspended at the centre of the beam and
a pin is fixed vertically exactly, at the centre of the beam.A traveling
microscope is placed in front of this arrangement. Taking the weight hanger
alone as the dead load, the tip of the pin is focused by the microscope and is

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adjusted in such a way that the tip of the pin just touches the horizontal cross
wire. The reading on the vertical scale of the traveling microscope is noted.
Now, the weight is added in steps of 50 grams. Each time the position of
the pin is focused and the readings are noted from the microscope. The
procedure is followed until the maximum load is reached.The same procedure
is repeated by unloading the weight in steps of same 50 grams and the
readings are tabulated in the tabular column. From the readings, the mean of
(M/y) is calculated.
The thickness and the breadth of the beam are measured using screw
gauge and Vernier calipers respectively and are tabulated. By substituting all
the values in the given formula, the Young’s Modulus of the given material of
the beam can be calculated.

Calculation:

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Aim/Apparatus Required/Formula 15
Tabulation 15
Calculation 10
Result 5
Viva 5
Total 50

RESULT:

The Young’s modulus of the material of the beam Y=………………….. Nm -2

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3.DETERMINATION OF THICKNESS OF A THIN PAPER – AIRWEDGE

METHOD
Exp No:

Date:

Aim
To determine the thicknesses of a thin paper by forming interference
fringes using an Air wedge arrangement.

Apparatus Required
1. Optically plane rectangular glass plates
2. Sodium vapour lamp
3. Thin paper
4. Travelling microscope, etc.
Formula

lλ
Thickness of the thin Paper t= 2β metre.

Where

λ - Wave length of monochromatic light (5893Ǻ)

β - Bandwidth in metre
l - Distance between the edge of contact and the Paper in metre.

Principle

When a normally reflected monochromatic light falls on a wedge shaped

air film and viewed through a microscope, alternate dark and bright
interference bands of equal thickness are observed.

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Table 1: To find the bandwidth using travelling microscope (β)

L.C=0.001 cm TR=MSR+ (VSC X LC)

S.No Order of Microscope reading Width of Width of

. the 20 fringes one
fringes fringe
MSR VSC TR
(Band
Width)
×10-2 m Div ×10-2 m ×10 m
-2
×10-2 m

1. n

2. n+5

3. n+10

4. n+15

5. n+20

6. n+25

7. n+30

8. n+35

Mean β = ×10 -2 m

Procedure

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An air wedge is formed by keeping two optically plane glass plates in

contact at one end and by placing a thin paper at the other end. This
arrangement is placed on the horizontal plate of the travelling microscope.
A parallel beam of monochromatic light is reflected down on the air
wedge by a glass plate inclined at an angle of 45º to the horizontal.
Interference takes place and a series of dark and bright fringes of equal widths
are observed. The interference occurs due to the reflection from the surface of
the two glass plates G1 andG2. Microscope is focused on these fringes and the
vertical cross wire is made to coincide with the n th dark fringe. The reading on
the horizontal scale of the microscope is taken. Cross wire is made to coincide
with successive fifth fringes (n+5, n+10,....n+50) and the corresponding
microscope readings are noted.
Using the travelling microscope the distance ' l ' between the edge of the
contact and the paper is measured. Hence the thickness of the paper can be
l
calculated using the formula t = 2 metre

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Table 2: To find the distance between the edge of contact and the

material of paper

L.C=0.001 cm TR=MSR+ (VSC X LC)

Position of the Microscope Reading I = R 1 - R2

microscope
MSR VSC TR

X 10-2 m Div X 10-2 m X 10-2 m

At the edge of contact (R1)

At the edge of paper (R2)

Calculation:
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Aim/Apparatus Required/Formula 15

Tabulation 15

Calculation 10

Result 5

Viva 5

Total 50

RESULT

Thickness of the given thin paper (t) using Air wedge method = ---------------
x10-3m

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WAVELENGTH OF LASER:

Laser grating
Screen

Laser source

4.DETERMINATION OF WAVELENGTH OF LASER USING

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GRATING

Exp.No:
Date:

AIM:

To determine the wavelength of laser beam using grating.

APPARTUS REQUIRED:

Laser source, Grating, Screen, Metre scale etc.

FORMULA:

Wavelength of the laser beam

sin θ
λ= nN
metre

Where,
θ → Angle of diffraction
n → Order of diffraction.
N → Number of lines in grating per metre. (1.0325 × 10 5 lines/metre)

PROCEDURE:

WAVELENGTH OF LASER:

The given laser source is switched on. The grating is kept in between the
laser source and a screen in such a way that the laser from the source fall on
the grating. The grating is placed normally to the laser beam. This is done by
adjusting the grating in such a way that the reflected beam coincide with the
beam coming from the laser beam. Then the diffraction pattern will be obtained
on the screen. The distance between the grating and screen should be noted.
And then the distance between the central bright image and the n th fringe is
noted. Then by using the formula θ is calculated

To find the Wavelength of laser beam:

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Distance Left Right

between Mean
the θ 1+θ 2 sin θ
grating Order of θ= λ=
2 nN
and diffraction xn xn
Xn −1 Xn −1
screen (n) θ1=tan θ2=tan
×10-2 D ×10-2 D
(D) M m ×10-10
×10-2m
m

Mean λ: ………………. ×10 -

m
10

Calculation:

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Aim/Apparatus Required/Formula 15
Tabulation 15
Calculation 10
Result 5
Viva 5
Total 50

RESULT:

The wavelength of the laser source λ = …………………… ×10 -10m.

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A
θa

Core
Cladding

5a) DETERMINATION OF ACCEPTANCE ANGLE AND

NUMERICAL APERTURE OF AN OPTICAL FIBER
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Exp.No:
Date:

AIM:

To determine the Acceptance angle and Numerical aperture of an optical

fiber.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Fiber optic light source, Fiber optic cable, NA jig.

FORMULA:

Acceptance angle

r
θ a=
d

Numerical aperture
NA =sin θa

Where,
r → Radius of the circular image in metre.
d → Distance fiber end to circular image in metre.

PROCEDURE:

The laser source is connected to the fiber optic cable. The other 0end is
exposed to NA jig screen. Now, we get circular patch on the screen. The
distance from the fiber end to circular image (d) and the radius of the circular
image is measured. Then by using the formula, θa is calculated.

To find Acceptance angle and Numerical aperture:

S.N Distance from the Radius of the Acceptance

o fiber end to circular angle NA= Sin θa
circular image image
d×10-2 m θa = r/d
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r × 10-3 m
1

4
5

Mean θa: ………………. radians

Calculation:

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Aim/Apparatus Required/Formula 15
Tabulation 15
Calculation 10
Result 5
Viva 5
Total 50

RESULT:

Acceptance angle of the optical fiber θa = …………………….. radians.

Numerical aperture of the optical fiber NA=…………………… no unit.

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5 b) COMPACT DISC - DETERMINATION OF WIDTH OF THE

GROOVE USING LASER

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Exp.No:
Date:

Aim

To determine the width of the groove in a compact disc [CD] using laser.

Apparatus required

A compact disc [CD], laser source, screen, scale etc.

Formula

Width of the groove in a compact disc

nλ
d= sin Ѳ metres.

Where,

n – Order of diffraction

λ - Wavelength of the laser source

ϴ - Angle of diffraction

To find the width of the groove in CD

Wavelength of the laser light (λ) = ………………

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S.No Distanc Order of Distance between central ϴ = tan-1( nλ

d=
. e spectru maxima to the first order x 1 ) sin Ѳ
between m spectrum L
the CD (n)
Mea
and the LHS RHS
n
screen(L
) ×10-2 ×10-
×10-2 m Degree µm
m 3
m

Mean d = ……………….. x
10 m
-6

Theory

We know, when light is allowed to fall on the reflecting surfaces of the

CD/DVD's etc., then it display streaks of colours.In the CD the data is stored in
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tracks and sectors, which consist of pits and lands alternatively as shown in
Fig. 7.2. The digital informations are stored in the CD's in the form of closely
spaced rows Fig. 7.3 and these rows act like a reflecting diffraction grating.
Further, if the label in the CD is removed, then the CD will act as a transmission
grating.The distance between one pit/land to another is termed as the width of
the groove in the CD. Let us find the width of the groove using the following
procedure.

Conversion of CD into transmission grating

Take an empty compact disc (CD). First we need to remove the label surface
from the CD. For this fix, a packing tape (Brown colour) on the label surface
and peel off the tape so that the label surface will come along with the tape.
Now, the CD will look like a transparent material. This CD will now act as a
transmission grating.

Procedure
The width of the groove in a CD shall be determined by adopting the following
steps. viz
1. Fix the transparent CD, in a stand using a clip, in such a way that the
reflecting side should face the laser source as shown in Fig. 7.4.
2. Keep the screen at a distance say 90 cm from the CD.
3. Switch ON the laser source and allow the laser beam to pass through the
transparent area of reflecting side of the CD, so that we will get first order
diffraction pattern in the screen as shown in Fig. 7.5
4. Measure the distance between the central maxima and the first order
spectrum on both the left and right sides of the central maxima.
5. Repeat the experiment by varying the distance say 80 cm, 70 cm etc.,
between the CD and the screen and find the diffraction angle using the
given formula.
6. Now, by substituting the diffraction angle (0) and wavelength (1) of the
laser source in the given formula we can find the width of the groove in a
compact disc.

Calculation

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Aim/Apparatus Required/Formula 15
Tabulation 15
Calculation 10
Result 5
Viva 5
Total 50

RESULT

Width of the groove in a compact disc 'd' = ---------------metres.

ULTRASONIC INTERFEROMETER

Micrometer
Outlet

Reflector plate
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Inlet Quartz crystal

Oscillator current

Position of reflector

6. DETERMINATION OF VELOCITY OF SOUND AND

COMPRESSIBILITY OF LIQUID
- ULTRASONIC INTERFEROMETER

Exp.No:
Date:

AIM:

i) To determine the velocity of ultrasonic waves in the given liquid using

ultrasonic interferometer.
ii) To determine the compressibility of the given liquid.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Ultrasonic interferometer, Measuring cell, Frequency generator, Given

liquid, etc.

FORMULA:

Velocity of ultrasonic waves in the given liquid,

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v ¿ ϑλm /s

Compressibility of the liquid,

1 2 −1
K= 2
m N
v ρ

Where,

ϑ → Frequency of the ultrasonic waves (2MHz = 2×10 6 HZ).

λ → Wavelength of ultrasonic waves in metre.
d → Distance moved by the micrometer screw in metre.
ρ → Density of the given liquid (1000Kg/m 3).
n → Number of oscillations (5).

To find λ

Observed Reading = PSR+ (HSC × L.C) L.C = 0.01mm

n = 5 oscillations

S.No Order of Observed D 2d 2d

λ=
maximum Reading × 10-3 m × 10-3 m n
× 10-3 m × 10-3 m
n
1
n+5
2
n+10
3
n+15
4
n+20
5
n+25
6

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Mean λ: …………………. ×10-3

m

PROCEDURE:

Ultrasonic interferometer has two parts (i) High frequency generator (ii)
Measuring cell. Initially the measuring cell is filled with the experimental liquid.
The high frequency generator is switched ON and the alternating field from the
generator is applied to the quartz crystal which produces longitudinal
ultrasonic waves. The ultrasonic waves pass through the liquid and get
reflected at the surface of the reflector plate.
If the distance between the reflector and the crystal is exactly a whole
multiple of the sound wavelength, standing waves are formed and due to this
anode current of the generator becomes maximum and it can be measured
from the micrometer fitted with the generator.
The distance of the separation between successive maximum or
minimum in the anode current is equal to the half the wavelength of the
ultrasonic waves in the liquid. Thus ‘n’ number of successive maxima or
minima are recorded for a distance ‘d’. Then by using the formula, velocity of
ultrasonic and compressibility of liquid are calculated.

Calculation:

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Aim/Apparatus Required/Formula 15
Tabulation 15
Calculation 10
Result 5
Viva 5
Total 50

RESULT:

i) Velocity of ultrasonic waves in the given liquid ( v ) = …………………. ms-1

ii) Compressibility of the given liquid (K) = ………………….. ×10 -10

m2N-1

CANTILEVER

To find the ratio between mass and time period

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S.No Distance Mass Time for 10 oscillations Time

between G tied to period ( M 2 – M 1)
– clamp the 2 2
and end of free
(T 2 – T 1)
the end
Trial1 Trial Mean
cantilever
(l)

Unit X 10- kg sec Sec Sec Sec Kgs-2

2
m
M1 = T1 =

l= M2 = T2 =

7.SIMPLE HARMONIC OSCILLATIONS OF CANTILEVER

Exp.No:
Date:

Aim
To determine the Young’s modulus of the cantilever beam by performing
simple harmonic oscillations.

Apparatus Required
Cantilever beam (wooden scale ),G-clamp , masses (50gm),stop
watch,tape,etc.

Formula
The Young’s modulus of the cantilever beam

2 3
16 π l (M 2 – M 1)
E= 3 2
b d (T – T )
2 Nm-2
2 1

Where

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l - length of the cantilever from G clamp in metre

b – breadth of the cantileverin metre

d – thickness of the cantileverin metre

M1, M2 - masses tied to the end of the cantilever

T 1 – Time period of the oscillations of the cantilever with mass M 1 in

sec
T2 – Time period of the oscillations of the cantilever with mass M 2 in sec

Breadth of the beam (b) using vernier calliper:

LC = 0.01 × 10-2 m TR = MSR+ (VSC×LC)

S.No MSR VSC TR

×10-2 m (div) ×10-2 m

Mean b = …………………...×10 -2
m

Thickness of the beam (d) using screw gauge:

Z.E = div

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Z.C = × 10 -3 m
LC= 0.01× 10-3 m
S.No PSR HSC OR=PSR+(HSC×LC) CR=OR+Z.
× 10-3 (div) × 10-3 m C
m × 10-3 m
1

Mean d = ……………. ×10 -3

Theory

A cantilever is a beam fixed horizontally at one end and loaded at the other
end as shown in figure. Due to the load applied at the free end, a couple is
created between the two forces viz.,
(i) Force (load W) applied at the free end towards downward direction and
(ii) Reaction force (R) acting in the upward direction at the supporting end.

Now, if the free end with load is made to oscillate, then it will perform simple
harmonic oscillations.

Procedure
Take a one metre scale and fix one end of the scale with the G – clamp as
shown in figure and tie a 50gm mass (M 1) at the other end of the scale, so that
scale will now act as a cantilever. The cantilever is made to oscillate vertically
by applying a force with one hand and allow the cantilever to perform simple
harmonic oscillations. Take a stop watch and find the time taken for 10
oscillations and tabulate it in the tabular column as trial – 1.
In the same manner take the second trial and the find he time period of
oscillation T1 i.e., time taken for one oscillation. Now increase the mass to say
100gm (M2) at the free end and perform the same steps as detailed above and
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find the time period of oscillation T2. Find the breadth (b) of the cantilever
beam using vernier callipers and thickness (d) of the beam using screw gauge.
Now by substituting the values of l1, M1, M2,T1,T2,b and d in the given
formula, we can find the Young’s modulus of the cantilever.

Calculation

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Aim/Apparatus Required/Formula 15
Tabulation 15
Calculation 10
Result 5
Viva 5
Total 50

Result
1. Simple harmonic oscillations were performed using cantilever

2. Young’s modulus of the given material of the beam = …………Nm-2

VIVA VOCE

1. What is Young’s modulus?

It is the ratio of longitudinal stress to the longitudinal strain.

2. What is elasticity?
The property of the body to regain its original shape or size, after the
removal of
deforming force is called elasticity.

3. What is non-uniform bending?

The beam is loaded at its centre, the bent beam forms an arc of a circle.
The
depression in the beam is produced. This bending is called non-uniform
bending.

4. What is LASER?
The term LASER stands for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of
Radiation. It is a device which produces a powerful, monochromatic,
collimated
beam of light in which the waves are coherent.

5. What is stimulated emission?

The process of forced emission of photons caused by incident photo is
called
stimulated emission.

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6. What is meant by diffraction?

The diffraction is described as the apparent bending of waves around
small
obstacles and the spreading out of waves past small openings.

7. What are the characteristics of LASER?

High intensity, high coherence, high monochromatic and high
directionality.

8. Define Numerical aperture?

It is the light gathering ability of an optical fiber. Sine of the acceptance
angle is
called numerical aperture.

9. What is meant by grating element?

Diffraction grating element is an optical device made up of glass or
polished
metal surface having a very large number of fine slits in it. It is used for
producing the optical spectra by diffraction.

10. What is meant by coherence?

Coherent light are light waves that are "in phase" with one another. For
example, two waves are coherent if the crests of one wave are aligned with the
crests of the other and the troughs of one wave are aligned with the troughs of
the other. Otherwise, these light waves are considered incoherent.

11.Define acceptance angle?

The maximum angle at or below which the light can suffer total internal
reflection is called acceptance angle.

12.What is the principle of fiber optic communication system?

Total internal reflection

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13. What are ultrasonics?

Sound waves having frequency more than 20 KHz or 20,000 Hz are known
as ultrasonics.

14. What is meant by compressibility?

In thermodynamics and fluid mechanics, compressibility is a measure of

the relative volume change of a fluid or solid as a response to a pressure (or
mean stress) change. Compressibility is the fractional change in volume per
unit increase in pressure.

15. What is piezo electric effect?

When mechanical stress is applied to one pair of opposite faces of quartz
crystal equal and opposite charges are induced on the other side of opposite
faces of crystal.

16. What is inverse piezo electric effect?

When e.m.f is applied along one pair of opposite faces of quartz crystal
vibrations are produced along other pair of opposite faces of quartz crystal.

17. What is an acoustic grating?

When ultrasonic waves travel through a transparent liquid, due to
alternate compression and rarefaction, longitudinal stationary waves are
formed. If monochromatic light is passed through the liquid perpendicular to
these waves, the liquid behaves as diffraction grating. Such a grating is called
“acoustic grating”.

18. What is meant by a compact disc? Give its use.

A compact disc is a portable storage medium that can be used to record,store
and play audio, video and other data in digital form.

19.What is the principle used to find the width of the groove in a CD

Diffraction

20. List any two applications of diffraction principle.

1.It plays important role in limiting the resolving power of any optical
Instruments
2.It is used in the studies of crystal structure and holography

21. What is meant by simple harmonic motion? Give examples.

displacement from a fixed point and is always directed towards the fixed point
or equilibrium position.
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22.What is meant by a cantilever?

A cantilever is a rigid structural element that extends horizontally and is
supported at only one end.

23.What are transverse and longitudinal waves?

 Transverse wave – It is the wave motion in which the particles of the
medium vibrates perpendicular to the direction of propagation.
 Longitudinal wave – It is the wave motion in which the particles of the
medium vibrates along the direction of propagation.

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