The aluminum beverage can in various stages of production

The can is formed a single sheet of an aluminum alloy.

Production operations include drawing, dome forming, trimming,
cleaning, decoration, and neck and flange forming.

Chapter 11 - 1
p_pg358
 Lecture 2. Metal Alloys
Applications and Processing
Ch 13 & 17
ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
• How are metal alloys classified and how are they used?
• What are some of the common fabrication techniques?
• How do properties vary throughout a piece of material
that has been quenched, for example?
• How can properties be modified by post heat treatment?

Chapter 11 - 2
Why Study application and Processing of Metal Alloys?

 Engineers are often involved in materials selection decisions,

which means they have to learn and know the general
characteristic of various metals and even their alloys.

 To know the use of databases containing property values for large

number of materials is also required. Ex. In Sec. 22.2 and 22.3 we
discuss a materials selection process applied to a cylindrical shaft
that is stressed in torsion.

Chapter 11 - 3
 Learning Objectives-1
1. Name the four different types of steels and cite their
compositional differences, distinctive properties, and typical uses.
2. To know the five cast iron types and describe their
microstructure, and mechanical characteristics.
3. To know the seven different types of nonferrous alloys, and
describe their physical and mechanical properties, and also list
three typical applications.
4. Describe four forming operations that are used to shape metal
alloys.
5. Name and describe five casting techniques.
6. Understand the purpose of heat treatment procedures: process
annealing, stress relief annealing, normalizing, full annealing, and
spheroidizing.
Chapter 11 - 4
 Learning Objectives-2
7. Define hardenability
8. Generate a hardness profile for a cylindrical steel specimen that
has been austenitized and then quenched, given the
hardenability curve for specific alloy, as well as quenching rate-
versus-bar diameter information.
9. Using a phase diagram, describe the two heat treatments that are
used to precipitation harden a metal alloy.
10.Make a schematic plot of room-temp. strength (or hardness)
versus the logarithm of time for a precipitation heat treatment at
constant temperature explain the shape of this curve in terms of
the mechanism of precipitation hardening.

Chapter 11 - 5
 Introduction

Selection of right materials for a specific applications is

important for engineer.

Some metal alloys and their basic properties, fabrication

processes such as heating and annealing procedures for
steel treatment, and precipitation hardening.

Chapter 11 - 6
 Taxonomy of Metals
Metal Alloys

Adapted from
Ferrous Nonferrous Fig. 11.1,
Callister 7e.

Steels
Steels Cast Irons
Cast Irons Cu Al Mg Ti
<1.4 wt% C
<1.4wt%C 3-4.5 wt%C
3-4.5 wt% C

T(˚C) microstructure:
1600 ferrite, graphite

cementite
1400 L
+L Adapted from Fig. 9.24,Callister 7e.
1200  1148˚C L+Fe3C (Fig. 9.24 adapted from Binary Alloy
austenite Phase Diagrams, 2nd ed.,
Eutectic: Vol. 1, T.B. Massalski (Ed.-in-Chief),
1000 4.30
ASM International, Materials Park, OH,
+Fe3C 1990.)
800 727˚C Fe3C
ferrite Eutectoid: cementite
600 0.76 +Fe3C
400
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 6.7
(Fe)
Co , wt% C Chapter 11 - 7
 金屬合金

鐵金屬 非鐵金屬

鋼 鑄鐵

低合金鋼
灰鑄鐵 白鑄鐵 縮墨/緻密
延性鑄鐵 鑄鐵
(球型) 展性
高合
低碳鋼 中碳鋼 高碳鋼 鑄鐵
金鋼

平碳鋼 高強度 平碳鋼 可熱處 平碳鋼 工具鋼 不鏽鋼

低合金鋼 理鋼
Chapter 11 - 8
f11_01_pg360
 Steels
Low Alloy High Alloy
low carbon Med carbon high carbon
<0.25 wt% C 0.25-0.6 wt% C 0.6-1.4 wt% C

heat austenitic
Name plain HSLA plain
plain tool
treatable stainless
Cr,V Cr, Ni Cr, V,
Additions none none none Cr, Ni, Mo
Ni, Mo Mo Mo, W
Example 1010 4310 1040 4340 1095 4190 304
Hardenability 0 + + ++ ++ +++ 0
TS - 0 + ++ + ++ 0
EL + + 0 - - -- ++
Uses auto bridges crank pistons wear drills high T
struc. towers shafts gears applic. saws applic.
sheet press. bolts wear dies turbines
vessels hammers applic. furnaces
blades V. corros.
resistant
increasing strength, cost, decreasing ductility
Based on data provided in Tables 11.1(b), 11.2(b), 11.3, and 11.4, Callister 7e. Chapter 11 - 9
 Refinement of Steel from Ore
Coke
Iron Ore Limestone

BLAST FURNACE
heat generation
gas C+O2 CO2
refractory
vessel reduction of iron ore to metal
layers of coke CO2 + C  2CO
and iron ore 3CO + Fe2O3 2Fe+3CO2
air purification
slag
Molten iron CaCO3  CaO+CO2
CaO + SiO2 + Al2O3  slag

Chapter 11 - 10
 五種平低碳鋼和三種高強度低合金鋼之成分

規 範a 成分 (wt%)b
UNS號
AISI/SAE或 ASTM號碼 C Mn 其 它
碼
平低碳鋼
1010 G10100 0.10 0.45
1020 G10200 0.20 0.45
A36 K02600 0.29 1.00 0.20 Cu (min)
A516 70級 K02700 0.31 1.00 0.25 Si
高強度低合金鋼
A440 K12810 0.28 1.35 0.30 Si (max) , 0.20 Cu (min)
A633 E 級 K12002 0.22 1.35 0.30 Si , 0.08 V , 0.02 N , 0.03 Nb
A656 1級 K11804 0.18 1.60 0.60 Si , 0.1 V , 0.20 Al , 0.015 N

a 這些規範號碼用於美國鋼鐵學會 (AISI)、汽車工程師協會 (SAE)、美國材料

試驗協會 (ASTM) 以及美國統一編號體系 (UNS)，如教科書中所解釋。
b 最大量為0.04 wt% P, 0.05 wt% S和0.30 wt% Si ( 除非有其它特別指明 )。
Chapter 11 - 11
 AISI/SAE名稱之分類以及規範

• 美國汽車工程師協會 (SAE)、美國鋼鐵學會 (AISI) 和美國

材料試驗協會 (ASTM) 提供這些鋼鐵及其它合金的分類以
及規範。

• 鋼料的AISI/SAE名稱以四個數字表示：首二個數字代表合
金含量；後二個代表碳濃度。

• 首二個數字以平碳鋼而言，是1和0；合金鋼以其它二位數
字組合來稱呼 ( 例如：13, 41, 43)。

• 第三和第四數字代表碳重量百分比乘100。例如：1060鋼
是含0.6 wt% 碳之平碳鋼。
Chapter 11 - 12
熱軋材料之機械特性與各種平低碳鋼以及高強度低合金鋼的典型應用

延展性
AISI/SAE或 抗拉強度 降伏強度
[%EL in 典型應用
ASTM號碼 [MPa (ksi)] [MPa (ksi)]
50 mm(2 in.)]
平低碳鋼

1010 325 (47) 180 (26) 28 汽車控制盤、鐵釘和鐵線

1020 380 (55) 205 (30) 25 管路；結構鋼及鋼片

A36 400 (58) 220 (32) 23 結構 ( 橋樑及建築物 )
A516 70 級 485 (70) 260 (38) 21 低溫壓力容器
高強度低合金鋼

A440 435 (63) 290 (42) 21 用螺栓或鉸釘固定之結構

A633 E 級 520 (75) 380 (55) 23 使用於低溫之結構

A656 1 級 655 (95) 552 (80) 15 卡車結構體和火車

Chapter 11 - 13
平碳鋼和各種低合金鋼之AISI/SAE和UNS規範系統以及成分範圍
成分範圍
AISI/SAE名稱a UNS 名稱 ( 除了碳外其它合金元素之wt%)b
Ni Cr Mo 其它
10xx，平碳鋼 G10xx0
11xx，易切鋼 G11xx0 0.08~0.33S
12xx，易切鋼 G12xx0 0.10~0.35S,
0.04~0.12P
13xx G13xx0 1.60~1.90Mn
40xx G40xx0 0.20~0.30
41xx G41xx0 0.80~1.10 0.15~0.25
43xx G43xx0 1.65~2.00 0.40~0.90 0.20~0.30
46xx G46xx0 0.70~2.00 0.15~0.30
48xx G48xx0 3.25~3.75 0.20~0.30
51xx G51xx0 0.70~1.10
61xx G61xx0 0.50~1.10 0.10~0.15V
86xx G86xx0 0.40~0.70 0.40~0.60 0.15~0.25
92xx G92xx0 1.80~2.20Si
a 對每一特定鋼而言，其碳濃度是以重量百分比乘100代入“xx”代替之。b 除了13xx合金外，錳濃度少
於1.00 wt%。除了12xx合金外，磷濃度少於0.35 wt%。除了11xx和12xx合金外，硫濃度少於0.04 wt%。
Chapter 11 - 14
除了92xx合金外，矽濃度介於0.15和0.35 wt% 間變化。
 油淬和回火平碳鋼以及合金鋼之典型應用和機械性質範圍

延展性
AISI UNS 抗拉強度 降伏強度
[%EL in 50 典型應用
編號 編號 [MPa (ksi)] [MPa (ksi)]
mm(2 in.)]
平低碳鋼
1040 G10400 605~780 430~585 33~19 曲柄軸、螺栓
(88~113) (62~85)
1080a G10800 800~1310 480~980 24~13 鑿子、鐵鎚
(116~190) (70~142)
1095a G10950 760~1280 510~830 26~10 刀片、鋼鋸片
(110~186) (74~120)
合金鋼
4063 G40630 786~2380 710~770 24~4 彈簧、手工具
(114~345) (103~257)
4340 G43400 980~1960 895~1570 21~11 襯墊、航空器管路
(142~284) (130~228)
6150 G61500 815~2170 745~1860 22~7 軸、活塞、齒輪
(118~315) (108~270)

a 歸類為高碳鋼 Chapter 11 - 15
 機械性質
AISI UNS 延展性
成分 (wt%)a 條件b 抗拉強度 降伏強度 典型應用
編號 編號 [%EL in 50
[MPa (ksi)] [MPa (ksi)]
mm (2 in.)]
肥粒鐵型
409 S40900 0.08 C, 11.0 Cr, 1.0 退火 380 (55) 205 (30) 20 汽車排氣零件、
Mn, 0.50 Ni, 0.75 Ti 農業用噴灑容器
446 S44600 0.20 C, 25 Cr, 1.5 Mn 退火 515 (75) 275 (40) 20 閥 ( 高溫 ) 玻璃模
燃燒室
沃斯田鐵型
304 S30400 0.08 C, 19 Cr, 9 Ni, 退火 515 (75) 205 (30) 40 化學和食物製造
2.0 Mn 設備、冷凍用器
皿
316L S31603 0.03 C, 17 Cr, 12 Ni, 退火 485 (70) 170 (25) 40 焊接結構
2.5 Mo, 2.0 Mn
麻田散鐵型
410 S41000 0.15 C, 12.5 Cr, 1.0 退火 485 (70) 275 (40) 20 來福槍槍管、刀
Mn Q&T 825 (120) 620 (90) 12 具、噴射引擎零
件
440A S44002 0.70 C, 17 Cr, 0.75 退火 725 (105) 415 (60) 20 刀具、軸承、外
Mo, 1.0 Mn Q&T 1790 (260) 1650 (240) 5 科手術刀具
析出硬化型
17-7PH S17700 0.09 C, 17 Cr, 7 Ni, 析出 1450 (210) 1310 (190) 1~6 彈簧、刀子、壓
1.0 Al, 1.0 Mn 硬化 力容器
Chapter 11 - 16
 Cast Iron (鑄鐵)

• Ferrous alloys with > 2.1 wt% C

– more commonly 3 - 4.5 wt%C
• low melting (also brittle) so easiest to cast

• Cementite decomposes to ferrite + graphite

Fe3C  3 Fe () + C (graphite)
(雪明碳鐵) (肥粒鐵) (石墨)

– generally a slow process

Chapter 11 - 17
 Fe-C True Equilibrium Diagram
T(˚C)
1600
Graphite formation
1400 L Liquid +
promoted by
 +L Graphite
• Si > 1 wt% 1200  1153˚C
Austenite 4.2 wt% C
• slow cooling
1000
  + Graphite
800
740˚C

0.65
600
Adapted from Fig.
 + Graphite
11.2,Callister 7e. (Fig. 11.2 400
adapted from Binary Alloy 0 1 2 3 4 90 100
Phase Diagrams, 2nd ed., (Fe) Co , wt% C
Vol. 1, T.B. Massalski (Ed.-

Fe 3 C  3Fe( ) + C ( 石墨 )
in-Chief), ASM International,
Materials Park, OH, 1990.)

(以石墨代替雪明碳鐵做為安定相) Chapter 11 - 18
 Types of Cast Iron
Gray iron (灰鑄鐵) C 2.5～4.0 wt%
• graphite flakes Si 1.0～3.0 wt%
• weak & brittle under tension
• stronger under compression
• excellent vibrational dampening
• wear resistant Adapted from Fig. 11.3(a) & (b), Callister 7e.

Ductile iron (延性/球墨鑄鐵)

• add Mg or Ce
• graphite in nodules not flakes
• matrix often pearlite - better
ductility
Chapter 11 - 19
鋼(a)和灰鑄鐵(b)相對振動阻尼能力之比較，由此可知灰鑄鐵吸收震
動能量非常有效

灰鑄鐵

Chapter 11 - 20
 波來鐵
Types of Cast Iron
雪
White iron (白鑄鐵) 明
碳
• <1wt% Si so harder but brittle 鐵
• more cementite

Fe3C

F+P(graphite)F+P Adapted from Fig. 11.3(c) & (d), Callister 7e.

Malleable iron (展性鑄鐵)

• heat treat at 800-900ºC
• graphite in rosettes
• more ductile

黑色薔薇狀石墨
(回火碳) Chapter 11 - 21
Production of Cast Iron

Adapted from Fig.11.5,

Callister 7e.

白鑄鐵 波來鐵型 肥粒鐵型 波來鐵型 肥粒鐵型

波來鐵型 肥粒鐵型 灰鑄鐵 灰鑄鐵 延性鑄鐵 延性鑄鐵
Chapter 11 - 22
展性鑄鐵 展性鑄鐵
 Limitations of Ferrous Alloys

1) Relatively high density

2) Relatively low conductivity
3) Poor corrosion resistance

Chapter 11 - 23
 Nonferrous Alloys (非鐵合金)

• Cu Alloys • Al Alloys
Brass: Zn is subst. impurity -lower : 2.7g/cm3
(costume jewelry, coins, -Cu, Mg, Si, Mn, Zn additions
corrosion resistant) -solid sol. or precip.
Bronze : Sn, Al, Si, Ni are strengthened (struct.
subst. impurity aircraft parts
(bushings, landing & packaging)
gear) NonFerrous • Mg Alloys
Cu-Be: -very low : 1.7g/cm3
precip. hardened Alloys -ignites easily
for strength -aircraft, missiles
• Ti Alloys
-lower : 4.5g/cm3 • Refractory metals
-high melting T
vs 7.9 for steel • Noble metals -Nb, Mo, W, Ta
-reactive at high T -Ag, Au, Pt
-space applic. -oxid./corr. resistant (耐高溫)
Based on discussion and data provided in Section 11.3, Callister 7e. (貴金屬) Chapter 11 - 24
 銅及其合金 (Copper and Its Alloys)

• 大部分銅合金無法藉熱處理製程來硬化或強化；
必須用冷加工以及 / 或固溶合金化以改善這些機
械性質。
• 黃銅 (brass) ：鋅為其主要合金元素。
• 青銅 (bronze) ：銅和數種其它元素包括錫、鋁、矽
和鎳的合金，比黃銅強硬
• 鈹銅： 0.6 ～ 2% Be 和 0.2～2.5 % Co，最常見可
析出硬化的銅合金，有極優性質：抗拉強度、極
佳電和耐蝕性質，可以用鑄造、熱加工或冷加工
，價格昂貴
Chapter 11 - 25
 純銅

• 電解銅可作長條、棒狀、線材，其中含 0.04% 氧
• 還原反應
Cu2O + H2 Heated
0
2Cu + H2O
400 C
• H2O 造成內部孔洞及表面浮泡

• 減壓下鑄造銅

無氧條件下可得 高導電銅
(Alloy C10200)

Courtesy of Amax Base Metals Research, Inc. 內部孔洞

Chapter 11 - 26
 銅 - 鋅合金
• 銅 - 鋅合金；含鋅35 wt% 以內還是安定的，稱α相
– 砲銅 ： 70% Cu & 30% Zn 單相
– 孟茲合金( Muntz brass) ：60% Cu & 40% Zn 二相(α
和 β 相)

α相
Alpha
β Beta
相

單相
• Zinc (0.5 to 3%) 常添加入銅中可提高機械強度

Courtesy of Anaconda American Brass Co Chapter 11 - 27

鋁及其合金 (Aluminum and Its Alloys)

• 鋁及其合金之相對低密度2.7g/cm3，高電和熱傳
導率，在某些環境包括大氣下之抗蝕性為其特性
。鋁熔點660℃，限制了使用的最高溫度。
• 鋁的機械強度可藉著冷加工和藉合金化而加強之
；然而，兩種製程都有減少耐蝕性的傾向。主要
合金元素包括銅、鎂、矽、錳和鋅
• 通常鋁合金可分成鑄造或鍛造者。兩類成分是以
四個數字來命名它
• 第一個數字表示主要不純物，對鑄造合金而言，
小數點位在最後兩數字之間

Chapter 11 - 28
 回火名稱 (Temper Designations)

• 回火名稱：一個字母和可能一至三個數字，表示
合金已受的機械處理以及 / 或熱處理，以〝－〞
接於成分命名四個數字之後
T1 –自然時效
• 如：2024-T6 (成分 - 回火名稱 ) T3 –固溶熱處理
T4 –固溶熱處理及
自然時效.
H1 – 應變硬化合金
T5 -冷卻及人工時效
F –製造狀態
T6 - 固溶熱處理及
O –退火狀態 H2 – 應變硬化 人工時效.
H –應變硬化 及partially T7 - 固溶熱處理
T –熱處理to annealed. and stabilized.
produce stable H3 - 應變硬化 T8 -固溶熱處理 ,冷加工,
temper 及退火 人工時效.

自然或人工時效( 指時效硬化 ) Chapter 11 - 29

 鎂及其合金 (Magnesium and Its Alloys)

• 鎂最傲人的特性是它的密度 1.7g/cm3重量輕，具
HCP結晶構造，材料相對柔軟，低彈性模數45
GPa ：具中度低的熔點651℃
• 鎂合金在正常大氣中，耐腐蝕或抗氧化相當好；據
信這種行為是由於不純物所造成而非鎂合金具有之
特性。
• 合金也分為鑄造或鍛造類，其中有些是可熱處理的
，鋁、鋅、錳和有些稀有元素是主要合金元素。
• 在許多應用上，鎂合金已經取代具低密度之工程塑
膠，此乃鎂材料較強硬，更可回收，及低生產費用
之故。

Chapter 11 - 30
 鈦及其合金 (Titanium and Its Alloys)

• 鈦純金屬具有相對低密度4.5g/cm3，高熔點
1668℃，以及107 GPa 的彈性模數，有高延展
性和易於鍛造及機械加工。
• 鈦合金在正常溫度之抗蝕性相當高；它們對於
空氣、海水中，以及各類工業環境幾乎是不腐
蝕的。通常用在飛機結構、航空器、外科植入
，以及用在石油和化學工業。

Chapter 11 - 31
 耐高溫金屬 (The Refractory Metals)

• 有極高熔點的金屬歸類為耐高溫金屬。屬於這一類
金屬包括鈮 (Nb)、鉬 (Mo)、鎢 (W) 和鉭 (Ta)。熔
融溫度範圍介於鈮的2468℃和金屬最高熔點的鎢
3410℃ 。
• 在常溫以及高溫有大的彈性模數與高強度和硬度。
• 鉭和鉬加入不銹鋼中成為合金元素可改善耐蝕性。

Chapter 11 - 32
 超合金 (The Superalloys)
貴重金屬 (The Noble Metals)

‧超合金具有最佳的性質組合。大部分用在航空器
渦輪機零件，它必須承受暴露在嚴重氧化環境和
高溫之下相當合理的時間週期。

‧這些貴重金屬是銀、金、鉑、鈀、銠、釕、銥和
鋨。

Chapter 11 - 33
 Metal Fabrication
• How do we fabricate metals?
– Blacksmith - hammer (forged)
– Molding - cast

• Forming Operations
– Rough stock formed to final shape

Hot working vs. Cold working

• T high enough for • well below Tm
recrystallization • work hardening
• Larger deformations • smaller deformations

Chapter 11 - 34
 Metal Fabrication Methods - I

FORMING CASTING JOINING

• Forging (Hammering; Stamping) • Rolling (Hot or Cold Rolling)
(wrenches, crankshafts) (I-beams, rails, sheet & plate)
force
die roll
Ad
A o blank A d often at Ao
elev. T
roll
Adapted from
force Fig. 11.8,
• Drawing • Extrusion Callister 7e.
(rods, wire, tubing) (rods, tubing)
Ao
die Ad container
tensile die holder
Ao force
force ram billet extrusion Ad
die
container die
die must be well lubricated & clean ductile metals, e.g. Cu, Al (hot)
Chapter 11 - 35
 Metal Fabrication Methods - II

FORMING CASTING JOINING

• Casting- mold is filled with metal

– metal melted in furnace, perhaps alloying
elements added. Then cast in a mold
– most common, cheapest method
– gives good production of shapes
– weaker products, internal defects
– good option for brittle materials

Chapter 11 - 36
 Metal Fabrication Methods - II

FORMING CASTING JOINING

• Sand Casting
(large parts, e.g.,
• trying to hold something that is hot
auto engine blocks)
• what will withstand >1600ºC?
Sand Sand • cheap - easy to mold => sand!!!

molten metal
• pack sand around form (pattern) of
desired shape

Chapter 11 - 37
 Metal Fabrication Methods - II

FORMING CASTING JOINING

• Sand Casting
(large parts, e.g.,
auto engine blocks) Investment Casting
• pattern is made from paraffin.
Sand Sand • mold made by encasing in
molten metal plaster of paris
• melt the wax & the hollow mold
• Investment Casting is left
(low volume, complex shapes
e.g., jewelry, turbine blades) • pour in metal
plaster
die formed
around wax wax
prototype
Chapter 11 - 38
 Metal Fabrication Methods - II

FORMING CASTING JOINING

• Sand Casting • Die Casting
(large parts, e.g., (high volume, low T alloys)
auto engine blocks)

Sand Sand

molten metal
• Continuous Casting
• Investment Casting (simple slab shapes)
(low volume, complex shapes
molten
e.g., jewelry, turbine blades)
plaster solidified
die formed
around wax wax
prototype
Chapter 11 - 39
 Metal Fabrication Methods - III

FORMING CASTING JOINING

• Powder Metallurgy • Welding
(materials w/low ductility) (when one large part is
impractical)
pressure
filler metal (melted)
base metal (melted)
fused base metal
heat
heat affected zone
area unaffected unaffected
contact piece 1 piece 2 Adapted from Fig.
11.9, Callister 7e.
densify (Fig. 11.9 from Iron
Castings
• Heat affected zone: Handbook, C.F.
point contact densification Walton and T.J.
by diffusion at
(region in which the Opar (Ed.), 1981.)
at low T
higher T microstructure has been
changed).
Chapter 11 - 40
 Thermal Processing of Metals
Annealing: Heat to Tanneal, then cool slowly.
• Stress Relief: Reduce • Spheroidize (steels):
stress caused by: Make very soft steels for
-plastic deformation good machining. Heat just
-nonuniform cooling below TE & hold for
-phase transform. 15-25 h.

• Full Anneal (steels):

Types of Make soft steels for
Annealing good forming by heating
to get , then cool in
furnace to get coarse P.
• Process Anneal:
Negate effect of
• Normalize (steels):
cold working by
Deform steel with large
(recovery/
grains, then normalize
recrystallization)
to make grains small.

Based on discussion in Section 11.7, Callister 7e. Chapter 11 - 41

 Heat Treatments
800
Austenite (stable)

a) Annealing T(˚C) A
TE

b) Quenching P
600
c) Tempered
Martensite
B
400 A
Adapted from Fig. 10.22, Callister 7e.

0%
200 M+A
50%
M+A
90%

b) a)
10
-1
10 10
3
10
5 c)
time (s) Chapter 11 - 42
 退火製程 (ANNEALING PROCESSES)

• 退火：材料暴露於高溫一段很長時間然後再慢
慢冷卻的熱處理。
• 退火之實施是為了：
(1) 釋放應力；
(2) 增加柔軟性、延展性和韌性；及 / 或
(3) 產生特殊顯微結構。
• 退火製程包括三個階段：
(1) 加熱到想要的溫度；
(2) 在此溫度持溫或“浸入 (soaking)”；和
(3) 冷卻，通常是到室溫。
• 退火製程需注意退火時間及退火溫度
Chapter 11 - 43
 應力釋放 ( 弛力 ) (Stress Relief)

• 金屬內部殘留應力以下列方式產生：
(1) 塑性變形過程如機械加工和研磨；
(2) 在高溫製造或生產的試樣之不均勻冷卻，諸如
焊接件或鑄件；
(3) 冷卻時所引起的相變態，其中母相和產物相具
有不同密度。

弛力退火：係將試樣加熱至所要求的溫度，並在此
溫度保持足夠長的時間以獲致均溫，最
後在空氣中冷至室溫。

Chapter 11 - 44
 Hardenability--Steels (硬化能)
• Ability to form martensite
• Jominy end quench test to measure hardenability.
(端面淬火試驗) Adapted from Fig. 11.11,
flat ground Callister 7e. (Fig. 11.11
specimen adapted from A.G. Guy,
(heated to  Essentials of Materials
Science, McGraw-Hill Book
phase field) Rockwell C Company, New York,
1978.)
24˚C water hardness tests

• Hardness versus distance from the quenched end.

Hardness, HRC

(硬化能曲線)
硬
度
Adapted from Fig. 11.12,
Callister 7e.

Distance from quenched end 焠火端的距離

Chapter 11 - 45
 Why Hardness Changes W/Position
• The cooling rate varies with position.

Hardness, HRC
60

40

20 distance from quenched end (in)

0 1 2 3
T(˚C) 0%
600 100%
Adapted from Fig. 11.13, Callister 7e.
(Fig. 11.13 adapted from H. Boyer (Ed.)
400 Atlas of Isothermal Transformation and
Cooling Transformation Diagrams,
M(start) American Society for Metals, 1977, p.
200 376.)
A  M

0 M(finish)

0.1 1 10 100 1000

Time (s)
Chapter 11 - 46
 Hardenability vs Alloy Composition
100 10 3 2 Cooling rate (˚C/s)
• Jominy end quench
60

Hardness, HRC
results, C = 0.4 wt% C 100

4340 80 %M
50
40 4140

Adapted from Fig. 11.14, Callister 7e.

8640
(Fig. 11.14 adapted from figure furnished 5140
courtesy Republic Steel Corporation.) 20
0 10 20 30 40 50
Distance from quenched end (mm)

• "Alloy Steels" 800

(4140, 4340, 5140, 8640) T(˚C) TE
600 shift from
--contain Ni, Cr, Mo A B A to B due
(0.2 to 2wt%) 400 to alloying
--these elements shift
the "nose". 200 M(start)
--martensite is easier M(90%)
to form. 0 -1
10 10 103 105 Time (s)
Chapter 11 - 47
 Quenching Medium & Geometry
• Effect of quenching medium: (淬火介質)
Medium Severity of Quench Hardness
air low low
oil moderate moderate
water high high
• Effect of geometry:
When surface-to-volume ratio increases:
--cooling rate increases
--hardness increases
Position Cooling rate Hardness
center low low
surface high high

Chapter 11 - 48
 Precipitation Hardening (析出硬化)

• Particles impede dislocations.

700
• Ex: Al-Cu system
T(˚C) L CuAl2
• Procedure: 600
--Pt A: solution heat treat
 +L
+L
A
(get  solid solution) 500 
--Pt B: quench to room temp. C 
400
--Pt C: reheat to nucleate
small  crystals within 300
0 B 10 20 30 40 50
 crystals. (Al) wt% Cu
composition range
• Other precipitation needed for precipitation hardening
systems: Adapted from Fig. 11.24, Callister 7e. (Fig. 11.24 adapted from J.L.
(固溶熱處理) Murray, International Metals Review 30, p.5, 1985.)
• Cu-Be Temp.
Pt A (sol’n heat treat)
• Cu-Sn
萃冷
• Mg-Al 時效溫度
Pt C (precipitate  (析出熱處理)
Adapted from Fig.
11.22, Callister 7e.
室溫 時效時間 Time
Pt B
Chapter 11 - 49
α相固溶體含過飽和B原子
 Precipitate Effect on TS, %EL
• 2014 Al Alloy:
• TS peaks with • %EL reaches minimum
precipitation time. with precipitation time.
• Increasing T accelerates
process.

30
tensile strength (MPa)

%EL (2 in sample)
400
20
300
149˚C 10
200 204˚C 149 ˚C
204˚C
100 0
1min 1h 1day 1mo 1yr 1min 1h 1day 1mo 1yr
precipitation heat treat time precipitation heat treat time
Adapted from Fig. 11.27 (a) and (b), Callister 7e. (Fig. 11.27 adapted from Metals Handbook:
Properties and Selection: Nonferrous Alloys and Pure Metals, Vol. 2, 9th ed., H. Baker (Managing Chapter 11 - 50
Ed.), American Society for Metals, 1979. p. 41.)
 Summary

• Steels: increase TS, Hardness (and cost) by adding

--C (low alloy steels)
--Cr, V, Ni, Mo, W (high alloy steels)
--ductility usually decreases w/additions.
• Non-ferrous:
--Cu, Al, Ti, Mg, Refractory, and noble metals.
• Fabrication techniques:
--forming, casting, joining.
• Hardenability
--increases with alloy content.
• Precipitation hardening
--effective means to increase strength in
Al, Cu, and Mg alloys.

Chapter 11 - 51