LECTURE NOTE - 2025 CHEMISTRY [FIRST YEAR]

CHAPTER - 03
CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS
AND PERIODICITY IN PROPERTIES

History and significance of periodic classification

1800 - Only 31 elements were discovered
1865 - No.of elements discovered become 63
There arises significance of classification. Because it is difficult to study chemistry of each elements
individually. So elements with similar properties are grouped together.
1. DOREREINER’S LAW OF TRIADS (1829)
He grouped 3 elements in a group known as triads, where atomic weight of middle element is the
arithmetic mean of other two (approximately).

Triads Li Na K Arithmetic mean

7 + 39
Atomic mass 7 23 39 = 23
2

Triads Cl Br I Arithmetic mean

35.5 + 127
Atomic mass 35.5 80 127 = 81.25
2

Triads Ca Sr Ba Arithmetic mean

40 + 137
Atomic mass 40 87.5 137 = 88.5
2

Demerits : It is valid only for a few elements.

2. TELLURIC HELIX MODEL (1862 BY A.E.B. CHANCOURTOIS)
· Telluric helix model was proposed by Chancourtois (French geologist)
· He took a vertical cylinder and drew sixteen equidistant lines on its surface perpendicular to the
axis of cylinder. Then arranged elements in helix at an 45° angle in the increasing order of atomic
mass. He observed that elements whose atomic weights differ from each other by 16 shows similar
properties.
Demerits : It is a complex model. So didn’t get well attention.
39
 STUDY CENTRE

3. NEWLANDS LAW OF OCTAVES (1865)

When the elements were arranged in the increasing order of atomic weight, the properties of every
eighth element were similar to those of first one like the eighth note of a musical scale.

Li Be B C N O F

Na Mg Al Si P S Cl

K Ca

Newlands was awarded Davy medal for his contribution

Demerits :
1. It is only applicable to lighter elements upto calcium
2. With the discovery of Noble gases, the properties of eighth element were no longer similar to
those of first one.
4. LOTHAR MEYER ARRANGEMENT (1869)

He plotted a graph between the atomic volume and atomic weight of the elements and observed that
the element with the similar properties occupied similar positions on the curve.
· Strongly electropositive metal [Li, Na, K, Rb and Cs) occupies peak of the curve.
· Alkaline earth metals occupy [Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba] occupy descending position of the curve.
· Halogens [F, Cl, Br, I] occupy the ascending position of the curve.
On the basis of observations, he proposed that physical properties are the function of atomic weights.
Mendeleev’s Periodic Table and Periodic Law (1869)
He took 63 cards and wrote down all the physical and chemical properties of 63 elements [Only 63
elements were discovered at that time). The elements with similar properties were arranged in same
vertical column and he observed that elements got arranged in the increasing order of atomic weights.
40
 LECTURE NOTE - 2025 CHEMISTRY [FIRST YEAR]

Mendeleev’s Periodic Law

Physical and chemical properties of elements are a periodic function of their atomic weights.
· Correction of doubtful atomic weights.
Demerits of Mendeleev’s Periodic Table
· Anomalous position of hydrogen : Hydrogen shows resemblance with both alkali metals and
halogens.
· He violated his own periodic law. Eg: In the case of Te and I, eventhough atomic weights of Te is
greater than I, I is placed after Te.
· Some dissimilar elements are grouped together while some different elements are placed in different
groups.
· Position of Lanthanoids and Actinoids.
Atomic Number and Modern Periodic Law (1913)
In 1913, Moseley measured the frequencies of X-rays emitted by a metal when bombarded with high
speed electrons. He discovered that the square root of the frequency u of the prominent X-rays by
a metal is proportional to the atomic number and not to the atomic weight.

ie, u = a (z - b)

u = az – ab
Y = mX + c
CHARACTERISTICS OF MENDELEEV’S PERIODIC TABLE [MODIFIED]
1. Mendeleev’s periodic table was modified due to the discovery of new elements.
2. Some elements are arranged in vacant spaces left by Mendeleev.
3. Noble gases were discovered in 1900, and they were accomodated in a new group called zero group.
4. Later lanthanides and actinoids were discovered and arranged in bottom of periodic table.
5. Nine vertical columns called groups and consist of seven horizontal rows known as series [Now it is
periods].
Merits of Mendeleev’s periodic table
1. Systematic study of the elements.
2. Prediction of new elements : -Mendeleev leave some gaps in periodic table and suggested that some
elements will be discovered in future. For eg: He predicted the properties of Gallium [Eka Aluminium]
and Germanium [EKa silicon] which were unknown at that time. Later these elements were discovered
and their properties were found to be similar to those predicted by Mendeleev.
41
 STUDY CENTRE

MODERN PERIODIC LAW

It states that physical and chemical properties of the elements are a periodic functions of their atomic
numbers.
CAUSE OF PERIODICITY
The cause of periodicity in properties is the repetition of similar outer electronic configuration after
certain regular intervals.
For Example

3 Li ® 1s 2 2s1 9 F ® 1s2 2s 2 2p5

11 Na ® 1s2 2s 2 2p 6 3s1 17 Cl ® 1s 2 2s 2 2p6 3s 2 3p5

19 K ® 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1

General electronic configuration = ns1 General electronic configuration = ns2 np5
where n = 2 - 7

The repetition of electronic configuration of alkali metals and halogens only after certain intervals.
These regular intervals are 2, 8, 18, 18, 32,32 are known as magic numbers.
PRESENT FORM/LONG FORM/BOHR’S TABLE
· Vertical columns are known as Groups
· Horizontal rows are known as Periods
· 18 Groups and 7 Periods
In First period ® 2 elements
In Second period ® 8 elements
In Third period ® 8 elements
In Fourth period ® 18 elements
In Fifth period ® 18 elements
In Sixth period ® 32 elements
In Seventh period ® 32 elements
14 elements of 6th period are called Lanthanoid and 14 elements of 7th period are called actinoids
are placed in separate panels at the bottom.
IUPAC NOMENCLATURE OF ELEMENTS WITH ATOMIC NUMBERS > 100
Both American and Soviet Scientists claimed credt for discovering element 104. American’s named
it as Rutherfodium whereas Soviets named it as Kurchatovium (Ku) which leads to controversy. Inorder
to avoid these difficulties, IUPAC suggests a rational system for nomenclature of elements with atomic
number greater than 100.
0 - niL - n 1 - un - u 2 - bi - b 3 - tri - t
4 - quad - q 5 - pent - p 6- hex-h 7 - sept-s
8 - oct - o 9 - enn - e

42
 LECTURE NOTE - 2025 CHEMISTRY [FIRST YEAR]

Z Recommended Name Symbol Official name Symbol

101 Unnilunium Unu Mendeleevium Md

102 Unnilbium Unb Nobelium No

103 Unniltrium Unt Lowrencium Lr

104 Unnilquadium Unq Rutherfodium Rf

105 Unnil pentium Unp Dubnium Db

106 Unnil hexium Unh Seaborgium Sg

107 Unnil spetium Uns Bohrium Bh

108 Unnil octium Uno Hassnium Hs

109 Unnil ennium Une Mestnerium Mt

110 Ununnilium Uun Darmstadlium Ds

111 Unun unium Uuu Roentgenium Rg

112 Ununbium uub Copernicium Cn

113 Ununtrium uut Nihonium Nh

114 Ununquadium uuq Flerovium Fl

115 Ununpentium uup Moscovium Mc

116 Ununhexium uuh Livermorvium Lv

117 Ununseptium uus Tennessine Ts

118 Ununoctium uuo Oganesson Og

ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION OF ELEMENTS IN PERIODS

First period [K shell] : It has only one orbital. So it can accomodate 2 electrons. These are hydrogen
(1s1) and Helium (1s2)
Second period [L shell] : This shell has 4 orbitals, which can accomodate 8 electrons. \ 2nd period
contains 8 elements.
It starts with 3Li[1s2 2s1] and ends with 10N ® 1s2 2s2 2p6
Third period [ M shell] : This shell has 9 orbitals [one 3s, three 3p, and five 3d orbitals. But 3d- orbital
have higher energy thatn 4s orbital. So 3d orbitals fills only after the filling of 4s-orbital. So third period
contains four orbitals. [One 3s, three sp] and contains 8 elements. It starts from

11 Na ¾¾®1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s1 to 18 Ar ¾¾®1s 2 2s 2 2p6 3s 2 3p 6

43
 STUDY CENTRE

Fourth period [N-shell] : \ n = 4 ; starts with 19 K ® Ar 4s1

· After filling 4s, the filling of five 3d orbital begins.

· These arises first transition series [3d-transition series]. 21 Sc -30 Zn

· After filling 3d, then 4s.

· \ No.of orbitals = 1 + 5 + 3 = 9
· So it can accomodate 18 electrons.

· Then 4th period contain 18 elements. 19 K -36 Kr

Fifth period \n = 5

· It also contain 9 orbitals. [One 5s, five 4d and three 5p]

· So 18 elements [37Rb – 54Xe]

· Second transition series 39 Y -48 Cd

Sixth period : There are 16 orbitals present.(One 6s, Seven 4f, Five 5d, and three 6p)

é - Rn ù
· \ 6th period contains 32 elements. ëCs
55 86 û

· 14 elements after 57La, ie 58Ce – 71Lu are placed in bottom of periodic table. Known as Lanthanoids
or first inner transition series.

é - Hg ù
· After 71Lu êHf , electron enters to 5d orbitals. Hence it is 5d transition series.
ë 72 80 úû
Seventh period : [n = 7]
· 16 orbitals present [one 7s, seven 5f, five 6d, 8 three 7p]

é - Og ù
· So it also contain 32 elements. êFr .
ë 87 118 úû

· 14 elements after Ac
89
ie 90 Th - 103Lr are placed in bottom of periodic table. known as

· Actinoids or second inner transition series.

· After 103Lr, electron enters to 6d orbitals. Hence it is 6d transition series.
Periodic Properties
Trends in Physical Properties
There are numerous physical properties of elements such as melting and boiling points, heats of
fusion and vaporization, energy of atomization, etc. Which show periodic variations. However, we
shall discuss the periodic trends with respect to atomic and ionic radii,
ionization enthalpy, electron gain enthalpy and electronegativity.

44
 LECTURE NOTE - 2025 CHEMISTRY [FIRST YEAR]

The properties which are directly or indirectly related to their electronic configuration and show gradual
change when we move from left to right in a period or from top to bottom in a group are called periodic
properties.
Atomic Radius
One practical approach to estimate the size of an atom of a non-metallic element is to measure the
distance between two atoms when they are bound together by a single bond in a covalent molecule
and from this value, the “Covalent Radius” of the element can be calculated. For example, the bond
distance in the chlorine molecule (Cl2 ) is 198 pm and half this distance (99 pm), is taken as the atomic
radius of chlorine. For metals, we define the term “Metallic Radius” which is taken as half the internuclear
distance separating the metal cores in the metallic crystal. For example, the distance between two
adjacent copper atoms in solid copper is 256 pm; hence the metallic radius of copper is assigned a
value of 128 pm. we use the term Atomic Radius to refer to both covalent or metallic radius depending
on whether the element is a non-metal or a metal. Atomic radii can be measured by X-ray or other
spectroscopic methods
Covalent radius
It is the distance from the centre of the nucleus to the outermost shell of electrons. Covalent radius for
an atom A in a molecule A2
rA = r A + r A / 2 = d A – A / 2
For heteroatomic molecule AB, (Stevenson-Shoemakers formula)

dA – B = rA + rB - 0.09 cA - c B

where, XA and XB are electronegativities of A and B.

In general, the atomic size decreases on moving from left to right in a period due to increase in
effective nuclear charge and increases on moving from top to bottom in a group due to addition of
new shells.
van der Waals’ Radius
It is defined as one-half of the distance between the nuclei of two non – bonded isolated atoms or two
adjacent atoms belonging to two neighbouring molecules of an element in the solid state.
Metallic Radius
It is define as one-half of the distance between the centres of nuclei of the two adjacent atoms in the
metallic crystal.
The decreasing order of atomic radii is : Li(152)>Be(111)>B(88)>C(77)>N(74)>O(66)> F (64)
Ionic Radius
An atom can be changed to a cation by removal of electrons and to an anion by gain of electrons. A
cation is always smaller than the parent atom because during its formation effective nuclear charge
increases and sometimes a shell may also decrease. On the other hand, the size of an atom is
always larger than the parent atom because during its formation effective nuclear charge decreases.
In case of isoelectronic ions, higher the nuclear charge. Smaller is the size.
eg., AI3 < Mg2+ < Na+ < f– < O2- < N3-
( As the Z/e value increases ionic radii decreases for isoelectronic species ). Where Z-atomic number
e-charge.

45
 STUDY CENTRE

The order of radii is covalent radius < metallic radius < van der Waals’ radius
ATOMIC RADII OF CERTAIN ELEMENTS

Ionisation Enthalpy (IE)

It is the amount of energy required to remove the loosely bound electron from the isolated gaseous
atom.
A(g) + IE ® A+ (g) + e–
Various factors with which IE vanes are :
(i) Atomic size: varies inversely
(ii) Screening effect: when shielding increases, I.E. decreases
(iii) Nuclear charge: varies directly
Generally left to right in periods ionisation enthalpy increases; down the group, it decreases.
IE values of inert gases are exceptionally higher due to stable configuration.
Successive ionisation enthalpies
IE3 > IE2 > IE1
IE1 of N is greater than that of oxygen due to stable half – filled 2p-orbitals.
Among transition elements of 3d-series, 24Cr and 29Cu have higher IE2 due to half-filled and fully-filled
stable d-orbitals
1. Ionisation enthalpy of beryllium is greater than Boron
It is known that full filled orbital’s are most stable and after than half filled atomic orbital’s are most
stable. In the above case,

46
 LECTURE NOTE - 2025 CHEMISTRY [FIRST YEAR]

(i) Be has most stable full filled configuration

2 2 2 2 1
Be = 1s , 2s . While in B one unpaired electron is present. B = 1s , 2s , 2p
So, in order to remove electron from Be we have to supply very high amount of energy because it has
full filled electronic configuration but in B one unpaired electron is present so it is easy to remove
electron from B.
That’s why ionisation enthalpy of Be is more than B
(ii) Similarly, in the case of Nitrogen and Oxygen nitrogen has half filled electronic configuration
2 2 3
N = 1s , 2s , 2p while in oxygen one more electron is present than nitrogen O = 1s2, 2s2, 2p4.
So it is easy to remove electron from oxygen but in nitrogen we have to supply a high amount of
energy in order to remove the electron. That is why ionisation enthalpy of N is more than O.
IONISATION ENTHALPY VALUES

Electron Gain Enthalpy (EGE or DHeg )

It is the amount of energy released when an electron is added in an isolated gaseous atom. First
electron gain enthalpy is negative while the other successive electron gain enthalpy will be positive
due to repulsion between the electrons already present in the anion and the electron being added.

O(g) + e- ® O- g ; DHeg = -141kJmol-1

O- g + e - ® O 2- g ; DHeg = +780kJmol-1

Various factors with which electron gain enthalpy varies are

H
(i) Atomic size: Atomic size increases, value of D eg decreases

(ii) Nuclear charge: varies directly

Along a period, electron gain enthalpy becomes more and more negative while on moving down the
group, it becomes less negative.
Ø Noble gases have positive electron gain enthalpies.

Ø Halogen have maximum value of DHeg with in a period due to smallest atomic size.

47
 STUDY CENTRE

Ø F and O atom have small size and high charge density, therefore have lower electron gain enthalpy,
than Cl and S respectively: Cl > F; S > O.
Ø Elements having half-filled and fully-filled orbitals exhibit more stability. Therefore, electron gain
enthalpy will be low for such elements.

Ø Electron gain enthalpy can be measured by Born-Haber cycle and elements with high DHeg are good
oxidising agent.

Nitrogen has positive electron gain enthalpy ( D eg H = +31 KJ / mol )

The Main Concept Behind these Statements is the Extra Stability of half filled p orbitals.
2 2 3
Nitrogen has a electronic configuration of 1s ,2s ,2p . As the p orbital is half filled,it has an extra
stability than other elements next to it. Due to this , to add electron to nitrogen energy is required,
hence it has a positive value of electron gain enthalpy .
ELECTRON GAIN ENTHALPY VALUES

Electronegativity (EN)
It is defined as the tendency of an atom to attract the shared electron pair towards itself in a covalent
bond. Various factors with which electronegativity varies are :
(i) Atomic size: varies inversely
(ii) Charge on the ion: varies directly, e.g., Li < Li+, Fe2+ < Fe3+
(iii) Hybridisation : As the % of S character increases electronegativity increases
Ø Electronegativity of carbon atom = C2H6 < C2H4 < C2H2
Ø In periods as we move from left to right electronegativity increases, while in the groups
electronegativity decreases down the group.
Ø For noble gases, its value is taken as zero.
Ø Electronegativity helps to predict the polarity of bonds and dipole moment of molecules.
Ø Electronegativity order of some elements (on Pauling scale) is
F > O > N = Cl > Br
(4.0) (3.5) (3.0) (3.0) (2.8)

48
 LECTURE NOTE - 2025 CHEMISTRY [FIRST YEAR]

Valency
Ø It is defined as the combining capacity of the element. The valency of an element is related to the
electronic configuration of its atom and usually determined by electrons present in the valence shell.
Ø On moving along a period from left to right, valency increases from 1 to 4 and then decreases to zero
(for noble gases) while on moving down a group the valency remains the same.
Ø Transition metals exhibit variable valency because they can use electron (from outer as well as
penultimate shell.
Chemical Reactivity
Ø The atomic and ionic radii, as we know, generally decrease in a period from left to right. As a
consequence, the ionization enthalpies generally increase and electron gain enthalpies become
more negative across a period.
Ø In other words, the ionization enthalpy of the extreme left element in a period is the least and the
electron gain enthalpy of the element on the extreme right is the highest negative (note : noble gases
having completely filled shells have rather positive electron gain enthalpy values).
Ø This results into high chemical reactivity at the two extremes and the lowest in the centre. Thus, the
maximum chemical reactivity at the extreme left (among alkali metals) is exhibited by the loss of an
electron leading to the formation of a cation and at the extreme right (among halogens) shown by the
gain of an electron forming an anion.
Ø Hence alkali metals are best reducing agents and halogens are best oxidising agents.
Ø On moving across the group, metallic character decreases (Non-metallic character increases).
Ø In general, oxides formed by elements in extremely left of the periodic table is basic (Na2O, CaO etc)
But oxides of elements in extreme right are acidic (eg: N2O5, Cl2O7)
Ø Oxides of elements in the centre are amphoteric (Al2O3, ZnO, As2O3) or neutral (CO, N2O)
Ø Amphoteric oxide behave as both acid and base, whereas neutral have no acidic on basic properties.
Ø Among transition metals (3d series), the change in atomic radii is much smaller as compared to
those of representative elements across the period. The change in atomic radii is still smaller among
inner-transition metals (4f series). The ionization enthalpies are intermediate between those of s- and

49
 STUDY CENTRE

p-blocks. As a consequence, they are less electropositive than group 1 and 2 metals.
Ø In a group, the increase in atomic and ionic radii with increase in atomic number generally results in a
gradual decrease in ionization enthalpies and a regular decrease (with exception in some third period
elements) in electron gain enthalpies in the case of main group elements.
Ø Reactivity of metal increases with decrease in IE, electronegativity and increase in atomic size as well
as electropositive character.
Ø Reactivity of non-metals increases with increase in electronegativity as well as electron gain enthalpy
and decrease in atomic radii.
Melting and Boiling Points
Ø On moving down the group, the melting point and boiling point for metallic elements go on decreasing
due to the decreasing forces of attraction. However, for non-metals, melting point and boiling point
generally increase down the group.
[Along a period from left to right, melting point and boiling point increases and reaches a maximum
value in the middle of the period and then start decreasing].
Ø Tungsten (W) has highest m.p. (3683K) among metals, carbon (diamond) has the highest m..p,
(4000 K) among non-metals.
Ø Li metal has minimum density while iridium (Ir) metal has maximum density.
Electropositivity or Metallic Character
Ø The tendency of an atom of the element to lose valence electrons and form positive ion is called
electropositivity.
Ø Greater the electropositive character, greater is the metallic character.
Ø Electropositive character decreases on moving across the period and increases on moving down the
group.
Ø Alkali metals are the most electropositive and halogens are the least electropositive element in their
respective period.
Ø Basic nature of oxides of metallic character, i.e., it also decreases along a period and increases down
the group.
Diagonal Relationship
Certain elements of 2nd period show similarity in properties with their diagonal elements in the 3rd
period as shown below :

Thus, Li resembles Mg, Be resembles Al and B resembles Si. This is called diagonal relationship and
is due to the reason that these pairs of elements have almost identical ionic radii and polarizing power
(i.e., charge/size ratio). Elements of third period, i.e., Mg, Al and Si are known as bridge elements.
Anomalous Properties of Second Period Elements
Ø The first element of each of the groups 1 (lithium) and 2 (beryllium) and groups 13-17 (boron to
fluorine) differs in many respects from the other members of their respective group. (They are known
as head elements).
Ø For example, lithium unlike other alkali metal ls, and beryllium unlike other alkaline earth metals, form
compounds with pronounced covalent character; the other members of these groups predominantly

50
 LECTURE NOTE - 2025 CHEMISTRY [FIRST YEAR]

form ionic compounds. In fact the behaviour of lithium and beryllium is more similar with the second
element of the following group i.e., magnesium and aluminium, respectively.
Ø This sort of similarity is commonly referred to as diagonal relationship in the periodic properties.
Ø The anomalous behaviour is attributed to their
* small size
* Large charge/ radius ratio
* High electronegativity of the elements.
Ø Consequence
In addition, the first member of group has only four valence orbitals (2s and 2p) available for bonding,
whereas the second member of the groups have nine valence orbitals (3s, 3p, 3d). As a consequence
of this, the maximum covalency of the first member of each group is 4 (eg., boron can only form
[BF4]– whereas the other members of the groups can expand their valence shell to accommodate
more than four pairs of electrons eg., aluminium forms [AlF6]3–.
Ø Furthermore, the first member of p-block elements displays greater ability to form pp - pp multiple
bonds to itself (e.g., C = C,C º C,N = N,N º N ) and to other second period elements (eg:
C = O,C = N,C º N,N = O ) compared to subsequent members of the same group.

51