Examining the Determinants of Open Government

Data Adoption: An Indonesian Case

1st Dede Setiono 2nd Evaewero French 3rd Abdul Ilman
School of Public Policy, School of Public Policy, School of Public Policy,
Oregon State University Oregon State University Oregon State University
Oregon, United States of America Oregon, United States of America Sumbawa University of Technology
2023 11th International Conference on Cyber and IT Service Management (CITSM) | 979-8-3503-0596-8/23/$31.00 ©2023 IEEE | DOI: 10.1109/CITSM60085.2023.10455200

[email protected] [email protected] Oregon, United States of America

[email protected]

Abstract— In response to the growing interest in open to manage information that can be accessed and reused
government data (OGD) worldwide, there is a pressing need for (reproduced) easily and freely and the philosophical meaning
research that explores the determinants of OGD adoption. This of civic participation and engagement. The ultimate goal of
study aims to address this research gap by investigating the open government is development through increased
factors that influence the adoption of OGD among government government efficiency in providing public services, fostering
agencies in the Indonesian context. Drawing on previous social innovation, establishing laws, settling conflicts, and
research on innovation adoption, the study develops a fostering cooperation between citizens and civil societies [5].
comprehensive research model that integrates the technology- Therefore, OGD is necessary for implementing open
organization-environment (TOE) framework and four key
government as a whole.
factors: perceived benefits, perceived risks, organizational
readiness, and external pressures. To empirically examine the
Government data will be considered open if it is
research model, survey data from 320 government agencies available publicly and complies with these principles:
were collected and analyzed through regression and path complete, all (electronic) public data should be available,
analysis. The results of the study reveal a significant positive except that subject to valid privacy, security, or privilege
relationship between perceived benefits and external pressures limitations. It is also encouraged to make non-electronic
toward the adoption of OGD by government agencies. This information available electronically to the extent possible;
finding suggests that government agencies are more likely to primary, data is available at the highest level of granularity,
adopt OGD when they perceive clear benefits and experience without any aggregation or modification; timely, data is made
external pressures related to OGD adoption. available as soon as is necessary to maintain its value;
accessible, data must be made available on the Internet to
Keywords—Open Government Data, Technology Adoption, E- accommodate the widest range of users and uses and must be
Government published with current and alternative protocols and formats;
machine-processable, data must be properly structured and
I. INTRODUCTION encoded to be widely used, with sufficient documentation
One Data Indonesia (ODI, Satu Data Indonesia) is one available; non-discriminatory, data should be accessible to
of the key implementations of the Indonesian government's anyone without registration and anonymity; non-proprietary,
Open Government Data (OGD) commitment. Indonesia’s data should be available in multiple formats, as proprietary
formal endeavor for the open government was dated in 2011 formats add restrictions and non-proprietary formats may not
when Indonesia and seven other countries (Brazil, Mexico, reach a wide audience; license-free, data is not subject to
Norway, the Philippines, South Africa, the United Kingdom copyright, patent, trademark, or trade secret regulation and
and the United States) founded the Open Government should be marked as public domain. [6], [7],[8].
Partnership (OGP) as a multilateral initiative to foster a more Literature has documented numerous potential and
transparent, accountable, and responsive government. empirical benefits of implementing OGD in terms of
Currently, 75 countries as members, 105 local jurisdictions, political, economic, social, technological, operational, and
and thousands of civil society organizations within OGP technical [9]. From the political perspective, the benefits are
demonstrate the emergence of open government worldwide. increased transparency [10]–[15], improved accountability
However, as the founder of one of the open government [12]–[14], strengthened democracy [12], [16]–[18],
initiatives, Indonesia’s progress in open government encouraged trust in the political system [19], and stabilization
implementation has encountered many challenges. In 2017, and legitimization of policies [10], [13], [20], [21]. Benefits
according to the Global Open Data Index, Indonesia was for the economy such as increased economic growth [10],
ranked 61 out of 94 countries [1]. The index measures the [19]–[21], stimulation of innovation [17], [19], promote
openness of government data, including government budget, entrepreneurship [19], facilitating transformation to a
national statistics, draft legislation, national map, water knowledge-based economy [19], and development of new
quality, and many others. Similar progress was also reported products and services [20]. In terms of the social aspect, there
by the United Nations E-Government Survey in 2020, which are improved government services [10], [12], [14], [17], [19],
ranked Indonesia 88 out of 193 countries [2]. The ranking is [21], public engagement [13], [19]–[21], improved public
slightly better in the Open Data Index from the Open Data relations toward government [10], [17], unlock collective
Barometer, in which Indonesia was ranked 36 out of 115 intelligence [19], and insights into government mechanisms
national governments [3]. [10], [20]. For the technological aspect, there is an increased
OGD is a major component of the larger open standardization of procedures in e-government [14], [22]. In
government movement, including more recent areas like the operational and technical aspects, the benefits are fair
public involvement and citizen experience [4] and decision-making [13], [23], improved government data and
government accountability and transparency in a broader processes [10], rapid availability of data [20], high qualitative
aspect. The term open data suggests both the technological data [20], and sustainability of data [18]. In addition, data use
meaning of using computers (or other tools) and the internet

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would be optimal if it is supported by organizational culture, On the other hand, perceived risks have been an influential
digital literacy, trust, and stakeholder engagement [3]. factors of innovation adoption [31] and are hypothesized as
These benefits have motivated the Indonesian follows:
government to promote open government data at all levels of
government through One Data Indonesia (ODI). ODI H2: Higher level of perceived risk will be negatively related
(https://data.go.id/) is a government data governance to higher level of OGD adoption.
initiative that seeks to provide high-quality data that can be In the organizational context, organizational readiness has
shared between Central and Regional Agencies. This policy been noted as a significant factor influencing IT innovation
was launched in 2012 but was hampered by institutional adoption processes [22]. Organizational readiness, including
problems, such as a lack of standard technical norms, organization infrastructure, arguably affects organizational
bureaucratic procedures, and data management skills [3].To capacities as they provide essential hardware platforms,
overcome these challenges, the government provides a supporting software programs, physical facilities, and
regulation through the Presidential Regulation No. 39 of computer networks. It is also a significant aspect of
2019. During 2021-2022, there were more than 800 organizational competitiveness [32]. In addition to
socialization and assistance programs at all levels of organizational infrastructure, organization context also
government in Indonesia. According to the Ministry of explains how top management can offer guidance, support,
National Planning’s assessment, the readiness level was 50% and commitment to create an environment conducive to
at the central government level and 62% at the provincial innovation [32]. Hence, we can expect this third hypothesis
level [24]. to be:
However, institutional problems still arise, such as data
standardization and interoperability and the exclusion of H3: Higher level of organizational readiness will be
stakeholders in the overall ecosystem [3]. Moreover, other positively related to higher level of OGD adoption.
challenges for successful ODI implementation in Indonesia Meanwhile from the environmental context, it refers to the
are the data and metadata standardization problem has been arena where an organization conducts business among
exacerbated by the massive scale of governance structure multiple stakeholders such as business partners, competitors,
(632 data trustees, including 84 ministries and agencies in 34 and customers. These factors, which are external to an
provinces) [3], the incongruity of government policies organization, can arguably constrain or promote
between central and regional levels [3], irrelevant and technological innovation and have served as significant
uncertain regulatory framework [25], limited competent determinants of innovation assimilation in many previous
human resources in digital technology [3], [25], [26], studies [33]-[35]. Then the fourth hypothesis will be:
inadequate data and technological infrastructure[25], [26],
abuse of data [26], ensuring data credibility [26], maintaining H4: Higher level of external pressures will be positively
public engagement [26]. Some of these challenges have related to higher level of OGD adoption.
obscured citizen engagement, indicated by limited available This study will have some contribution. First, it presents
datasets in the portal and imbalances of user access across a new perspective on innovation adoption to identify
Indonesia [25]. significant determinants of OGD adoption in developing
Most of those past studies offer an understanding of countries context. Second, advance knowledge on OGD
OGD and ODI from three perspectives: policy-making adoption by empirically testing a research model that
context, implementation context, impact context. However, integrates various aspects of the existing framework which
studies that explored determinants factors of OGD, especially includes the analysis of cost-benefit perspectives,
in the context of organizational, technological, and organizational readiness, and external pressures of
environmental in a single framework, are scarce. Therefore, institutional theory in the context of OGD innovation. Third,
the research question of this study is what the determinants it provides policy suggestions on the managerial implications
factors of OGD/ODI adoption in Indonesia are. The that might benefit governmental practitioners.
assessment of the determinants will employ the Technology-
Organization- Environment (TOE) Framework [27]. TOE is II. RESEARCH METHODS
a theoretical framework that explains technology adoption in
A. Sample
organizations and describes how the process of adopting and
implementing technological innovations are influenced by The present research focuses on government agencies in
the technological context, organizational context, and Indonesia as the target sample. Indonesia was selected due to
environmental context. its involvement in the open government partnership, which
From a technological context, in considering the began in 2011 and aimed to enhance transparency,
adoption of novel technology, organization are often faced accountability, and inclusive governance. In 2019, the
with the challenges of comparing and contrasting the relative president of Indonesia issued a regulation introducing the
risks and rewards that come with adoption [28]. This context ODI initiative, which aimed to harmonize data collected by
can be conceptualized into perceived benefits and perceived various ministries and agencies to ensure accuracy,
risks. Scholars [29]-[30] suggested that benefits, as perceived accessibility, shareability, and accountability. The study
by potential adopters, have been important factors that affect conducted a survey in 2021 involving 45 government
innovation adoption. Therefore, we can formulate the first agencies in Indonesia to evaluate the effectiveness of the ODI
hypothesis as follows: initiative. A total of 320 responses were collected, with the
sample consisting of ministries (64.05%), non-ministerial
H1: Higher level of perceived benefits will be positively institutions (12.82%), and local government (23.13%).
related to higher level of OGD adoption.

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B. Measurement Instrument demonstrating that the constructs do not significantly overlap
To measure the relevant constructs, a survey instrument in terms of shared information.
was developed based on existing literature with modifications
made to align it with the Indonesian context [22]. The survey TABLE I. TOTAL EFFECTS ON ADOPTION OF OPEN GOVERNMENT
encompassed questions that assessed the adoption of ODI DATA
within different agencies, perceived benefits, perceived risks,
organizational readiness, and external factors impacting ODI. Dependent Variable: Adoption of open government
Responses to the questions were measured on a Likert scale data in Indonesia3
ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).
Independent No. of Composite AVE β p-value
C. Perceived Benefits variable3 items reliabilities
Perceived benefits refer to the potential advantages that Perceived 9 .93 .68 .14 .03
OGD can offer to government agencies. This includes benefits
transparency, public relations and government reputation, Perceived risks 10 .90 .54 .04 .47
public service, effectiveness and efficiency, and economic Organizational 7 .90 .54 .05 .33
growth. readiness
External pressure 4 .84 .79 .29 <.001
D. Perceived Risks
1
R=.42; R2=.20; F=14.75; p-value<001
Perceived risks pertain to the obstacles associated with the 2
Dependent variable is a composite index of 3 items with Cronbach’s
adoption of ODI within government agencies. These risks alpha= .84 and average = 4.19
encompassed the legal framework for data sharing, data 3
Items measured on 5-point scales ranging from “strongly disagree” (1) to
quality and format, security risks and data loss, privacy “strongly agree” (5).
concerns, and potential data and political intervention.
E. Organization Readiness Further, in testing the hypotheses, a path analysis was carried
out with the result presented in Figure 1 below. As shown in
Organization readiness refers to the degree to which
Figure 1, the standardized path coefficients for perceived
agencies receive support from top management for the
benefits, perceived risks, organizational readiness, and
adoption of ODI. It considers factors such as financial
external pressures are 0.14, 0.4, 0,5 and 0.29, respectively.
capacity, IT infrastructure, leadership skills for effective
These values indicate the relative magnitude of the impact
implementation, and internal and top management support
that each variable has on the adoption of OGD. According to
for adopting ODI.
this finding, however, the integrated model demonstrates that
F. External Factors not all path coefficients are statistically significant. To note,
External factors encompass the external pressures that the path coefficients here indicate the strength and direction
government agencies face when considering the adoption of of the relationships between variables in the model. The
open government practices. These factors comprise formal significant variables, according to this result, are perceived
and external pressures exerted by other organizations upon benefits and external pressures. Meanwhile, the variables for
which the government agencies are dependent, as well as perceived risks and organizational readiness appear not to be
public expectations within the society in which they operate. significant in the path coefficient for the adoption of open
government data (OGD).

III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

A. Findings
It is imperative to note that during the execution of
confirmatory factor analysis, an assessment was conducted Perceived
on all measures to examine the reliability and validity of the Benefits
model. The outcomes of the analysis demonstrated a
favorable correspondence between the model and the
observed data, indicating a strong level of reliability and
convergent validity for the measurement scale. In this regard, Perceived
Risks Adoption of
a reliability test was carried out to test the reliability of the
index created, with all indexes having a Cronbach alpha > .65 Open
Government
(α= (.84-.93). Data Indonesia
Additionally, the following Table 1 provides information Organizational
on the composite reliabilities (CR) and average variance Readiness
extracted (AVE) for all constructs, which surpass the
=.20
recommended threshold values established [36], [37]. These
outcomes indicate satisfactory internal consistency of the
multiple items for each construct and signify that a significant External
portion of the variance is accounted for by the constructs. Pressures
Discriminant validity was also assessed by comparing the
AVE values with the squared correlations among the
constructs proposed by [38], [39]. The AVE values were
Fig. 1. Path analysis of the integrated model
found to be higher than the squared correlations between any
pair of constructs, indicating discriminant validity and

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 causal relationship in regard to the adoption of Open
Additionally, based on the findings in Figure 1, it is Government Data [44].
evident that the relationships proposed in hypotheses H1 and On these contradictory results, the disparity in defining
H4 are strongly supported. Hypothesis H1 suggests that and measuring organizational readiness might explain the
perceived benefits positively affect the adoption of OGD, and discrepancy in its impact on the adoption decision between
this is corroborated by the moderate path coefficient of 0.14. this study and the research confirming its significant effects
This implies that individuals or organizations are more likely [29], [43], [44]. Despite the similarity in the context of
to adopt OGD when they perceive substantial benefits government services, the different operationalizations of
associated with it. In addition, the external pressures (0.29)
readiness may have resulted in varying outcomes. As such, it
also exhibit significant path coefficients, indicating that these
is crucial to consider these differences in future studies to
factors contribute to the adoption of OGD, supporting the H4.
External pressures encompass external influences or obtain a comprehensive understanding of the role of
demands that drive OGD adoption. The findings suggest that organizational readiness in the adoption of government
external pressures have a meaningful impact on the adoption initiatives like OGD.
of OGD. Finally, this study also did not find a significant
On the other hand, H2 and H3 on the perceived risks and relationship between perceived risks and the adoption of
organizational readiness appears not to hold statistical powers Open Government Data (OGD), which contradicts previous
to be sustained. This indicates that perceived risks and research on innovative adoption, including studies on open
organizational readiness has no statistical influence on the systems technology innovations conducted by [31]. Several
adoption of Open Government Data in Indonesia. possible explanations can account for these findings. Firstly,
it is important to note that most government agencies in
B. Discussions Indonesia have opted to outsource their organizational
The findings of this study strongly affirm the notion that information systems. This strategic decision enables agencies
the perceived benefits play a crucial role in influencing the to address and overcome technological barriers and
adoption of Open Government Data (OGD) initiatives in the associated risks more effectively by leveraging the expertise
Indonesian context. While previous research on the adoption of external parties. By relying on external experts, the
of various innovations has yielded contrasting results, this agencies can readily tackle any technological and technical
study's findings align with prior research on the significance challenges that may arise during the OGD adoption process.
of perceived benefits in the adoption of Electronic Data Consequently, the impact of perceived risks on OGD
Interchange (EDI) and e-government [22]. Looking at adoption among government agencies is minimized.
previous studies on EDI adoption and e-government services Secondly, Indonesia has introduced the One Data Indonesia
adoption [29], [31], it becomes evident that perceived project, which provided comprehensive guidance to all
benefits have consistently emerged as a key factor in driving government agencies regarding the process of opening up
adoption process. These earlier studies support the notion that their data. As a result, these guidelines likely contributed to
the perceived benefits associated with adopting new reducing the significance of foreseeable challenges, such as
technologies and services play a critical role in shaping the technological barriers, as a primary factor influencing the
decision-making process of government agencies. OGD adoption decisions of government agencies.
Accordingly, this study also reinforces the significance of Taken together, these factors indicate that while
perceived benefits in comprehending the adoption patterns of perceived risks have been considered influential in previous
OGD among government agencies. studies on innovation adoption, their impact on OGD
Further, the findings on the external pressure variable adoption among government agencies in Indonesia appears to
align with the initial that there is a positive correlation be diminished. The outsourcing of information systems and
between higher levels of external pressures and increased the implementation of specific guidelines through One Data
adoption of Open Government Data. This observation Indonesia have played crucial roles in mitigating perceived
strengthens the conclusions drawn from previous similar risks and emphasizing other factors that drive the decision-
studies [40], [41], [42]. This outcome is not totally expected, making process regarding OGD adoption.
however, given the context of Indonesia’s governance
system, where the public and administrative systems, C. Implications
including authorities and agencies at the same level, hold
different substantial influences over OGD adoption among This study has significant practical implications as it
government agencies [40]. Regardless, the finding of this identifies key factors that influence the adoption of OGD
study suggests that the presence of external pressures and the within government agencies in the Indonesian context. These
influence exerted by various stakeholders play a significant findings can assist policy practitioners in developing more
role in shaping the adoption of OGD within the government effective strategies to encourage the acceptance and
sector in Indonesia. implementation of OGD while devising appropriate initiation
On the other hand, contrasting with previous studies [41] strategies. First and foremost, this study emphasizes the
this paper found insignificant effects of organizational importance of highlighting the benefits of OGD adoption to
readiness on the adoption of Open Government Data. This government agencies. Policy practitioners should emphasize
suggests that the organizational readiness variable may be the potential advantages that government agencies can gain
overshadowed by other factors such as external pressures or from releasing their data, such as substantial rewards and
facilitating conditions. These results also align with a study positive outcomes for the agency itself. By showcasing these
on the adoption decision of e-government services that benefits, policy practitioners can create a stronger case for
organizational readiness has no statistical power to infer a

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OGD adoption and increase the likelihood of government Lastly, for future research, it is worth exploring the
agency participation. adoption of OGD from the perspectives of individuals and
Further, Government agencies may experience external business organizations. While this study focuses on
pressures when considering the adoption of OGD, including government data interchange among government agencies as
the expectations from higher-level agencies and societal a critical initial step of OGD initiatives, the OGD policy
demands. In light of this, policy practitioners are implemented by the Indonesian government allows for public
recommended to foster government agency acceptance of use of government data, including by businesses and
OGD through inter-organizational learning. Hence, one individuals. Future studies can investigate whether there are
practical step that policy practitioners can take is to identify differences in the factors that influence the adoption of OGD
government agencies that have demonstrated successful among government agencies, businesses, and individuals.
OGD adoption and examine their approaches, techniques, Examining these potential differences can offer
and policies. By studying these best practices, policy comprehensive insights into the determinants of OGD
practitioners can gain valuable insights into the challenges adoption across various stakeholders.
faced and the strategies employed during the OGD adoption
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