Unit –1

Some Basic Concept of Chemistry

Chemistry is the branch of physical science which deals with the study of
matter , its physical and chemical properties, its chemical composition, the
physical and chemical changes which it undergoes and the energy
changes during these processes.

C6H12O6 Glucose H2SO4 CH3COOH Ethanoic acid

States of Matter

• You are aware that matter can exist in three physical states viz. solid, liquid and gas.
• The constituent particles of matter in these three states can be represented as shown in
Fig. 1.1.

• Particles are held very close to each other in solids in an orderly fashion and there is
not much freedom of movement.
• In liquids, the particles are close to each other but they can move around.
• However, in gases, the particles are far apart as compared to those present in solid or
liquid states and their movement is easy and fast.

Because of such arrangement of particles, different states of matter exhibit the following
characteristics : -
(i) Solids have definite volume and definite shape.
(ii) Liquids have definite volume but do not have definite shape.
They take the shape of the container in which they are placed.
(iii) Gases have neither definite volume nor definite shape.
They completely occupy the space in the container in which they are placed.
➢ These three states of matter are inter convertible by changing the conditions of
temperature and pressure.
➢ On heating, a solid usually changes to a liquid, and the liquid on further heating
changes to gas (or vapour). In the reverse process, a gas on cooling liquefies to the
liquid and the liquid on further cooling freezes to the solid.

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Classification of Matter : -

Mixture

➢ A mixture contains particles of two or more pure substances which

may be present in it in any ratio. Hence, their composition is
variable.

10 g sugar + 90 g water = 100 g of mixture

➢ Pure substances forming mixture are called its components.

➢ Many of the substances present around you are mixtures.
For example, sugar solution in water, air, tea, etc., are all mixtures.
➢ A mixture may be homogeneous or heterogeneous.
➢ In a homogeneous mixture, the components completely mix with each other.
This means particles of components of the mixture are uniformly distributed
throughout the bulk of the mixture and its composition is uniform throughout.
Exa. Sugar solution and air are the examples of homogeneous mixtures.

➢ In contrast to this, in a heterogeneous mixture, the composition is not uniform

throughout and sometimes different components are visible.
For example, mixtures of salt and sugar, grains and pulses along with some dirt
(often stone pieces), are heterogeneous mixtures.
➢ The components of a mixture can be separated by using physical methods, such as
simple hand-picking, filtration, crystallisation, distillation, etc.

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Pure substance

➢ Pure substances have characteristics different from mixtures.

➢ Constituent particles of pure substances have fixed composition.
Copper, silver, gold, water and glucose are some examples of pure substances.
Glucose contains carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in a fixed ratio and its particles are
of same composition. Hence, like all other pure substances, glucose has a fixed
composition. Also, its constituents—carbon, hydrogen and oxygen—cannot be
separated by simple physical methods.

Pure substances can further be classified into elements and compounds.

Element : -

➢ Particles of an element consist of only one type of atoms.

These particles may exist as atoms or molecules.
Sodium(Na), copper(Cu), silver (Ag), hydrogen(H2), oxygen(O2), etc., are some
examples of elements.
➢ Their all atoms are of one type. However, the atoms of different elements are
different in nature.
➢ Some elements, such as sodium or copper, contain atoms as their constituent particles,
whereas, in some others, the constituent particles are molecules which are formed by two
or more atoms. For example, hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen gases consist of molecules,
in which two atoms combine to give their respective molecules.

Compound : -

➢ When two or more atoms of different elements combine together in a

definite ratio, the molecule of a compound is obtained.
➢ Moreover, the constituents of a compound cannot be separated into
simpler substances by physical methods. They can be separated by
chemical methods.

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Examples of some compounds are water, ammonia (NH3), carbon dioxide (CO2), Glucose
(C6H12O6), Sucrose (C12H22O11) etc.

➢ Also, the properties of a compound are different from those of its

constituent elements.
For example, hydrogen and oxygen are gases, whereas, the compound formed by
their combination i.e., water is a liquid. It is interesting to note that hydrogen
burns with a pop sound and oxygen is a supporter of combustion, but water is
used as a fire extinguisher.

2H2 + O2 → 2 H2O

Properties of Matter & Their Measurement : -

Every substance has unique or characteristic properties.

These properties can be classified into two categories
Physical and chemical properties

Physical properties : -
• Physical properties, such as colour, odour, melting point, boiling point, density, etc.,
• Physical properties can be measured or observed without changing the identity or the
composition of the substance.
• Measurement of physical properties does not require occurrence of a chemical change.

Chemical properties : -
• Chemical properties, like composition, combustibility, reactivity with acids and bases,
etc.
• The measurement or observation of chemical properties requires a chemical change to
occur.
• The examples of chemical properties are characteristic reactions of different substances,
these include acidity or basicity, combustibility, etc.

Measurement of Physical Properties : -

➢ Quantitative measurement of properties is required for scientific investigation.
➢ Many properties of matter, such as length, area, volume, etc., are quantitative in nature.
➢ Any quantitative observation or measurement is represented by a number followed by
units in which it is measured.
For example, length of a room can be represented as 6 m ; here, ‘6’ is the number
and ‘m’ denotes meter, the unit in which the length is measured.
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The International System of Units (SI)
➢ The International System of Units (in French Le Systeme International d’
Unités — abbreviated as SI)
➢ The SI system has seven base units and they are listed in the followingTable 1.1.
➢ These units pertain to the seven fundamental scientific quantities.
➢ The other physical quantities, such as speed, volume, density, etc., can be derived
from these quantities.

Mass and Weight :

➢ Mass of a substance is the amount of matter present in it, while
weight is the force exerted by gravity on an object.
➢ The mass of a substance is constant, whereas, its weight may vary
from one place to another due to change in gravity.
➢ The mass of a substance can be determined accurately in the laboratory by using an
analytical balance.

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Volume : -
➢ Volume is the amount of space occupied by a substance. It has the
units of (length)3.
➢ So in SI system, volume has units of m3. But again, in chemistry laboratories, smaller
volumes are used. Hence, volume is often denoted in cm3 or dm3 units.
➢ Common unit, litre (L) which is not an SI unit, is used for measurement of volume
of liquids.

1 L = 1000 mL , 1000 cm3 = 1 dm3

1000 cm3 = 1000 (10–2)3 m3

= 10–3 m3 = (10–1 )3 m3 = 1dm3

In the laboratory, the volume of liquids or solutions can be measured by graduated

cylinder, burette, pipette, etc. A volumetric flask is used to prepare a known
volume of a solution.

Density : -
➢ Density of a substance is its amount of mass per unit volume.
The two properties mass and volume discussed above are related as follows:
𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬
𝑫𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 =
𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞

SI units of density can be obtained as follows :

SI unit of mass Kg
SI 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 = =
SI unit of volume 𝑚3

= kg m–3

• This unit is quite large and a chemist often expresses density in g cm–3, where mass is
expressed in gram and volume is expressed in cm3.
• Density of a substance tells us about how closely its particles are packed.
• If density is more, it means particles are more closely packed.
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Temperature :
• There are three common scales to measure temperature –
°C (degree Celsius), °F (degree Fahrenheit) and K (Kelvin).

• Here, K is the SI unit. The thermometers based on these scales are shown in Fig. 1.8.
• Generally, the thermometer with celsius scale are calibrated from 0° to 100°, where these
two temperatures are the freezing point and the boiling point of water, respectively.
• The Fahrenheit scale is represented between 32° to 212°.
• The temperatures on two scales are related to each other by the following relationship:
𝟗
℉ = ℃ + 𝟑𝟐
𝟓

• The Kelvin scale is related to Celsius scale as follows : K = °C + 273.15

It is interesting to note that

temperature below 0 °C (i.e.,
negative values) are possible
in Celsius scale but in Kelvin
scale, negative temperature is
not possible.

Measurement in chemistry : -
• A physical quantity is expressed in terms of a pure number and a unit.

• Physical quantity = A Pure number × Unit

or
= A Numerical value × Unit
e.g. 25.9 mL ,

Without mentioning the unit , the number has no meaning.

For a given physical quantity :

(i) When the unit changes the number (magnitude) changes also.
Density of water = 1 g mL–1 = 103 kg m–3

(ii) If the unit is larger then the magnitude will be smaller and vice versa.
1g = 0.001 kg = 10–3 kg

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Uncertainty in Measurement : -

➢ There is always some degree of uncertainity in every scientific

measurement exccept in counting.

Uncertainty is depends on two factors -

(A) Skill of the observer: Exact value of NaOH volume is 25.5 mL

Student A Student B Student C

Volume of NaOH 25.4 mL 25.5 mL 25.6 mL

• Measurement of Student B is correct while student A and C have reported wrong

volumes.

(B) Limitation (accuracy) of the measuring device.

Mass of substance by the
Ordinary balance = 6.94 g
Chemical balance = 6.9412 g

• In both the cases uncertainty exists.

• In the first case the mass may be 6.93 g or 6.95 g (uncertainty is 0.01 g) it is more.
• In second case mass may be 6.9411 g or 6.9413 g (uncertainty is 0.0001 g) it is less.

Precision and Accuracy : -

Accuracy : - Accuracy determines how close is the measured value to the

real or true value.

Precision : - Precision refers to how close the two measurements of same

quantity are ?
or
In other words precision decides how do the individual
measurements agree with each other.

Example - Length of a bar is measured by three students-

Student A Student B Student C

Exp.-1 33.852 cm 34.365 cm 35.001 cm
Exp.-2 33.854 cm 0.002 34.852 cm 0.487 35.003 cm 0.002
Average value 33.853 cm 1.147 34.6085 cm 0.3915 35.002 cm 0.002
True Value of the length of bar is 35.000 cm.

• Measurement of student A is precise but not accurate

• Measurement of student C is precise as well as accurate
• Measurement of student B is not precise and not accurate.

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Scientific Notation : -

• A number or the result of an experiment can be represented in scientific notation or

exponential notation.
• In this type of representation any number can be represented in the form of N × 10n.

Number Scientific notation

0.00038 3.8 × 10–4
239.561 2.39561 × 102
364000 3.64000 × 105

Significant Figures : -
• The Significant Figures in a number are all the certain digits plus one doubtful digit.
• The Significant Figures gives the information that except the digit at extreme right, all
other digits are precise.
For Exa.- Mass of an object is 11.24 g.
This value indicates that actual mass of the object lies between 11.23 g and 11.25 g
Thus one sure of first three figures (1,1 & 2) but the fourth figure is somewhat
inexact. The total significant figures in this number are four.
• The uncertainity in the experiment or calculated values is indicated by mentioning the
number of signigicant figures.
• Significant figures are meaningful digits.

Rules for Finding significant figures : -

(1) All non-zero digits are significant.
Value S.F.
42.3 3
243.4 4
24.123 5

(2) A zero becomes significant figure if it appears between two non-zero digits.
Value S.F.
5.03 3
5.604 4
4.004 4

(3) Leading zeros or the zeros placed to the left of the numbers are never
significant.
Value S.F.
0.543 3
0.045 2
0.006 1

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(4) Trailing zeros or the zeros placed to the right of the decimal are
significant.
Value S.F.
433.0 4
433.00 5

(5) If a number ends in zeros but these zeros are not to the right of a
decimal point, these zeros may or may not be significant.
Value S.F. 11400 g
4
1.14 × 10 g 3
4
1.140 × 10 g 4
4
1.1400 × 10 5
In exponential form, the numerical position (i.e. N ) represents the number of S.F.

Number Exponential form S.F.

0.0132 1.32 × 10-2 3
0.000045 4.5 × 10-5 2
13200 1.32 × 104 3
Avogadro number 6.023 × 1023 4
Planck’s constant 6.6 × 10-34 2

(6) Exact numbers have an infinite number of significant figures because

infinite number of zeros can be placed after decimal point.
20 Rs = 20.00000….. Rs

(7) The non-significant figures in the measurements are rounded off.

(a) If the figure following the last number to be retained is less than 5, all the unwanted
figures are discarded and the last number is left unchanged.

Value New value Rounded off upto S.F.

5.6724 5.67 3

(b) If the figure following the last number to be retained is greater than 5, the last figure
to be retained is increased by 1 unit and the unwanted figures are discarded.
Value New value Rounded off upto S.F.
8.6526 8.653 4

(c) If the figure following the last number to be retained is 5, the last figure is increased
by 1 only in case it happen to be odd. In case of even number the last figure remains
unchanged.
Value New value Rounded off upto S.F.
2.3524 2.4 2
7.4511 7.4 2

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Calculation Involving significant figures : -

Addition and Subtraction : -

• The result of an addition or subtraction in the numbers having different precisions should
be reported to the same number of decimal places as are present in the number having
the least number of decimal places.

(a) 33.3 (has one decimal place)

3.11
+ 0.313
36.723 (Answer should be reported to one decimal place after rounding off)

• So correct answer is = 36.7

(b) 3.1421
0.241
+ 0.09 ( has 2 decimal place )
3.4731 ( Answer should be reported to two decimal place after rounding off)

• So correct answer is = 3.47

(c) 62.831 ( has 3 decimal place)

-24.5492
38.2818 (Answer should be reported to three decimal place after rounding off)

• So correct answer is = 38.282

Multiplication and division : -

• The answer to a multiplication or division is rounded off to the same number of
significant figures as is possessed by the least precise term used in the calculation.

(a) 142.06
× 0.23 ( Two S.F.)
32.6738 (Answer should have two S.F.)

• So correct answer is = 33

(b) 51.028
× 1.31 (Three S.F.)
66.84668 (Answer should have three S.F.)

• So correct answer is = 66.8

0.90
(c) = 0.2112676
4.26

• Correct answer is = 0.21

• The presence of exact number in an expression does not affect the number of
significant figures in the answer.

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 3.24 × 0.0866
(d) = 0.055643
5.046

• Correct answer is = 0.0556

4.28 × 0.146 × 3
(e) = 44.84784
0.0418

• Correct answer is = 44.8

Q.1- State the number of significant figures in each of the following :

(i) 0.000648 (ii) 7.0005 (iii) 312.84 (iv) 474.0 (v) 6.45 × 106

Ans. (i) 0.000648 =3

(ii) 7.0005 =5
(iii) 312.84 =5
(iv) 474.0 =4
(v) 6.45 × 106 =3

Q. 2-Write the following in scientific notation and determine the number of significant
figures.
(i) 0.0000736 (ii) 0.00360 (iii) 10500 (iv) 7200000 (v) 982

Ans.
S. No. S.F. Scientific Notation
1 0.0000736 3 7.36 × 10–5
2 0.00360 3 3.60 × 10–3
3 10500 3 1.05 × 104
4 7200000 2 7.2 × 106
5 982 3 9.82 × 102

Q.3-Express the following numbers up to three significant figures.

(a) 306.35 (b) 0.0038816 (c) 1.78975 × 104 (d) 0.25400

Ans.
S. No. S.F. S.F.
(a) 306.35 5 3.06 × 102 3
(b) 0.0038816 5 3.88 × 10–3 3

(c) 1.78975 × 104 6 1.79 × 104 3

(d) 0.25400 5 2.54 × 10–1 3

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Dimensional Analysis : -

• Often while calculating, there is a need to convert units from one system to the other.
• The method used to accomplish this is called factor label method or unit factor
method or dimensional analysis.

Q. A piece of metal is 3 inch long. What is its length in cm?

Ans.
We know that 1 inch = 2.54 cm
From this equivalence, we can write
1 inch = 2.54 cm

𝟏 𝐢𝐧𝐜𝐡 𝟐.𝟓𝟒 𝐜𝐦
Thus =1 or =1
𝟐.𝟓𝟒 𝐜𝐦 𝟏 𝐢𝐧𝐜𝐡

𝟏 𝐢𝐧𝐜𝐡 𝟐.𝟓𝟒 𝐜𝐦
=1=
𝟐.𝟓𝟒 𝐜𝐦 𝟏 𝐢𝐧𝐜𝐡

• Both of these are called unit factors.

• If some number is multiplied by these unit factors (i.e., 1), it will not be affected
otherwise.

The 3 inch given above is multiplied by the unit factor. So,

𝟐.𝟓𝟒 𝐜𝐦
𝟑 𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒉 = 𝟑 𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒉 ×
𝟏 𝐢𝐧𝐜𝐡

3 × 2.54 cm = 7.62 cm

Q.1 A jug contains 2L of milk. Calculate the volume of the milk in m3.
Since 1 L = 1000 cm3
1000𝑐𝑚3
=1
1L

and 1m = 100 cm, which gives

𝟏𝐦 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝐜𝐦
=1=
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝐜𝐦 𝟏𝐦

To get m3 from the above unit factors, the first unit factor is taken and it is cubed.
𝟏𝐦
= 1
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝐜𝐦

𝟏𝐦 𝟏 𝒎𝟑
(𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝐜𝐦)3 = = 13 = 1
𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝒄𝒎𝟑

Now
= 2L × 1

1000𝑐𝑚3 𝟏 𝒎𝟑 𝟐 𝒎𝟑
= 2L × × = = 2 × 10–3 m3
1L 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝒄𝒎𝟑 𝟏𝟎𝟑

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LAWS OF CHEMICAL COMBINATION : -

(1) Law of Conservation of Mass : - By Lavoisier in 1779

➢ According to this law that in all physical and chemical

changes, there is no net change in mass during the
process.
i.e. Total mass of Reactant = Total mass of Product
➢ Hence, we can say that matter can neither be created nor destroyed.
➢ It is also known as the law of indestructibility of matter.

• All chemical reactions follow this law and this law is the basis of all quantitative
work in chemistry.
• This law was first tested by Landolt

NaCl(aq) + AgNO3(aq) → AgCl(s) + NaNO3(aq)

• Total masses of reactant = Total masses of products

∆
CaCO3 → CaO + CO2 (Ca = 40 u , C = 12 u, O = 16 u)
100 g 56 g 44 g
50 g ? ?

N2 + 3H2 → 2NH3
28 g 6g 34 g
7g 1.5 g 8.5 g

• Limitation : In nuclear reaction law of conservation of mass is not obeyed because the
mass defect is converted into energy according to the equation:
E = Δmc2
Where , Δm = Mass defect , c = Velocity of light.

(2) Law of Definite or Constant Proportions : -

By, a French chemist, Joseph Proust.

➢ It states that a given compound always contains

exactly the same proportion of elements by weight.
➢ Proust worked with two samples of cupric carbonate — one
of which was of natural origin and the other was synthetic.

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 ➢ He found that the composition of elements present in it was same for both the samples as
shown below:

• The chemical composition (by mass ) does not depend on the method of its
preparation or the source from which it has been obtained.

C + O2 → CO2
Respiration → CO2
CH4 + O2 → CO2

(3) Law of Multiple Proportions : - By Dalton in 1803

➢ According to this law, if two elements combine to

form more than one compound, then the different
masses of one element that combine with a fixed
mass of the other element, are in the ratio of small
whole numbers.

For example, hydrogen combines with oxygen to form two

compounds, namely, water and hydrogen peroxide.
Hydrogen + Oxygen → Water
2 H2 + O2 → 2 H2O
2 mol 1 mol 2 mol
4g 32 g 36 g
2g 16 g 18 g

Hydrogen + Oxygen → Hydrogen peroxide

H2 + O2 → H2O2
1 mol 1 mol 1 mol
2g 32g 34 g

Here, the masses of oxygen (i.e., 16 g and 32 g), which combine with a fixed mass
of hydrogen (2g) bear a simple ratio, i.e., 16 : 32 or 1 : 2
Limitation : -
This law is not obeyed by non-stoichiometric compounds.
e.g. Fe0.98O

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(4) Gay Lussac’s Law of Gaseous Volumes

This law was given by Gay Lussac in 1808.

He observed that when gases combine or are produced in a
chemical reaction they do so in a simple ratio by volume,
provided all gases are at the same temperature and pressure.

Thus, 100 mL of hydrogen combine with 50 mL of oxygen to give 100 mL of water vapour.
Hydrogen + Oxygen → Water
2 H2 (g) + O2 (g) → 2 H2O(g)
2V 1V 2V
2 mL 1 mL 2 mL

2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(g)

100 mL 50 mL 100 mL

Thus, the volumes of hydrogen and oxygen which combine (i.e., 100 mL and 50 mL)
bear a simple ratio of 2 : 1

N2 + 3 H2 → 2 NH3
1L 3L 2L
Thus, the volumes of nitrogen and hydrogen which combine (i.e., 1 L and 3 L)
bear a simple ratio of 1 : 3.

Gay Lussac’s discovery of integer ratio in volume relationship is actually the law of definite
proportions by volume.

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(5) Avogadro’s Law in 1811

➢ Avogadro proposed that equal volumes of all

gases at the same temperature and pressure
should contain equal number of molecules.

At STP
H2 = 2 g = 1 mol = 22.4 L = 6.022 × 1023 H2 molecule
O2 = 32 g = 1 mol = 22.4 L = 6.022 × 1023 O2 molecule
H2O = 18 g = 1 mol = 22.4 L = 6.022 × 1023 H2O molecule

If we consider again the reaction of H2 and O2 to produce H2O, we see that two volumes of H2
combine with one volume of O2 to give two volumes of H2O without leaving any unreacted
oxygen.

Note that in the Fig. 1.9 (above) each box contains equal number of molecules.

(6) Law of Reciprocal Proportions : - Given by Richter in 1792

• It states that when definite mass of an element A combine with two other element
B and C to form two compounds and if B and C also combine to form a compound,
their combining masses are in same proportion or bear a simple ratio to the masses
of B and C which combine with a constant mass of A.

Example –
Hydrogen combines with sulphur and oxygen to form compounds H2S and H2O respectively.
In H2S Hydrogen 2 g Sulphur 32 g
In H2O Hydrogen 2 g Oxygen 16 g

H
H2S H2O

S O
SO2
Thus , according to this law sulphur should combine with oxygen in the ratio of 32 : 16
or a simple multiple of it. In case of SO2 the ratio is 32 : 32 or 1 : 1.
This law of reciprocal proportions is a special case of law of equivalent masses which
can be stated as ,
“ In all chemical reactions, substances always react in the ratio of their
equivalent masses”

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DALTON’S ATOMIC THEORY : -

In 1808, Dalton published ‘A New System of Chemical Philosophy’, in

which he proposed the following :

1. Matter consists of indivisible atoms.

2. All atoms of a given element have identical properties, including
identical mass.
Atoms of different elements differ in mass.
3. Compounds are formed when atoms of different elements combine in a fixed ratio.
4. Chemical reactions involve reorganisation of atoms. These are (atoms)
neither created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction.

H H
𝑵𝒊
H–C=C–H + H–H → H – C –– C – H
H H H H

Limitations : -
(a) Dalton’s theory could explain the laws of chemical combination.
(b) However, it could not explain the laws of gaseous volumes.
(c) It could not provide the reason for combining of atoms, which was answered later
by other scientists.

Atomic & Molecular Masses : -

• The atomic mass or the mass of an atom is actually very-very small because atoms are
extremely small. Today, we have sophisticated techniques e.g., mass spectrometry for
determining the atomic masses fairly accurately.
• But in the nineteenth century, scientists could determine the mass of one atom relative
to another.
The present system of atomic masses is based on carbon -12 as
the standard and has been agreed upon in 1961.
• Here, Carbon-12 is one of the isotopes of carbon and can be represented as 12C.
In this system, 12C is assigned a mass of exactly 12 atomic mass unit (amu) and masses of
all other atoms are given relative to this standard.
C12 C13 C14

‘One atomic mass unit is defined as a mass exactly equal to one-twelfth of

the mass of one carbon – 12 atom.’
1 amu = 1.66056 × 10–24 g
Mass of an atom of hydrogen
= 1.6736 × 10–24 g

Thus, in terms of amu, the mass of hydrogen atom

𝟏.𝟔𝟕𝟑𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟒 𝐠
= = 1.0078 amu = 1.0080 amu
𝟏.𝟔𝟔𝟎𝟓𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟒 𝐠

GBSSS No – 3 BADARPUR PRAMOD KUMAR - 9950250914 Page 18

O16 Real atomic mass = 26.56065 × 10–24 g

𝟐𝟔.𝟓𝟔𝟎𝟔𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟒 𝐠
= 𝟏
× 𝟏𝟗.𝟗𝟐𝟔𝟕𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟒 𝐠
𝟏𝟐

𝟐𝟔.𝟓𝟔𝟎𝟔𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟒 𝐠
= = 15.995 amu
𝟏.𝟔𝟔𝟎𝟓𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟒 𝐠

Similarly, the mass of oxygen - 16 (16O) atom would be 15.995 amu.

At present, ‘amu’ has been replaced by ‘u’, which is known as unified mass.

C12 Real atomic mass = 19.92672 × 10–24 g

𝟏 𝟏
× atomic mass of C12 = 𝟏𝟐 × 19.92672 × 10–24 g = 1.66056 × 10–24 g = 1 amu
𝟏𝟐

Average Atomic Mass : -

Many naturally occurring elements exist as more than one isotope. When we take into
account the existence of these isotopes and their relative abundance (per cent occurrence),
the average atomic mass of that element can be computed.

Isotope Relative Abundance % Atomic Mass (amu)

12
6C 98.892 12
13 1.108 13.00335
6C
14
6C 2 × 10–10 14.00317

From the above data

Average atomic mass
98.892 1.108 2 × 10−10
= ( × 12 u ) + ( × 13.00335 u ) + ( × 14.00317 )
100 100 100

= ( 0.9889 × 12 u ) + ( 0.01108 × 13.00335 u ) + ( 2 × 10-12 × 14.00317 )

= 12.011 u

Isotope Relative abundance Atomic Mass (amu)

12
6C 0.98892 12
13 0.01108 13.00335
6C
14
6C 2 × 10–12 14.00317

From the above data

Average atomic mass
= ( 0.9889 × 12 u ) + ( 0.01108 × 13.00335 u ) + ( 2 × 10–12 × 14.00317 )
= 12.011 u

GBSSS No – 3 BADARPUR PRAMOD KUMAR - 9950250914 Page 19

Q.1. Calculate the atomic mass (average) of chlorine using the following data :
% Natural Abundance Molar Mass
35
Cl 75.77 34.9689
37
Cl 24.23 36.9659
Ans.(1) Average atomic mass
75.77 24.23
= ( 100 × 34.9689 u ) + ( 100 × 36.9659 u )

= 26.4959 u + 8.9568 u = 35.4527 u

Molecular Mass :

Molecular mass is the sum of atomic masses of the elements present

in a molecule.

It is obtained by multiplying the atomic mass of each element by the number of its atoms and
adding them together.
Molecular mass of methane,
(CH4) = {1 (12.011 u)} + { 4 (1.008 u) } = 16.043 u
Similarly,
Molecular mass of water (H2O)
= {2 × atomic mass of hydrogen} + {1 × atomic mass of oxygen}
= 2 × (1.008 u) + 16.00 u = 18.02 u

Formula Mass : -
Some substances, such as sodium chloride, do not contain
discrete molecules as their constituent units.
In such compounds, positive (sodium ion) and negative
(chloride ion) entities are arranged in a three-dimensional
structure,
The formula, such as NaCl, is used to calculate the formula
mass instead of molecular mass as in the solid state sodium
chloride does not exist as a single entity.

Thus, the formula mass of sodium chloride is

Atomic mass of sodium + Atomic mass of chlorine = 23.0 u + 35.5 u = 58.5 u

Mole Concept & Molar Mass : -

One mole is the amount of a substance that contains as many particles

or entities as there are atoms in exactly 12 g of the 12C isotope.

The mass of a carbon –12 atom was determined by a mass spectrometer and found to be equal to
1.992648 × 10–23 g

Knowing that one mole of carbon weighs 12 g, the number of atoms in it is equal to:

GBSSS No – 3 BADARPUR PRAMOD KUMAR - 9950250914 Page 20

 𝟏𝟐 𝐠/𝐦𝐨𝐥 .12 C
= = 6.0221367 × 1023 atoms / mol
𝟏.𝟗𝟗𝟐𝟔𝟒𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟑 𝐠/.𝟏𝟐 𝐂 𝐚𝐭𝐨𝐦

It is known as ‘Avogadro constant’, or Avogadro number denoted by NA in honour of

Amedeo Avogadro.

The mass of one mole of a substance in grams is called its molar mass.

The molar mass in grams is numerically equal to atomic/molecular/formula mass in u.

Molar mass of H2O = 18.02 g mol–1
Molar mass of NaCl = 58.5 g mol–1
1 mol No. of molecules
NH3 = 17 g mol–1 = 1 mol = 6.022 × 1023 NH3 molecules mol–1
H2O = 18 g mol–1 = 1 mol = 6.022 × 1023 H2O molecules mol–1
CH4 = 16 g mol–1 = 1 mol = 6.022 × 1023 CH4 molecules mol–1
HNO3 = 63 g mol–1 = 1 mol = 6.022 × 1023 HNO3 molecules mol–1
O2 = 32 g mol–1 = 1 mol = 6.022 × 1023 O2 molecules mol–1
H2 = 2 g mol–1 = 1 mol = 6.022 × 1023 H2 molecules mol–1
Na = 23 g mol–1
Mg = 24 g mol–1
Al = 27 g mol–1 Vapour Density =
𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔
C = 12 g mol–1 𝟐

1. How many moles are present in 68 g of NH3 ?

Ans. 1 mol NH3 = 17 g of NH3
No. of Moles = ?
𝑮𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
No. of Moles = 𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔

𝟔𝟖 𝒈
= 4 mol
𝟏𝟕 𝒈 𝒎𝒐𝒍−𝟏

2. How many amount of NH3 in gram is present in 3.5 mol ?

Ans.
Mass of NH3 = No. of moles × Molar mass
= 3.5 mol × 17 g mol–1 = 59.5 g
GBSSS No – 3 BADARPUR PRAMOD KUMAR - 9950250914 Page 21
Percentage Composition of Element : -
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑
Mass % = × 100
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑

For H2O
Molar mass of water = 18 g mol–1
2𝑔
% of H = 18 𝑔 × 100 = 11.11 %

16 𝑔
% of O = × 100 = 88.89 %
18 𝑔

Or

% of O = 100 – 11.11 = 88.89 %

{ Percentage means out of hundred }

1. Calculate the mass percent of different elements present in sodium sulphate (Na2SO4).

Ans. Molar mass of Na2SO4 = ( 2 × 23 ) + 32 + (4 × 16 ) = 142 g

46 𝑔
Percentage of sodium = × 100 = 32.39 %
142 𝑔

32 𝑔
Percentage of sulphur = × 100 = 22.53 %
142 𝑔

64 𝑔
Percentage of oxygen = × 100 = 45.07 %
142 𝑔

Empirical Formula or Molecular Formula : -

An empirical formula represents the simplest whole number ratio

of various atoms present in a compound, whereas, the molecular formula
shows the exact number of different types of atoms present in a molecule of
a compound.
M.F. E.F.
Example CH3COOH C2H4O2 CH2O
HCHO CH2O CH2O
CH3CHO C2H4O C2H4O
C6H6 C6H6 CH
CH3CH2OH C2H6O C2H6O

Methanal = HCHO = CH2O = CH2O

Benzene = C6H6 = C6H6 = CH

Molecular formula = n × Empirical formula

GBSSS No – 3 BADARPUR PRAMOD KUMAR - 9950250914 Page 22

For Benzene n = 6
Methanal n = 1

Molecular mass = n × Empirical mass

For C6H6 = 78 g = n × 13
n=?
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 78 𝑔
n = 𝐸𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 13 𝑔 = 6

Q.1 A compound contains 4.07 % hydrogen, 24.27 % carbon and 71.65 % chlorine.
Its molar mass is 98.96 g. What are its empirical and molecular formulas?
Ans. : -

Element Mass Atomic Relative No. Simplest Simplest

% Mass of atoms Atomic whole No.
Ratio ratio
C 24.27 12 24.27 2.02 1
= 𝟐. 𝟎𝟐
12 2.02

H 4.07 1 4.07 4.07 2

= 𝟒. 𝟎𝟕
1 2.02
Cl 71.65 35.5 71.65 2.02 1
= 𝟐. 𝟎𝟐
35.5 2.02

Empirical formula is = CH2Cl

Molecular formula = (Empirical Formula) × n

𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐚𝐫 𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬 98.96

n = 𝐞𝐦𝐩𝐢𝐫𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐥 𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐦𝐮𝐥𝐚 𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬 = = 1.99 = 𝟐
𝟒𝟗.𝟓

Molecular formula of the organic compound is = (CH2Cl) × 2 = C2H4Cl2

Q.2 A welding fuel gas contains carbon and hydrogen only. Burning a small sample of it in
oxygen gives 3.38 g carbon dioxide, 0.690 g of water and no other products. A volume of
10.0 L (measured at STP) of this welding gas is found to weigh 11.6 g.
Calculate (i) empirical formula, (ii) molar mass of the gas, and (iii) molecular formula.
Ans.
Welding Gas C &H
CxHy + O2 → x CO2 + y H2O
3.38 g 0.690 g
44 g of CO2 has C = 12 g
12 𝑔
3.38 g of CO2 has = 44 𝑔 × 3.38 g = 0.92 g

18 g of H2O has H = 2 g
2𝑔
0.690 g of H2O has = 18 𝑔 × 0.690 g = 0.0766 g = 0.08 g

C = 0.92 g & H = 0.08 g

Total mass of elements in the compound = 0.92 g + 0.08 g = 1 g
0.92 g
% of C in compound = × 100 = 92 %
1g

0.08 g
% of H in compound = × 100 = 8 %
1g

GBSSS No – 3 BADARPUR PRAMOD KUMAR - 9950250914 Page 23

 Element % Atomic Relative No. Simplest Simplest
mass of atoms Atomic whole No.
Ratio ratio
C 92 12 92 7.66 1
= 𝟕. 𝟔𝟔 =1
12 7.66
H 8 1 8 8 1
=𝟖 = 1.04
1 7.66

Empirical formula is = CH

10 L of this gas has mass = 11.6 g

11.6 g
22.4 L of this gas has mass = 𝟏𝟎 𝐋 × 22.4 L = 25.98 g = 26 g = Molecular mass

Molecular formula = (Empirical Formula) × n

Molecular Mass = (Empirical Formula Mass) × n
𝟐𝟓.𝟗𝟖 𝐠
n= ≅ 2
𝟏𝟑 𝐠
Molecular formula of the organic compound is = (CH) × 2 = C2H2

Q.3 Determine the empirical formula of an oxide of iron, which has 69.9 % iron and
30.1 % oxygen by mass.
{Given, Atomic mass of Fe = 56 u and O = 16 u }

Element % Atomic Relative No. Simplest Simplest

Mass of atoms Atomic whole No.
Ratio ratio
Fe 69.9 56 69.9 1.24 2
= 1.24 =1
56 1.24
O 30.1 16 30.1 1.88 3
= 1.88 = 1.5
16 1.24

Empirical formula is = Fe2O3

Q.4 A substance on analysis, gave the following percentage composition :

Na = 43.4 % , C = 11.3 % , O = 45.3 % ,
Calculate it’s empirical formula. [Na = 23, C = 12, O = 16]

Element % Atomic Relative No. Simplest Simplest

Mass of atoms Atomic whole No.
Ratio ratio
Na 43.4 23 𝟒𝟑.𝟒 𝟏.𝟖𝟖 2
𝟐𝟑
= 1.88 𝟎.𝟗𝟒
=2

C 11.3 12 𝟏𝟏.𝟑 𝟎.𝟗𝟒 1

𝟏𝟐
= 0.94 𝟎.𝟗𝟒
=1
O 45.3 16 𝟒𝟓.𝟑 𝟐.𝟖𝟑 3
= 2.83 𝟎.𝟗𝟒
= 3.01
𝟏𝟔

Empirical formula is = Na2CO3

GBSSS No – 3 BADARPUR PRAMOD KUMAR - 9950250914 Page 24

Q.5 What is the simplest formula of the compound which has the following percentage
composition; carbon 80 % , hydrogen 20 % ? If the molecular mass is 30, calculate
it’s molecular formula.

Element % Atomic Relative No. Simplest Simplest

Mass of atoms Atomic whole No.
Ratio ratio
C 80 12 𝟖𝟎 𝟔.𝟔𝟔 1
= 6.66 𝟔.𝟔𝟔
= 1
𝟏𝟐

H 20 1 𝟐𝟎 𝟐𝟎 3
= 20 𝟔.𝟔𝟔
= 3
𝟏

Empirical formula is = CH3

𝟑𝟎 𝐠
n = 𝟏𝟓 𝐠 = 2

Molecular formula of compound is = (CH3) × 2 = C2H6

Stoichiometry & Stoichiometric Calculation : -

The word ‘stoichiometry’ is derived from two Greek words —

Stoicheion (meaning, element) and metron (meaning, measure).

Stoichiometry, thus, deals with the calculation of masses (sometimes

volumes also) of the reactants and the products involved in a chemical
reaction.

Limiting Reagent : -
The reactant, which gets consumed first, limits the amount of product
formed and is, therefore, called the limiting reagent.

Q.1 When 4 g of CH4 reacts with 6 g of O2 Then find the following :

(a) Limiting Reagent
(b) Amount of unreacted reactant
(c) Amount of CO2 produced

Ans. The combustion of methane. A balanced equation for this reaction is as given below:
CH4 (g) + 2 O2 (g) → CO2 (g) + 2 H2O (g)
1 mol 2 mol 1 mol 2 mol As per Stoichiometry
16 g 64 g 44 g 36 g
4g 6g ? ? Given
1.5 g 6g Reacted
2.5 g Nil Left Unreacted
ER LR

(a) ∵ 16 g of CH4 reacts with = 64 g of O2

64 g
∴ 4 g of CH4 will react with = 16 g
× 4 = 16 g of O2
16 g of O2 > 6 g so it is Limiting reactant
GBSSS No – 3 BADARPUR PRAMOD KUMAR - 9950250914 Page 25
As per Stoichiometry (From Limiting Reagent)
(b) ∵ 64 g of O2 reacts with = 16 g of CH4
16 g
∴ 6 g of O2 will react with = 64 g
× 6 g = 1.5 g of CH4
1.5 g of CH4 < 4 g so it is an Excess reagent / reactant
Amount of unreacted reactant (CH4) = 4 – 1.5 = 2.5 g

(c) ∵ 64 g of O2 gives = 44 g of CO2

∴ 6 g of O2 will produce = 44 g
64 g
× 6 g = 4.1 g of CO2
•The coefficients 2 for O2 and H2O are called stoichiometric coefficients. Similarly the
coefficient for CH4 and CO2 is one in each case.
• They represent the number of molecules (and moles as well) taking part in the reaction or
formed in the reaction.
Q.2 6 g of N2 when react with 3 g of H2 then find
(a) Limiting reactant
(b) Unreacted amount of excess reactant
(c) Amount of ammonia produced.
N2 + 3H2 → 2 NH3 Balanced equation
1 mol 3 mol 2 mol As per Stoichiometry
28 g 6g 34 g
6g 3g Given amount
6g 1.28 g Reacted amount
Nil 1.72 g Left Unreacted

As per stoichiometry
(a) ∵ 28 g of N2 reacts with = 6 g of H2
6g
∴ 6 g of N2 will react with = 28 g
× 6 g = 1.28 g of H2
Required H2 for 6 g of N2 is 1.28 g which is less than given amount (3 g) so it is excess
reagent & N2 is limiting reagent

(b) Amount of unreacted reactant (H2) = 3 – 1.28 = 1.72 g

(c) ∵ 28 g of N2 gives = 34 g of NH3

∴ 6 g of N2 will produce = 34 g
28 g
× 6 g = 7.28 g of NH3

Q.3 14 g of N2 when react with 4 g of H2 then find the limiting reactant.

Ans.
N2 + 3H2 → 2 NH3 Balanced equation
1 mol 3 mol 2 mol As per Stoichiometry
28 g 6g 34 g
14 g 4g Given amount
14 g 3g Reacted amount

∵ 28 g of N2 reacts with = 6 g of H2
6g
∴ 14 g of N2 will react with = 28 g
× 14 g = 3 g of H2

GBSSS No – 3 BADARPUR PRAMOD KUMAR - 9950250914 Page 26

 Limiting reagent is N2

Q.4 Dinitrogen and dihydrogen react with each other to produce ammonia according to the
following chemical equation :
N2 + 3H2 → 2 NH3 Balanced equation
(i) Calculate the mass of ammonia produced if 2.00 × 103 g dinitrogen reacts with
1.00 × 103 g of dihydrogen.
(ii) Will any of the two reactants remain unreacted?
(iii) If yes, which one and what would be its mass?

Ans. N2 + 3H2 → 2 NH3 Balanced equation

1 mol 3 mol 2 mol As per Stoichiometry
28 g 6g 34 g
Given 2000 g 1000 g
Reacted 2000 g 428.57 g
Unreacted Nil 571.43 g
LR ER
∵ 28 g of N2 reacts with = 6 g of H2
6g
∴ 2000 g of N2 will react with = 28 g
× 2000 g = 428.57 g of H2

Required H2 is 428.57 g which is less than 1000 g.

So H2 is in Excess therefore N2 is limiting reactant.

Concentration

• Concentration means amount of a substance present in its given volume.

Solute + Solvent = Solution ( Binary Homogeneous mixture )

Glucose + Water = Aqueous solution (If water is solvent)
10 g + 80 g = 90 g

(1) Mass Percentage

Mass of solute
Mass Percentage of solute = × 100
Mass of solution

Q.1 Find the mass percentage of glucose if 10 g of glucose is mixed in 80 g of water.

Ans.
Mass of glucose = 10 g
Mass of solution = Mass of solute + Mass of solvent
10 g + 80 g = 90 g

Mass of gulcose
Mass Percentage of Glucose = × 100
Mass of solution

GBSSS No – 3 BADARPUR PRAMOD KUMAR - 9950250914 Page 27

 10
= × 100 = 11.11 % (w/w)
90
• 11.11 % (w/w) aqueous solution of glucose means 11.11 g of glucose present if 100 g
solution is there.

Q.2 Find the mass of water present in 12 % (w/w) aqueous solution of glucose.
Ans. 12 % (w/w) aqueous solution of glucose means 12 g of glucose present if 100 g
solution is there.
Mass of glucose = 12 g
Mass of solution = 100 g
Mass of solution = Mass of solute + Mass of solvent
Mass of solvent (water) = 100 – 12 = 88 g

(2) Volume Percentage

Volume of solute
Volume Percentage = × 100
Volume of solution

Solute + Solvent = Solution

Liquid + Liquid
Ethanol + H2O
volume volume
5 mL + 30 mL
Volume of ethanol
Volume Percentage of Ethanol = × 100
Volume of solution

5 mL
= × 100 = 14.28 % (v/v)
35 mL

• 70 % (v/v) aqueous solution of ethanol means 70 mL of ethanol present if 100 mL

solution is there.

Q.1 Find the volume of water present in 30 % (v/v) aqueous solution of ethanol.

Ans. 30 % (v/v) aqueous solution of ethanol means 30 mL of ethanol present if 100 mL

solution is there.
Volume of ethanol = 30 mL
Volume of solution = 100 mL
Volume of solution = Volume of solute + Volume of solvent
Volume of solvent (water) = 100 – 30 = 70 mL

(3) Mass by volume Percentage

Mass of solute
Mass by volume Percentage = × 100
Volume of solution

GBSSS No – 3 BADARPUR PRAMOD KUMAR - 9950250914 Page 28

 Solute + Solvent = Solution
Solid + Liquid
Mass

Q.1 Find the mass by volume percentage of glucose if 10 g of glucose is mixed in water
to make final volume of solution 250 mL.

Ans.
Mass of solute
Mass by volume Percentage = × 100
Volume of solution

10 g
= × 100 = 4 % (w/v)
250 mL

(4) Parts per million (PPM)

Mass of solute
Parts per million (PPM) = × 106
Mass of solution

• 10 ppm (by mass) aqueous solution of chloroform means 10 g of chloroform present if

106 g solution is there.
• PPM is used for very diluted solution.

Q.1 A sample of drinking water was found to be severely contaminated with chloroform,
CHCl3, supposed to be carcinogenic in nature. The level of contamination was
15 ppm (by mass).
(i) Express this in per cent by mass.

Ans. 15 ppm (by mass) aqueous solution of chloroform means 15 g of chloroform present
if 106 g solution is there.
Mass of CHCl3 is = 15 g
Mass of solution = 106 g
Mass of CHCl3
Mass Percentage of CHCl3 = Mass of solution × 100

15 g
= × 100 = 0.0015 % (w/w) = 1.5 × 10–3 % (w/w)
106 g

(5) Mole Fraction

It is the ratio of number of moles of a particular component to the total

number of moles of the solution.

If a substance ‘B’ (solute) dissolves in substance ‘A’ (Solvent) and their number of moles are n2
and n1, respectively, then

Moles of solute
Mole fraction of Solute (x2) = Total number of moles of solution
.
GBSSS No – 3 BADARPUR PRAMOD KUMAR - 9950250914 Page 29
 𝑛2
x2 = 𝑛1 + 𝑛2
Moles of solvent
Mole fraction of Solvent (x1) = Total number of moles of solution
.

𝑛1
x1 = 𝑛1 + 𝑛2

𝑛1 𝑛2
x1 + x2 = +
𝑛1 + 𝑛2 𝑛1 + 𝑛2

𝑛1 + 𝑛2
= =1
𝑛1 + 𝑛2

x1 + x2 = 1

Q.1 Find the mole fraction of glucose in a solution in which mole fraction of water is 0.68.
Ans.
As we know that
𝑥water + 𝑥glucose = 1
𝑥glucose = 1 − 𝑥water
𝑥glucose = 1 − 0.68 = 0.32

Q.2 Find the mole fraction of glucose if 18 g of glucose is mixed with 18 g of water.
Ans. Mass of glucose = 18 g
Mass of water = 18 g
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑙𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒 18 g
Mole of glucose = = = 0.1 mol
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑙𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒 180 g mol−1

𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 18 g
Mole of water = = = 1 mol
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 18 g mol−1

Total mole = 0.1 mol + 1 mol = 1.1 mol

𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑙𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒
Mole fraction of glucose (𝑥2 ) = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
.

0.1 𝑚𝑜𝑙
= 1.1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 = 0.09

𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
Mole fraction of H2O (𝑥1 ) = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
.

1 𝑚𝑜𝑙
= 1.1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 = 0.9

Q.3 Find the mole fraction of Ethanol if 4.6 g of ethanol is mixed with 1.8 g of water.
Ans. Mass of CH3CH2OH = 4.6 g
Molar mass of CH3CH2OH = 46 g mol–1
Mass of water = 1.8 g
Molar mass of H2O = 18 g mol–1
GBSSS No – 3 BADARPUR PRAMOD KUMAR - 9950250914 Page 30
 Mole fraction of ethanol = ?

Mass of ethanol 4.6 g

Mole of CH3CH2OH = = = 0.1 mol
Molar mass of ethanol 46 g mol−1

Mass of water 1.8 g

Mole of water = = = 0.1 mol
Molar mass of water 18 g mol−1

Total mole = 0.1 mol + 0.1 mol = 0.2 mol

Moles of ethanol
Mole fraction of C2H5OH (x2) = Total number of moles of solution
.

𝟎.𝟏 𝐦𝐨𝐥
= = 0.5
𝟎.𝟐 𝐦𝐨𝐥

Moles of water
Mole fraction of H2O(x1) = Total number of moles of solution
.

𝟎.𝟏 𝐦𝐨𝐥
= = 0.5
𝟎.𝟐 𝐦𝐨𝐥

• Relation in molality and mole fraction

𝑥2 × 1000
Molality (m) = (1−𝑥2 ) × 𝑀1

(6) Molarity

“ Molarity is the number of moles of solute present in 1 litre of the solution.”

𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑤2 × 1000 mL L−1

Molarity = =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑒 𝑀2 × V(solution) 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝐿

• 1 M solution of NaOH means 1 mol of NaOH is present in 1 L of the solution.

• 1 M solution = Molar solution
• 0.5 M solution = Hemimolar solution
• 0.1 M solution = Decimolar solution
• 0.01 M solution = Centimolar solution
• 10–3 M solution = Millimolar solution

➢ For dilution of a solution : M1V1 = M2V2

Q.1 100 mL of 1M solution is diluted upto 500 mL then find the molarity of the solution.
Ans. M1V1 = M2V2
M1 × V1 1M × 100 mL
M2 = = = 0.2 M
V2 500 mL

GBSSS No – 3 BADARPUR PRAMOD KUMAR - 9950250914 Page 31

 ➢ For mixing of two solutions : M1V1 + M2V2 = M3V3

M3 = Molarity of resulting mixture

V3 = V1 + V2

Q.2 Find the molarity of a resultant solution of mixing 100 mL of 1M and 50 mL of 2 M

solution.
M1 V1 + M2 V2
M3 = V3
(1M × 100 mL) + (2M × 50 mL)
= 150 mL

200 M
= = 1.33 M
150

% by weight × 10 × d
Molarity = M2
Here d = density
M2 = Molar mass of solute

Q.3 Calculate the molarity of NaOH in the solution prepared by dissolving its 4 g in
enough water to form 250 mL of the solution.
Ans.
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
Molarity = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑒

4g
Mole of NaOH = = 0.1 mol
40 g mol−1

250 mL
Volume of solution = = 0.250 L
1000 mL L−1
0.1 mol
= = 0.4 mol L–1 = 0.4 M
0.250 L

Q.4 Calculate the concentration of nitric acid in moles per litre in a sample which has a
density, 1.41 g mL–1 and the mass per cent of nitric acid in it being 69 %.
Ans. Solute is HNO3
Density of solution (d) = 1.41 g mL–1
Mass Percentage = 69 %

• 69 % by mass means that 69 g of HNO3 is present in 100 g of solution.

Mass of HNO3 = 69 g
Mass of solution = 100 g

𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐻𝑁𝑂3
Molarity = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑒

𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 69 𝑔
Moles of HNO3 = = = 1.09 mol
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 63 𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑙−1

𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Density of solution = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑚 100 𝑔
V= = = 70.92 mL = 0.07092 L
𝑑 1.41 𝑔 𝑚𝐿−1

GBSSS No – 3 BADARPUR PRAMOD KUMAR - 9950250914 Page 32

 1.09 mol
Molarity = = 15.36 mol L–1 = 15.36 M
0.07092 L

You can also find the same answer by using this formula

% by mass × 10 × d
Molarity = M2

(7) Molality

“ It Is defined as the number of moles of solute present in 1 kg of the solvent.”

Moles of solute W2 × 1000 g kg−1

Molality = =M
mass of solvent in kg 2 × W1 (solvent in gram)

• 1 m solution of NaOH means 1 mol of NaOH is present in 1 kg of the solvent.

• 1 m solution = molal solution
• 0.1 m solution = decimolal solution
• 0.01m solution = centimolal solution
• 10–3 m solution = millimolal solution
𝑴 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
Molality (m) = 𝒅 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 − 𝐌 𝑴𝟐

M = Molarity of solution
d = Density of solution
M2 = Molar mass of solute

Q.1 A sample of drinking water was found to be severely contaminated with chloroform,
CHCl3 , supposed to be carcinogenic in nature. The level of contamination was 15 ppm
(by mass).
(i) Determine the molality of chloroform in the water sample.
Ans. Mass of CHCl3 = 15 g
Mass of solution = 106 g
Mass of CHCl3 + Mass of water = Mass of solution
Mass of CHCl3 <<< Mass of water

Mass of water (Solvent) = Mass of solution = 106 g = 1000 kg

𝟏𝟓 𝐠
Mole of CHCl3 = =
𝟏𝟏𝟗.𝟓 𝐠 𝒎𝒐𝒍−𝟏

Moles of solute 0.1255 mol

Molality = = = 1.26 × 10–4 m
mass of solvent in kg 1000 kg

GBSSS No – 3 BADARPUR PRAMOD KUMAR - 9950250914 Page 33

(8) Normality

It is defined as the number of gram equivalents of solute present in 1L of

the solution.

Number of gram equivalent of solute W2 × 1000 mL L−1

Normality = =E
Volume of solution in litre 2 × V(solution in mL)

• 1 N solution of NaOH means 1 gram equivalent of NaOH is present in 1 L of the solution.

• 1 N solution = Normal solution
• 0.1 N solution = Decinormal solution
• 0.01 N solution = Centinormal solution
• 10–3 N solution = Millinormal solution
➢ For dilution of a solution : N1V1 = N2V2
➢ For mixing of two solution : N1V1 + N2V2 = N3V3

V 3 = V1 + V2

Dependence of Concentration on Temperature : -

As we know that volume is varied with temperature so volume dependent
concentration such as Molarity, Normality, % (w/v), % (v/v), are also vary with
temperature while volume independent concentrations such as Molality, Mole
fraction, % (w/w) are independent on temperature.
(Because mass is not vary with temperature).

Equivalent mass : -

• Equivalent mass of a substance is defined as number of parts by weight of a given

substance which combines or displaces 1 part by weight of hydrogen (11.2 L at STP), 8
parts by weight of oxygen (5.6 L at STP) or 35.5 parts by weight of chlorine (11.2 L at
STP).

𝐀𝐭𝐨𝐦𝐢𝐜 𝐰𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭
Eq. wt. of Element = 𝐕𝐚𝐥𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐲

𝟐𝟑
Eq. wt. of Na = 𝟏
= 23 g eq–1

𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝑨𝒄𝒊𝒅

Eq. wt. of acid = 𝑩𝒂𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝑨𝒄𝒊𝒅

For an Acid
Basicity of an acid is defined as number of replaceable hydrogen ions
present in an acid.

GBSSS No – 3 BADARPUR PRAMOD KUMAR - 9950250914 Page 34

Example
Acid HCl HBr HNO3 H3PO2 H2SO4 H3PO3 H3PO4
Basicity 1 1 1 1 2 2 3

HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H2O

H3PO2 + NaOH → NaH2PO2 + H2O
H2SO4 + 2NaOH → Na2SO4 + 2H2O
H3PO4 + 3NaOH → Na3PO4 + 3H2O

Oxoacids of Phosphorus:

(a) Hypophosphorous acid (b) Orthophosphorous acid (c) Orthophosphoric acid

(Phosphinic acid) (Phosphonic acid)

For H3BO3 it can accept one OH– to form [B(OH)4]– so its basicity is one.

H3BO3 + H – OH → [B(OH)4]– + H+
𝟗𝟖
Equivalent weight of H2SO4 = 𝟐
= 49 g eq–1

𝟔𝟔
Equivalent weight of H3PO2 = 𝟏
= 66 g eq–1

𝟖𝟐
Equivalent weight of H3PO3 = 𝟐
= 41 g eq–1

𝟗𝟖
Equivalent weight of H3PO4 = 𝟑
= 32.67 g eq–1

For Base
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒
𝐸𝑞. 𝑤𝑡. 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠 =
𝐴𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒

Acidity of base is defined as number of OH– ions produced in aqueous

solution by base.
Example
Base NaOH KOH CsOH LiOH Ca(OH)2 Mg(OH)2 Al(OH)3
Acidity 1 1 1 1 2 2 3

In case of NH3 it can accept one H+ ion to form NH4+ so its acidity is one.

𝟒𝟎
Equivalent weight of NaOH = 𝟏
= 40 g eq–1

GBSSS No – 3 BADARPUR PRAMOD KUMAR - 9950250914 Page 35

 𝟕𝟒
Equivalent weight of Ca(OH)2 = 𝟐
= 37 g eq–1

𝟕𝟖
Equivalent weight of Al(OH)3 = 𝟑
= 26 g eq–1

For Salt
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡
𝐸𝑞. 𝑤𝑡. 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡 = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑜𝑛

106
Example Eq. wt. of Na2CO3 = = 53 g eq–1
2

84
NaHCO3 = = 84 g eq–1
1

Q.1 Find the Molarity & normality of a solution in which 4.9 g of H2SO4 is present in
250 mL of solution.
Ans. Mass of H2SO4 = 4.9 g
Molar mass of H2SO4 = 98 g mol–1
Eq. Mass of H2SO4 = 49 g eq–1
Volume of solution = 250 mL

W2 × 1000 mL L−1 4.9 g × 1000 mL L−1

Molarity = = = 0.2 M
M2 × V(solution in mL) 98 g mol−1 × 250 mL

W2 × 1000 mL L−1 4.9 g × 1000 mL L−1

Normality = = = 0.4 N
E2 × V(solution in mL) 49 g eq−1 × 250 mL

Normality = n × Molarity

Q.2 Calculate the amount of water (g) produced by the combustion of 16 g of methane.
Ans. The balanced equation for the combustion of methane is :
CH4 (g) + 2O2 (g) → CO2 (g) + 2H2O (g)
Given,
16 g of CH4 = 1 mol

From the above equation,

∵ 1 mol of CH4 (g) gives = 2 mol of H2O (g).

∵ 1 mol H2O = 2 + 16 = 18 g H2O ⇒ 18g H2O

∴ 2 mol of water (H2O) = 2 × 18 = 36 g
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Q.3 How many moles of methane are required to produce 22g CO2 (g) after combustion? Ans.
According to the chemical equation,

GBSSS No – 3 BADARPUR PRAMOD KUMAR - 9950250914 Page 36

 CH4 (g) + 2O2 (g) → CO2 (g) + 2H2O (g)

1 mol CO2 = 12 + 32 = 44 g

As per balanced equation,

∵ 1 mol CO2 (g) is obtained from = 1 mol of CH4 (g).
1 mol
∴ 0.5 g CO2 (g) is obtained from = 1 mol × 0.5 mol = 0.5 mol of CH4
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Q.4 56.0 g of N2 (g) and 16.0 g of H2 (g) are mixed to produce NH3 (g).
Calculate the amount of NH3 (g) formed. Identify the limiting reagent in the production
of NH3 in this situation.
Ans. A balanced equation for the above reaction is written as follows :
N2(g) + 3 H2(g) → 2 NH3(g)
Calculation of moles :
1 mol N2 = 28 g N2
1 mol H2 = 2 g H2
N2(g) + 3 H2(g) → 2 NH3(g)
1 mol 3 mol 2 mol As per stoichiometry
28 g 6g 34 g

According to the above equation,

∵ 28 g of N2(g) requires 6 g H2(g), for the reaction.
6g
∴ 56 g of N2, the amount of H2(g) required would be = 28 g
× 56 g = 12 g

But we have only 16 g H2, which is excess then required.

Hence, N2 is the limiting reagent in this case.
So, NH3(g) would be formed only from that amount of available N2 i.e., 56 g

As per balanced equation,

∵ 28 g N2(g) gives = 34 g NH3(g)
34 g
∴ 56 g of N2 will give = 28 g
× 56 g = 68 of NH3
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Q.5 50.0 kg of N2 (g) and 10.0 kg of H2 (g) are mixed to produce NH3 (g).
Calculate the amount of NH3 (g) formed. Identify the limiting reagent in the production
of NH3 in this situation.
Ans. A balanced equation for the above reaction is written as follows :
N2(g) + 3 H2(g) → 2 NH3(g)

Calculation of moles :
28 g N2 = 1 mol N2
1000 g 1 mol
Number of moles of N2 = 50 kg × × = 1785.71 mol = 1786 mol
1 kg 28 g

2.016 g H2 = 1 mol H2
1000 g 1 mol
Number of moles of H2 = 10 kg × × = 4960.31 mol = 4960 mol
1 kg 2.016 g

GBSSS No – 3 BADARPUR PRAMOD KUMAR - 9950250914 Page 37

 N2(g) + 3 H2(g) → 2 NH3(g)
1 mol 3 mol 2 mol As per stoichiometry
1786 mol 4960 mol ? Given

According to the above equation,

∵ 1 mol N2(g) requires 3 mol H2(g), for the reaction.
3 mol
∴ 1786 mol of N2, the moles of H2(g) required would be = 1 mol
× 1786 mol = 5358 mol

But we have only 4960 mol H2.

Hence, dihydrogen is the limiting reagent in this case.
So, NH3(g) would be formed only from that amount of available dihydrogen i.e.,
4960 mol
As per balanced equation,
∵ 3 mol H2(g) gives = 2 mol NH3(g)
2 mol
∴ 4960 mol of H2 gives = 3 mol
× 4960 mol = 3306.6 mol of NH3

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Q.6 (a) How many atom’s and molecules of phosphorous are present in 124 g of P4 ?
(b) How many atom’s and molecules of oxygen are present in 5.6 L of Ozone ?
[Ans. (a) = 6.022 × 1023 molecules and 2.4088 × 1024 atoms]
[Ans. (b) = 4.5165 × 1023 atoms and 2.258 × 1023 molecules]

Ans.
∵ 22.4 L Ozone has the molecules of Ozone = 6.022 × 1023 O3 molecules
× 1023
∴ 5.6 L of Ozone has molecules = 6.02222.4 × 5.6 = 1.5055 × 1023 O3 molecules

∵ 1 Molecule of ozone has the number of oxygen atom = 3

∴ 1.5055 × 1023 O3 molecules of ozone has the number of oxygen atom
= 3 × 1.5055 × 1023
= 4.516 × 1023 atoms

4.516 × 1023
No. of Oxygen molecules = = 2.258 × 1023 O2 Molecules
2
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Q.7 What is the volume occupied by 16 g oxygen gas at STP ? [Ans. = 11.2 L]

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Q.8 What is the mass of

(i) Single atom of sulphur and
(ii) Single molecule of carbon dioxide ?

GBSSS No – 3 BADARPUR PRAMOD KUMAR - 9950250914 Page 38

 [Ans. (a) = 5.313 × 10–23 g (b) = 7.306 × 10–23 g]

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Q.9 Calculate the following :

(a) Mass of 3.011 × 1027 molecules of ammonia.
(b) Mass of 2.5 mol of sulphur dioxide.
(c) Number of water molecule in a drop of volume 0.05 mL (dwater = 1 g/cc).
(d) Number of atoms of oxygen present in 300 g calcium carbonate CaCO3.
(e) Moles present in 5.6 g of urea (NH2CONH2).
(f) Number of electrons present in 3.2 g of methane gas.
[Ans. (a) NH3 = 0.85 g (b) SO2 = 160 g (c) 1.672 × 1021 (d) 5.4198 × 1024
(e) 0.9332 mol (f) 12.044 × 1023]
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Q.10 What is the mass of carbon present in 0.5 mol of K4[Fe(CN)6]. [Ans. = 36 g of C]
∵ 1 mol of K4[Fe(CN)6] has = 72 g Carbon
72 g
∴ 0.5 mol of K4[Fe(CN)6] has = 1 mol
× 0.5 mol = 36 g of Carbon

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Q.11 Calculate the mass of carbon dioxide gas which contains the same number of molecules
as are contained in 40 g of oxygen gas.
O2 = 1 mol = 6.022 × 1023 O2 molecules mol-1
CO2 = 1 mol = 6.022 × 1023 CO2 molecules mol-1

Given mass
No. of Moles of Oxygen = 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠

40 g
= 32 𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑙−1 = 1.25 mol

Equal mole of all the gases have the same number of molecules at STP. So 1.25 mol of
CO2 also has the same number of molecules.

Mass of CO2 = Mole × M.M.

1.25 mol × 44 g mol–1 = 55 g

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Q.12 If the density of methanol is 0.793 g/cc, how many molecules of it are present in 5 mL
of it ? [Ans. = 7.461 × 1022 ]
Ans. Mass = 0.793 g mL–1 × 5 mL = 3.965 g
3.965 g
Mole = 32 g 𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1 = 0.1239 mol
Number of molecules of CH3OH = 0.1239 mol × 6.022 × 1023 molecules mol–1
= 7.461 × 1022 molecules

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Q.13 Calculate the number of silver atoms in a silver bangle which has 90 % purity and has a
GBSSS No – 3 BADARPUR PRAMOD KUMAR - 9950250914 Page 39
 weight of 20 g. [Ans. = 1.0037 × 1023 ]
90
Ans. Mass of Ag = 20 × 100 = 18 g
18 g 1
Mole = 108 g 𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1 = mol
6
1
Number of atoms of Ag = 6 mol × 6.022 × 1023 atom mol–1
= 1.0037 × 1023 atom

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Q.14 Density of CCl4 vapour is 6.67 g/L at STP. What is the number of chlorine atoms
present in 100 mL of it at the same temperature and pressure ? [Ans. = 1.0746 × 1022 ]

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Q.15 What is the total number of sodium ions present in a sample of washing soda
Na2CO3.10 H2O weighing 14.3 g ? [Ans. = 6.022 × 1019 ]

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Q.16 What is the molar mass of a gas whose 4.4 g occupies a volume of 2.24 L at STP ?
[Ans. = 44 g mol–1]

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Q.17 Haemoglobin contains 3.5 mg of iron in 1 g of it. What will be the number of iron
atoms present in 2 g of haemoglobin. Atomic mass of iron is 56 u.
[Ans. = 7.527 × 1019 ]
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Q.18 Density of aluminium metal is 2.7 g/cc. If a 2 mm thick layer of Al is deposited on a

metal piece which has an area of 9 cm2. How many moles of Al will be deposited ?
Also calculate the number of atoms.
[Ans. = Moles of Al = 0.18 mol, No. of Al atoms 1.0831 × 1023 ]

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Q.19 What mass of Magnesium nitrate will have 0.25 mol of oxygen atoms ?
[Ans. = 6.167 g ]

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Q.20 Calculate the volume of hydrogen gas in litres which has as many molecules as are
present in 56 g of ozone at STP ? [Ans. = 26.134L ]

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Q.21. On the analysis it was found that black oxide of copper and red oxide of copper
contain 80 % and 89 % of copper respectively. Show that this data is in accordance
with the multiple proportions.

GBSSS No – 3 BADARPUR PRAMOD KUMAR - 9950250914 Page 40

 ➢ According to this law, if two elements combine to form more than one
compound, then the different masses of one element that combine with a
fixed mass of the other element, are in the ratio of small whole numbers.

For example, hydrogen combines with oxygen to form two

compounds, namely, water and hydrogen peroxide.
Cu + Oxygen → Black oxide
80 g Cu + 20 g O
Cu + Oxygen → Red oxide
89 g Cu + 11 g O

∵ 11g O has Cu in red oxide = 89 g

89
∴ 20 g O has Cu in red oxide =
11
× 20 g = 161.9 g

So the ratio of Cu in Black oxide : Red Oxide

80 g : 161.9g
1 : 2.02
1 : 2

Q.22 Find the number of atoms in 0.05 g of water.

0.05 g 0.05
Ans. Number of mole = 18𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑙−1 = 18 mol

Number of molecule = Mole × NA

Number of atoms = 3 × Mole × NA { ∵ 1 molecule of H2O has 3 atom }

3 × 0.05 × 6.02 × 1023

= = 5.016 × 1021 atoms
18

Q.23 Calculate the number of ions, number of oxygen atom and total charge in 3 g of
CO32–.
3g 3
Ans. Number of mole = 60 g 𝑚𝑜𝑙−1 = 60 mol

Number of formula units = Mole × NA

3 × 6.02 × 1023
= = 3.01 × 1022 CO32– ions
60

Number of Oxygen atoms = 3 × Number of Formula units

= 3 × 3.01 × 1022 = 9.03 × 1022

Total Charge = 2 × Charge on One electron × Number of Formula units

= 2 × 1.6 × 10–19 × 3.01 × 1022 C
= 9.63 × 103 C

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

GBSSS No – 3 BADARPUR PRAMOD KUMAR - 9950250914 Page 41

Q.24 Calculate the number of molecules in 1 mL of O2 at NTP.
Ans. Given volume of O2 is = 1 mL
1 𝑚L 1
Mole of O2 = 22400 mL 𝑚𝑜𝑙−1 = 22400 mol

Number of molecule = Mole × NA

1 × 6.02 × 1023
= = 2.69 × 1019 molecule
22400

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Q.25 A compound on analysis give the following results C = 54.54 % , H = 9.09 % and
rest oxygen. Vapour density of the compound = 88. Determine the molecular
formula of the compound.

Element % Atomic Relative No. Simplest Simplest

Mass of atoms Atomic whole No.
Ratio ratio
C 54.54 12 𝟓𝟒.𝟓𝟒 𝟒.𝟓𝟑 2
= 4.53 = 2
𝟏𝟐 𝟐.𝟐𝟕

H 9.09 1 𝟗.𝟎𝟗 𝟗.𝟎𝟗 4

= 9.09 = 4
𝟏 𝟐.𝟐𝟕

O 36.37 16 𝟑𝟔.𝟑𝟕 𝟐.𝟐𝟕 1

= 2.27 = 1
𝟏𝟔 𝟐.𝟐𝟕

Empirical formula is = C2H4O

Empirical formula weight = 44

𝐌𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐜𝐮𝐥𝐚𝐫 𝐌𝐚𝐬𝐬
Vapour density = 𝟐
Molecular mass = 2 × 88 = 166 g mol–1
𝟏𝟔𝟔
n = 𝟒𝟒 = 4
Molecular formula of compound is = (C2H4O) × 4 = C8H16O4

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Q.26 A substance on analysis, gave the following percentage composition :

Na = 29.1 % , S = 40.5 % & O = 30.4 % ,
Calculate it’s empirical formula. [Na = 23 u, S = 32 u, O = 16 u]

Element % Atomic Relative No. Simplest Simplest

Mass of atoms Atomic whole No.
Ratio ratio
Na 29.1 23 𝟐𝟗.𝟏 𝟏.𝟐𝟔 2
𝟐𝟑
= 1.26 𝟏.𝟐𝟔
=1

S 40.5 32 𝟒𝟎.𝟓 𝟏.𝟐𝟔 2

= 1.26 𝟏.𝟐𝟔
=1
𝟑𝟐
O 30.4 16 𝟑𝟎.𝟒 𝟏.𝟗𝟎 3
𝟏𝟔
= 1.90 𝟏.𝟐𝟔
= 1.5

GBSSS No – 3 BADARPUR PRAMOD KUMAR - 9950250914 Page 42

 Empirical formula is = Na2S2O3

Q.27 Find the percentage composition of sucrose.

Ans. C12H22O11 Molar mass = 144 + 22 + 176 = 342 g mol–1
144
% of C = × 100 = 42.10 %
342

22
% of H = × 100 = 6.43 %
342

176
% of O = × 100 = 51.47 %
342

Q.28 Concentrated HNO3 is 63 % by mass. Density of the solution is 1.5 g cm–3.

Calculate the volume of the solution which contains 20 g HNO3.
(Molar mass of HNO3 63 g mol–1)
Ans. 63 % by mass of HNO3 means 63 g of HNO3 is present in 100 g of solution.
Mass of HNO3 = 63 g
Mass of solution is = 100 g
Density of solution is = 1.5 g cm–3
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 100 g
Volume = = = 66.67 cm–3 = 66.67 mL
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 1.5 g cm−3

∵ 63 g HNO3 is present in = 66.67 mL solution

66.67 mL
∴ 20 g HNO3 will be present in = 63 g
× 20 g = 21.16 mL

Q.29 Calculate the mass of sodium acetate (CH3COONa) required to make 500 mL of
0.375 molar aqueous solution. Molar mass of sodium acetate is 82.0245 g mol–1.
Ans. Molarity = 0.375 M
Molar mass = 82.0245 g mol–1
Volume of solution = 500 mL

𝑤2 × 1000 mL L−1
Molarity = 𝑀2 × V(solution) 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝐿

Molarity × M2 × V(solution) 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝐿
w2 = 1000 mL L−1

0.375 mo𝑙 L−1 × 82.0245 g mo𝑙−1 × 500 mL

w2 = 1000 mL L−1

= 15.38 g

Q.30 Calculate the total charge in 9.6 g of SO42–.

[Ans. 1.926 × 104 C]
Q.31 Write the empirical formula of
(a) Oxalic acid (b) Acetic acid
[Ans.(a) CHO2 (b) CH2O ]
GBSSS No – 3 BADARPUR PRAMOD KUMAR - 9950250914 Page 43
NEET JEE - Mole Concept and Molar Mass

Q.1 Which one of the followings has maximum number of atoms ? [NEET 2020]
(1) 1 g of Ag(s) [Atomic mass of Ag = 108]
(2) 1 g of Mg(s) [Atomic mass of Mg = 24]
(3) 1 g of O2(g) [Atomic mass of O = 16]
(4) 1 g of Li(s) [Atomic mass of Li = 7]

Q.2 In which case the number of molecules of water maximum ? [NEET 2018]
(a) 18 mL of water (b) 0.18 g of water
(c) 0.00224 L of water at 1 atm and 273 K (d) 10–3 mol of water

Q.3 Suppose the element X and Y combine to form two compounds XY2 and X3Y2.
When 0.1 mol of XY2 weighs 10 g and 0.05 mol of X3Y2 weighs 9 g the atomic
weight of X and Y are ? [NEET 2016]
(a) 40,30 (b) 60,40 (c) 20,30 (d) 30,20

Q.4 The number of water molecules is maximum in ? [NEET 2015]

(a) 1.8 g of water (b) 18 g of water (c) 1.8 mol of water (d) 18 molecules of water

Q.5 Which has the maximum number of molecules among the following ? [NEET 2011]
(a) 44 g CO2 (b) 48 g O3 (c) 8 g H2 (d) 64 g SO2

Percentage Composition

Q.6 An organic compounds contains 78 % (by weight) carbon and remaining percentage of
hydrogen. The right option for the empirical formula of this compound is [NEET 2021]
(atomic weight of C is 12 , H is 1)
(a) CH4 (b) CH (c) CH2 (d) CH

Stoichiometry and Stoichiometric Calculations

Q.7 What mass of 95 % pure CaCO3 will be required to neutralize 50 mL of 0.5 M HCl solution
according to the following reaction ? [NEET 2022]
CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) → CaCl2(s) + CO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
(a) 1.25 g (b) 1.32 g (c) 3.65 g (d) 9.50 g

Q.8 The number of moles of hydrogen molecules required to produce 20 moles of ammonia
through Haber’s process is : [NEET 2019]
(a) 30 (b) 40 (c) 10 (d) 20
Ans. [a]
Sol. N2 + 3H2 → 2NH3
moles = ? 20 moles

GBSSS No – 3 BADARPUR PRAMOD KUMAR - 9950250914 Page 44

 ∵ 2 moles of NH3 is produced by 3 moles of H2
3
∴ 20 moles of NH3 will be produced by = 2 × 20 = 30 moles of H2

Q.9 The density of 2 M aqueous solution of NaOH is 1.28 g /cm3. The molality of the solution is
(Given that molecular mass of NaOH = 40 g mol–1) [NEET 2019]
(a) 1.20 m (b) 1.56 m (c) 1.67 m (d) 1.32 m

Q.10 A mixture of 2.3 g formic acid and 4.5 g oxalic acid is treated with conc. H2SO4.
The evolved gaseous mixture is passed through KOH pellets. Weight (in g) of the
remaining product at STP will be [NEET 2018]
(a) 1.4 (b) 3.0 (c) 2.8 (d) 4.4

Q.11 What is the mass of the precipitate formed when 50 mL of 16.9 % solution of AgNO3 is
mixed with 50 mL of 5.8% NaCl solution? [NEET 2015]
(Ag = 107.8, N = 14, O = 16, Na = 23, Cl = 35.5)
(a) 3.5 g (b) 7 g (c) 14 g (d) 28 g

Q.12 20 g of a magnesium carbonate sample decomposes on heating to give carbon dioxide and
8.0 g magnesium oxide. What will be the percentage purity of magnesium carbonate in the
sample ? (At. Wt. of Mg = 24) [NEET 2015]
(a) 96 (b) 60 (c) 84 (d) 75

Q.13 When 22.4 litres of H2(g) is mixed with 11.2 litres of Cl2(g) each at STP, the moles of HCl(g)
formed is equal to [NEET 2014]
(a) 1 mol of HCl(g) (b) 2 mol of HCl(g)
(c) 0.5 mol of HCl(g) (d) 1.5 mol of HCl(g)

Q.14 1.0 g of magnesium is burnt with 0.56 g of O2(g) in a closed vessel. Which reactant is left
in excess and how much ? ( At. Wt. Mg = 24, O = 16) [NEET 2014]
(a) Mg 0.16 g (b) O2 0.16 g (c) Mg 0.44 g (d) O2 0.28 g

GBSSS No – 3 BADARPUR PRAMOD KUMAR - 9950250914 Page 45

GBSSS No – 3 BADARPUR PRAMOD KUMAR - 9950250914 Page 46