History and Development of Polygraphy/Lie Detection

Forensic Science

 Latin word “Forēnsis” – of or before the forum

 refers to a group of scientific disciplines which are concerned with the application of their particular
scientific area of expertise to law enforcement, criminal, civil, legal, and judicial matters.
 Any science used within the criminal justice system

Lie Detection

 The system or practice of determining whether or not somebody is telling the truth during questioning.

 “Deception Detection”
EARLY METHODS OF LIE DETECTION

 They believe in DIVINE JUSTICE

EARLY FORMS OF TRIAL

 Trial by Combat (resolving issue by use of human strength)

 Trial by Ordeal (by means of pain)
 Trial by Jury (fact finders)
 Trial by Torture (witch hunt)

What is Ordeal?

 A severe test of character or endurance

 A medieval form of judicial trial in which the accused was subjected to physical tests, as carrying or
walking over burning objects or immersing the hand in scalding water, the result being considered a
divine judgment of guilt or innocence.
 Historically, early human beings have their own way of determining lying or guilt on the part of the
accused and accuser. Their common method is thru the application of “ORDEAL.”
 Dei Indicum – Miraculous Decision
 an ancient method of trial in which the accused was exposed to physical danger which was supposed to
be harmless if he was innocent.

Red hot iron ordeal

 Practiced in the hill tribe of Rajhmal in North Bengal.

 The accused had to carry a bar of red-hot iron in his hands while he walked 9 marked paces. In the
unlikely event of no burns appearing on his hands, he was adjudged innocent. Otherwise, he was
promptly hanged.
 A variation of licking the rod-hot iron sometimes, the suspect had to run barefoot over nine red-hot
plowshares. The hand or foot was bound up and inspected 3 days afterwards. If the accused had
escaped unhurt, the person was pronounced innocent, if hurt the person is guilty.

Ordeal by balance

 Practiced in the Institute of Vishnu, India.

 A scale of balance is used, in one end of the scale, the accused is placed and in the other end a counter
balance.
 The person will step out of the scale and listen to a judge to deliver an exhortation on the balance and get
back in. If he was found lighter than before then he should be acquitted

ORDEAL OF WATER

 Used in Africa and Cordillera.

 the method was that the subject will plunged their right arms into the boiling pot to the elbow and step
into the other side of the fire. All are told to undergo the test without a murmur. And when all are
finished, they are told to return at the same time the next afternoon. The one who by that time had lost
some or showed blisters would prove the thief (Point out who is the one who steal among his tribe
mates).

ORDEAL by RICE CHEWING

 Practiced by Indians
 It is formed with a kind of rice called sathee, prepared with various incantations; The person on trial
eats, with his face to the and then spits upon an eyeful leaf; If the saliva is mixed with blood or the
corner of his mouth swell or he trembles, he is declared then a liar.

ORDEAL OF THE RED WATER

  Used in a wide region of Eastern Africa
 The ordeal of the “sassy bark” or red water is used; The accused is made to fast for twelve hours; Then
swallow a small amount of rice; Then he will be imbibed in dark colored water. This water is actually
an emetic and if the suspects ejects all the rice, he is considered innocent of the chare, Otherwise, the
accused is guilty.
ORDEAL BY COMBAT

 Originated from India

 A fight between the accuser and the accused, whoever lost the battle will be the adjudged guilty.
 a rich man or accuser could hire somebody or bigger one to fight the accused. After the fight the loser
is adjudged guilty of crime.
ORDEAL BY TORTURE

 The accused was put into a severe physical test.

DRINKING ORDEAL

 Practiced in Nigeria and India.

 The accused was given a decoction to drink by a priest – if innocent; no harm befalls him, but if guilty,
will die.
Trial of the Eucharist

 This trial is reserved for the clergy, and administered with pomp and ceremony. If the accused was
guilty, the Angel Gabriel will descend from heaven and prevent the accused from swallowing the food
given to him. Practiced in the European countries.

What are the Common Countries that Practiced Ordeal?

1. Burma - The accuser and accused were given each identical candle and both were lightened at the same
time.

2. Borneo - The accuser and accused were presented by shell fish placed on a plate. An irritating fluid was
then poured on the shell fish and the litigant whose shell fish moved first was adjudged the winner.

3. Greece - A suspended axe was spun at the center of a group of suspects. When the axe stopped, whoever
was in line with the blade as supposed to be guilty as pointed out by the divine providence.

4. Nigeria - The priest greased a clock’s feather and pierced the tongue of the accused. If the feather passed
through the tongue easily, the accused was deemed innocent. If not, the accused is guilty. Another
Method (same country) Pour corrosive liquid into the eyes of the accused who was supposed to remain
unharmed if innocent. Pour boiling oil over the hand of the accused with he usual requisites for guilt or
innocence (if remain unharmed, he is innocent).

5. Europe and Early United States (17th Century) - Trial by water was commonly used on those accused of
witchcraft. The accused was bound (hand and foot) and then cast into the body of water. If the accused
sank, he was hauled to the surface half-drowned and deemed innocent. If the floated, he was deemed
guilty and burned to death.

History Development of Polygraphy

Detection through Regular Police Methods

• “Five Wives and One Husband” (5 W’s and 1H)

• “Three Eyes” (3 I’s)

• The modern terminology for polygraph examination is “Forensic Psychophysiological Detection of

Deception (PDD)”

• In the middle of the 19th century, Dr. Hans Gross, an Austrian known as the “Father of Criminalistics”,
defined search for truth as the basis and goal of all criminal investigations. He asserted that “a large part of
the criminalist’s work is nothing more than a battle against lies. He has to discover the truth and must fight
the opposite. He meets the opposite at every step.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE CARDIOGRAPH COMPONENT

  ANGELO MOSSO – 1895
 Studied fear and its influence on the hearth and his observations subsequently formed the basis for the
technique.
 Developed the SPHYGMAMOMANOMETER and the SCIENTIFIC CRADLE, which he used in
studying fear on the heart.

Daniel Defoe

• He wrote an essay entitled “An effectual Scheme for the Immediate Preventing of the Street Robberies and
Suppressing All Other Disorders of the Night” where he suggested the use of the pulse to detect deception.

ANGELO MOSSO – 1895

• he studied fear and its influence on the heart. In his observation subsequently formed the basis for detecting
technique. (Plethysmograph)
• He devised a “scientific cradle”, which was designed to measure the flow of blood while a person lay on
his back in a prone position as it became concentrated on one part of the body and then in the other.

CESAR LOMBROSO – 1895

• Employed the first scientific instrument to detect deception. This instrument known as
HYDORSPHYGMOGRAPH, measured changes in pulse and blood pressure when suspects were
questioned about their involvement in or knowledge of a specific response.
• Procedure on the use of the “HYDROSPHYGMOGRAPH” in detecting deception: Subject’s hand placed
in a water filed tank sealed with membranes of rubber; Subject will be shown pictures connected with the
crime or mention will be made to relevant facts of the crime; Pulsation of blood in fist was recorded on
smoked drum.
• Employed the first scientific instrument to detect deception. This instrument known as
HYDORSPHYGMOGRAPH, measured changes in pulse and blood pressure when suspects were
questioned about their involvement in or knowledge of a specific response.

William James Mackenzie

• a famous English heart specialist who first describe the polygraph machine as the “ink polygraph”.
William Moulton Marston (1915)

• the self proclaimed “father of the polygraph” conducted more numerous tests for detecting
deception utilizing the changes of systolic deception and develops his own method of reading systolic
blood pressure.
• He also recorded the respiration and noted the time of subject’s verbal responses. He also
experimented with galvanometer to record skin resistance changes and gripping device to record
tension. (Troville 2009)
• John A. Larson 1921

• developed an instrument capable of simultaneously and continuously recording blood pressure, pulse rate
and respiration. His invention was designated as the “The Bread Lie Detector”. He was credited as
forerunner of modern polygraph. (Father of Scientific Lie Detection) (Father of Polygraphy)
• LARSON POLYGRAPH- This is the first assemblage of apparatus and some of his co-workers in the
Berkeley Police Department.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE PNEUMOGRAPH COMPONENT

Vittorio Benussi (1914)

• discovered a method for calculating the quotient of the inhalation to exhalation as means of verifying
the truth and detecting deception of the subject.
• He demonstrated that changes in breathing patterns accompany deception.
HAROLD BURTT – 1918

• Determined that respiratory changes were indicative of deception.

• Found out that changes in systolic blood pressure were of greater value in determining deception than
changes in respiration.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE GALVANOGRAPH COMPONENT

GEORG STICKER (1897)

• he made the first galvanograph for detecting deception based from the work of his predecessor and
introduced the method of detecting from the galvanic impression on the chart tracing. He worked on the
influence and relation of the sweat glands to skin resistance.
OTTO VERAGUTH – 1907

• First to use the term “PSYCHOGALVANIC REFLEX”.

• Believed that the electrical phenomenon was due to the activity of the sweat glands.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE KYMOGRAPH COMPONENT

LEONARD KEELER –1926

• Continued research and development of the polygraph. In 1949, he invented the Keeler Polygraph with
components that simultaneously recorded changes in blood pressure, pulse and respiration, as well as the
newly developed galvanic skin reflex.
• He devised the chart roll paper, a better method of questioning, and incorporated the kymograph.
• He also devised a metal bellows.
• THE KEELER POLYGRAPH

OTHER PERSONALITIES TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE POLYGRAPH AS KNOWN TODAY

• Luigi Galvani (1791) - an Italian psychologist who developed the galvanic skin reflex. The GSR reflected
emotional changes by measuring changes in person’s skin resistance to electricity.

• Richard O. Arther- he developed an improvised polygraph machine with two galvanic skin resistance.

• Cleve Backster (1960) - he created the numerical scoring on the polygraph chart and standardizing
quantitive polygraph technique. He developed the Backster Zone Comparison Test.

• John E. Reid (1947) - he developed improvement with the conventional polygraph by incorporating
muscular resistance his device was known as the Reid polygraph. In 1950, he developed the Control
Question which consisted of a known lie and incorporated it into the relevant- irrelevant technique
(Father of Controls)