DEFINATION OF HEAT

Heat is a form of energy called thermal energy which can be transmitted from one place to another
as a result of temperature difference between them.

Heat flows from one body to another in a direction determined by their temperatures. When two
bodies are in contact, the colder body receives heat from the hotter body. The heat energy that
enters the cold body may:
1. Increase its internal molecular kinetic energy. This energy speeds up the motion of the molecules
in the body, thus increasing its temperature.
2. Increasing the potential energy of the molecule. This result in a change of state of the substance
i.e. a solid will melt or liquid will boil. Heat is measured in Joules (J) since it is a form of energy.

PRODUCTION OF HEAT
Heat can be produced through practical activities and by natural sources.
1. The Sun: The earth receives most of its heat from the sun. This heat is called solar heat.
2. Fuels: These include wood, charcoal, petrol, and natural gases
3. Electricity: An electric current produces heat; electric kettles, irons, stoves are examples of the
use of this source of heat.
4. Friction: Friction between moving parts produces heat. E.g. filing, grinding and sharpening
cutlasses are some ways of producing heat by friction.
5. Internal of the earth: The internal of the earth gives out heat produced by radioactive
substances. Some of this heat is released through volcanic eruption and hot spring.

TEMPERATURE
The temperature of a body is a measure of hotness of the body.

The temperature of a body is not the same as the heat energy it contains. For example, a red-hot
small charcoal from a fire will be at a very high temperature but it does not contain much heat
energy because it has a small mass.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN HEAT AND TEMPERATURE

No Temperature Heat
1. It causes a rise in temperature of bodies. It is degree of hotness or coldness of
a body
2. It is a form of energy It is not a form of energy

3. It is measured in joules It can be measured in Kelvin or

degree celcius

4. It can be transferred from one point to the It cannot be transferred from one
other point to another

THE FIXED POINTS OF THERMOMETERS

When preparing a scale or a graduated measure for reading temperatures, usually two reference
temperatures are chosen. These reference temperatures are called the fixed temperatures or fixed
points. The higher temperature is called the upper fixed point and the lower temperature is called
the lower fixed point.

The upper fixed point is the temperature of steam from pure water boiling at normal atmospheric
pressure.

The lower fixed point is the temperature of a mixture of pure ice and water at normal atmospheric
pressure.
The interval between the upper and lower fixed points is called the fundamental interval.

TEMPERATURE SCALES
The temperature scales commonly used now are the Celsius (C) and thermodynamic (K) scales.

THE CELSIUS SCALE (°C)

On the Celsius scale, the lower fixed point is the temperature of pure melting ice (O C) and the
upper fixed point is the temperature of steam from pure water boiling at normal atmospheric
pressure (100 C). It is also called centigrade scale. The unit of temperature on the Celsius scale is
degrees Celsius (C) and its symbol is

THE THERMODYNAMIC SCALE

The thermodynamic scale R of temperature is based On the kinetic theory model. Which assume
that if the temperature of the substance could be reduced to -273.15°C, the motion of its molecules
will stop. This temperature is called the absolute zero and the scale is sometimes called the absolute
temperature scale. The unit of temperature on the thermodynamic scale is the Kelvin (K). The
absolute zero OK is -273.15°C.
The symbol for temperature is the Kelvin is

The thermodynamic temperature scale uses one fixed point, the triple point on water.

The trine point of water is the temperature at which saturated water vapour: pure water and
melting ice are all in equilibrium.

The triple point temperature is defined as 273.16K

Temperature and its Measurement

A distilled water (from which dissolved air is driven out), water vapour and ice are here in
equilibrium. The temperature indicated by the thermometer is the triple point of water. The
slight difference between the ice point on the thermodynamic scale (273.15 K) and the triple point of
water (273.16) is due to the difference in pressure (4.6 mmH at the triple point 760mmHg at the ice
point) and the removal of dissolved air from the distilled water used for the triple pome
Temperature on the thermodynamic scale can be defined as

Where X is the thermometric property at the temperature of the substance and is the
thermometric property at the point.
Under the constant-volume gas thermodynamic, for example, the gas pressure is measured at the
triple point of water, 273.16 K. if the pressure is at an unknown temperature T on the thermodynamic
scale, then, by definition.

CONVERSION OF TEMPERATURE SCALES

The Celsius and the Kelvin scales are related by the equation.
or

Where: temperature in degrees Celsius

T temperature in Kelvin

CONVERT THE FOLLOWING TEMPERATURES

1. 116°C into K
2. -39 °C into K
3. 450 K into °C
4. 58 K into °C
Solution
1.

2.

3.

4.

THERMOMETERS
A thermometer is an instrument for measuring temperature of a body.
Sensations are not reliable enough for scientific work, because they depend on contrast; a body feels
hot to our fingers if we have just been touching something cold, but the same body feels cold if we
have been touching something hot. A thermometer reading depends on hotness or coldness. The
thermometer reading is more reliable because different thermometers agree with one another better
than different people.

KINDS OF THERMOMETERS
There are various kinds of thermometers. They include:
1. liquid - in - glass thermometer
2. bimetallic thermometer
3. pyrometers
4. gas thermometers
5. thermocouples

THE LIQUID-IN-GLASS THERMOMETER

Is based on the fact that, liquid expands when heated and contract when cooled. A liquid that
expands or contracts appreciably with a small change in temperature is suitable for the construction
of this thermometer as it will be most sensitive provided that it remains a liquid over the range of
temperature we wish to measure.
FEATURES OF THE LIQUID-IN-GLASS THERMOMETER

It has a bulb which is the reservoir of the liquid and a stem with fine capillary glass tubing through
which the liquid rises when the temperature increases and falls when the temperature decreases.
The stem is calibrated to read the temperature scale of the thermometer.

CALIBRATION OF LIQUID-IN-GLASS THERMOMETER

The two initial reference temperatures to be determined when calibrating a liquid-in-glass
thermometer are the lower and upper fixed points.

CALIBRATING THE LOWER FIVED POINT

In order to mark the lower fixed point on an ungraduated thermometer, it is inserted in a funnel
filled with a mixture of ice and pure water. When the bulb is inserted the mercury or the alcohol in
the stem decreases in length and finally remain steady for sometime. The level of the steady thread is
marked on the stem. This is the lower fixed point.

CALIBRATING THE UPPER FIXED POINT

The upper fixed point is marked by passing a thermometer already marked with a lower fixed point
through a rubber bung into the steam chamber of a hypsometer. A hypsometer consists of a double-
walled copper vessel with a manometer attached to it.
The manometer ensures that the pressure within it is 760 mmg. The steam is retained in the double-
walled chamber at exactly 100°C. Condensation of the steam does not occur in the chamber.

When the level of mercury in the glass remains constant for some time, the position of the top level
of the thread is marked on the stem. The marked temperature point is the steam point or the upper
fixed point.

THERMOMETRIC SUBSTANCES
Thermometers use some physical property of a substance, which changes in proportion, when the
temperature changes. The substance of which a physical property is so used is called a thermometric
substance.

A liquid that expands or contracts appreciably with a small change in temperature is called a
thermometric substance.

For example, in the mercury-in-glass thermometer, the thermometric substance is mercury as the
physical property used is the increase in volume of mercury with increase in temperature.

The choice of liquids for thermometer depends on the range over which temperature is to be
measured.

WATER AS A THERMOMETRIC SUBSTANCE

Water is not suitable as a thermometric liquid because:
a) The temperature range in which water boils and freezes is very small,
b) The volume expansion of water is not regular
c) Water vaporises and condenses in the tube d Water clings to the capillary tube in which it is
falling

ADVANTAGES OF ALCOHOL AS A THERMOMETRIC SUBSTANCE

i. It expands about 6 times as that of mercury
ii. It can be used in cold temperate regions since its freezing point is -112°C.

DISADVANTAGES
i. It wets glass
ii. It vaporises easily and cannot be used to measure high temperature. Its boiling point is 78°C
iii. It cannot be seen and has to be coloured.
iv. It is a poor conductor of heat and responds slowly to heat.

MERCURY AS A THERMOMETRIC SUBSTANCE

Mercury is preferred to alcohol or water as a thermometric liquid for the following reasons;
a) It does not wet glass. Alcohol and water tend to cling to the walls of the tube and this leads to
low readings.
b) It does not vaporise easily. Mercury boils at 360°C while alcohol and water boil at 78°C and
100°C respectively.
c) It is opaque and easily seen while alcohol has to be coloured.
d) It is a better conductor of heat and responds more rapidly to changes in temperature

DISADVANTAGES
It freezes only at -39°C and cannot be used to measure low temperatures.
Thermal Physics

PRECAUTIONS WHEN USING A THERMOMETER TO MEASURE THE TEMPERATURE OF A LIQUID

1. Stir the liquid to ensure an even distribution of heat in the entire liquid.
2. The bulb of the thermometer must be fully immersed in the liquid.
 3. The bulb must not touch the bottom or the side of the heated container since these areas may
be at higher temperatures than the liquid itself.

THE CLINICAL THERMOMETER

The clinical thermometer has thin and short stem calibrated from 35°C to 43°C since it is specially
designed for the measurement of the human body temperature which is 37°C.
The stem is thickened from the side remote from the graduations so that it acts as a lens to magnify
the thin mercury thread. It has a constriction or kink in the stem between the bulb and the first
mark on the scale.

When the clinical thermometer is inserted under the armpit of the patient and left for some time, the
body temperature causes the mercury to expand and rise along the tube. When the thermometer is
removed from the armpit, the thread is prevented from flowing back in the bulb by the constriction.
The thread remains in the stem and records the maximum temperature of the body.

The thermometer is shaken vigorously to force the liquid to flow back and enter the bulb before it is
used again. The clinical thermometer is normally sterilised by immersing it in an antiseptic solution
before it is used again to prevent the spreading of disease from one patient to another. Sterilising the
thermometer in boiling water (100°C) would break it.

It consists of a U-shaped glass tubing containing mercury. Connected to each end of the U tube are
bulbs containing either creosol or alcohol. Scales are marked on both arms of the U-tube so that the
temperature can be read from either end at any time. At the top of the mercury in each limb is a
steel index, which is pushed up by the mercury as the temperature rises or falls. Each index is held
in place by a small steel spring, which prevents it from moving away from the highest temperature
point recorded if the mercury drops later in the day.

HOW IT WORKS
An increase in temperature during the day causes an expansion in the alcohol in the arm EF to push
the mercury round the U-tube. The force on the mercury moves the index E upwards until the lower
end of the steel index records the highest temperature.

A fall in temperature causes the alcohol to contract and the mercury follows it leaving the index E, in
place in the limb CD and pushing the steel index in the limb to record the lowest temperature.

NB After readings, the indices must be reset with a magnet to bring them back into contact with the
mercury in each limb each day.

THE GAS THERMOMETER

It consists of a glass bulb (E) containing dry air.
The bulb is connected by a capillary tube to a mercury manometer.
How it works
When the bulb E is heated the air in the bulb expands and forces the mercury in the manometer to
rise in the calibrated limb GH.
The air is returned to its original volume by adjusting the level of the mercury by lowering or raising
the opening tube. The difference in height between the two mercury levels is then measured to
provide a pressure reading for the gas from the expression
P = pgh
where p = pressure of the gas
p = density of mercury
h = difference between mercury levels
g = acceleration due to gravity
On the Celsius scale, temperature is calculated on the gas thermometer using the expression
0 = Do - Po
×100°C
Poo - Po
where Ps = pressure of gas at the temperature of
the substance
Temperature and its Measurement
P. = pressure of gas at ice point
Pioo = pressure of gas at steam point
On the Kelvin scale, temperature is calculated on the gas thermometer using the expression
T= Pr - Po x 273.16 K Pr - Po
where Pr = pressure of gas at the temperature of
the substance
P. = pressure of gas at absolute zero
P. = pressure of gas at triple point
Examples
1. The pressure of a gas thermometer was 800 mmilg at ice point, 1200 mmg at steam point and 1000
mmHg at the temperature of the liquid. What is the
Solution
P. = 800 mmHg, P10 = 1200 mmHg,
P. = 1000 mmlig
0 - Po - Po
×100° C
Pioo - Po
A=
1000-800100° C
1200 - 800
A =50° C
2. The pressure recorded by a constant volume gas thermometer at a Kelvin temperature T is 4.80 ×
104 Nm 2. Calculate T if the pressure at the triple point, 273.16 K, is 4.20 × 104 N m-?
Solution
† = PI × 273.16 K
Pir
4.80×104
1=
420×104 × 273.16-312 K
Advantages of the gas thermometer
1. It is very accurate
It is very sensitive to temperature changes
202
Thermal Physics
3. It has a wide temperature range of about - 272°C to 1300°C
Disadvantages of the gas thermometer
1. It is bulky
N
It has a long response time
Thermoelectric Thermometer
(Thermocouple)
Temperature and its Measurement
Cooper
Copper
Constantan
Ice
Melted ice
Hot liquid
It takes the form of two copper wires and a constantan wire welded together at points B and A and
connected to a galvanometer C calibrated to read the temperature of a body.
How it works
When the welded joint B is immersed in a hot substance and joint A is kept in melting ice, an
electromotive force (emf), generated between the junctions B and A, causes an electric current to
flow through the meter C. Since the size of the current depends on the temperature, the higher the
temperature, the greater the current which flows through C.
On the Celsius scale, temperature is calculated on the thermocouple thermometer using the
expression
E. - E
×100° C
9 - E100 - Bo
where E. = emf at the temperature of the body
E, = emf at ice point
Ejoo = emf at steam point
On the Kelvin scale, temperature is calculated on the thermocouple thermometer
using
the
expression
En - Eo × 273.16 K
where E, = Emf at the temperature of the
substance
= Emf at absolute zero
E, = Emf at triple point
Example: The emf of a thermocouple is 50V at the 0°C, 300V at 100°C and 200V at the temperature
of a heated body. Calculate the temperature of the body.
Solution
E. = 50V,
Ejoo = 300V,
0 = E100 - Bo
Er - Eo x100°C
e=
200 - 50
x100° C
300 -50
0 = 60°C
Es = 200V
Industries such as aluminium works and steel works use thermocouples constructed from metals of
very high melting point to measure the temperature of molten aluminium or steel respectively.
Wires of platinum. alloy and
platinum are used in measuring the temperature of the molten aluminium.
Advantages of the thermocouple
1. It can measure temperature of small bodies
2. It has very wide temperature range of about - 200°C to 1500°C
3. It is sensitive
4. It is portable and durable
5. It responds quickly to temperature changes
Disadvantages of the thermocouple
It is not accurate
2. It is difficult to read
203
Temperature and its Measurement
The Resistance Thermometer
Resistance thermometers are usually made of platinum. The wire is wound on two strips of mica,
arranged crosswise.
eeeeeee
Coil of fine wire
To electrical resistance measuring instrument
The electrical resistance of a material depends on its temperature. For a metal, the resistance
increases, but for a semiconductor, the resistance decreases with increase in temperature.
Both
these effects are used in resistance thermometers.
The Platinum Resistance Thermometer
P = O and B compensates A so that S = R
This consists of a coil of platinum wire in a protective container. The ends of the coil are attached to
a pair of leads A, for connecting them to a Wheatstone bridge. A similar pair of leads B is near to the
leads from the coil, and connected in the adjacent arm of the bridge. At the end near the coil, the
pair of leads B is short - circuited. If the two pairs of leads are identical, their resistance are equal,
whatever their
temperature. Thus if P = 9 the dummy pair, B,
just compensates for the pair A going to the coil, and the bridge measures the resistance of the coil
alone.
The resistance of the wire can be measured very accurately to give accurate temperature
measurements over a range of about 80 K to 1400 K (-200°C to 1100°C. The major disadvantage of
the platinum resistance thermometer is that it takes a long time to reach the temperature of its
surroundings: therefore it cannot follow rapid changes in temperature.
Advantages of the platinum resistance thermometer
1. It is small and portable
2. It is sensitive
3. It is accurate
4. It has a wide temperature range
Advantages of the platinum resistance
thermometer
1. It has a long response time
2. It has a high heat capacity
3. It is fragile
4. It is difficult to read
The Thermistor
The thermistor is made of a small bead of semiconducting material.
As in the platinum
resistance thermometer, an electrical circuit measures the resistance and this is converted into a
temperature reading.
Advantages of the thermistor
1. It is portable
2. It is cheap to manufacture
3. It is very sensitive
4. It has a short response time
Disadvantages of the thermistor
1. It is less accurate
2. It is less stable
3. It has small temperature
On the Celsius scale, temperature is calculated on the resistance thermometer using the expression
0 =-
Ro - Ro × 100° C
R100 - R.
where R. = electrical resistance at the
temperature of the body
R. = electrical resistance at ice point
Roo = electrical resistance at steam point
204
Thermal Physics
Temperature and its Measurement
On the Kelvin scale, temperature is calculated on the resistance thermometer using the expression
R7 - Ro
T=
-× 273.16 K
R. - Ro
where R = resistance at the temperature of the
metal,
RaR = resistance at the absolute temperature and
Ro = resistance at the triple point
Examples
1. Calculate the temperature of a body if the resistance of a resistance thermometer is
0.5 Q at 0 °C, 55 2 at 100 °C and 10.0 2 at the temperature of the body.
Solution
R. = 0.552 R100 = 5.582 Ro = 10.052
A =-
Ro - Ro × 100° C
R00 - Ro
10.0 - 05
0=
35-05 ×100°C
A =190°C
2. The resistance of a certain metal measured at the triple point and absolute zero of temperature
are 3.018 0 and 2.003 2 respectively. Calculate the resistance of the metal at 50 °C
Solution
T= RA-Ro
- "ケーRe x 273.16K
0=50°C = T =50 + 273 = 323 K
Ro = 2.00352, R, = 3.0180, R, =?
R= - 2.003
= 323 = 3.018-2.003 * 273.16
R. -2.003
= 323 =
- × 273.16
1.015
323 x1.015
→R=2 003=
273.16
=› R. = 1.200 + 2.003
： R7 = 3.2039
The Pvrometer
It is often possible to gauge the temperature of a hot body by observing the colour of light emitted.
This effect is used in the optical
pyrometer.
It consists essentially of low power telescope, OE, and a tungsten filament lamp L.
The
eyepiece E is focused upon the filament F.
Mode of operation
The hot body A whose temperature is to be found, is then focused by the lens O so that its image lies
in the plane of F. The light from both the filament and the hot body passes through a filter of red
glass G before reaching the eye. If the body is brighter than the filament, the filament appears dark
on a bright ground. If the filament is brighter than the body, it appears bright on a dark ground.
The temperature of the filament is adjusted, by adjusting the current through it, until it merges as
nearly as possible into its background. It is then as brighter as the body. The rheostat R, which
adjusts the current, is mounted on the body of the pyrometer and so. is the ammeter A, which
measures the current.
The ammeter is calibrated directly in degrees
Celsius.
The range of an optical pyrometer can be expanded by introducing a filter of green glass between
the objective O and the lamp L; this reduces the brightness of the red light.
Advantage of the pyrometer
Temperatures up to about 3000°C can measured using this type of thermometer.
be
72.05
Temperature and its Measurement
Thermal Physics
Road surface
Disadvantage of the pyrometer
1. It is cumbersome
2. It is not direct reading instrument
THERMAL EXPANSION
When substances are heated, they expand; when cooled, they contract.
As substances are heated above room temperature, their molecules vibrate faster and move faster in
the body than they did at room temperature. The increased molecular motion and the increased
separation of the molecules in the substance result in the expansion of the body.
As the body cools, the molecular motion slows down. The average distance between the molecules
becomes less on cooling, hence the contraction
Degree of expansion of various substance
Rods of different materials of the same length expand to different degree when heated through the
same temperature. An iron bar 1 metre long will increase in length by about 1.2mm when heated
through a temperature rise of 100°C
whereas brass of the same length will increase in length by 1.9mm; glass on the other hand will
increase by only 0.85mm when heated through the same temperature rise
Effects of expansion
During the expansion or contraction of solids a great deal of force may be built up. This can cause a
lot of damage and is usually prevented during constructional works.
1. Bridges built of metals expand when heated by the sun. Such expansion has to be allowed for
during the design of a bridge so that the structure does not fracture under the action of the large
force resulting from expansion.
In order to allow for the expansion of the structure of a bridge, one end of the bridge is supported on
rollers while the other end is fixed.
Bridge
- Support
Under this arrangement the metal structure is free to expand or contract at various temperatures
without damaging the bridge.
2. Metal roofing sheets have their ends placed one on top of the other to allow for expansion. The
cracking noise heard from metal roofs during the afternoon is due to expansion occurring in the
roofing sheets.
The noise is repeated during the night as the sheets contract.
3. To allow for expansion, gaps are left between sections of rail on railway track.
The ends are held in line with fishplates, which are strips of metal bolted to the ends of the rails by
slotted holes so that the rails can expand without buckling or bending.
4. If hot water is poured into a thick glass bottle or tumbler, it is liable to crack. This is due to the
uneven expansion of the glass. The glass is a poor conductor of heat. As a result the part of the glass
nearer the hot water, the inside, expands more than that part on the outside. The stress causes the
glass to crack.
5. Gaps are left between blocks in terrazzo work for expansion.
Application of Expansion
Expansion which occurs in bodies when heated is applied to
1. remove very tight metal lids of bowls and bottles
2. fit metal wheels on axles of trains
3. construct thermostats in household electrical appliances
4. construct bimetallic thermometers
in
rivet steel plates together in shipbuilding and in the construction of boilers
(206
Thermal Physics
The Bimetallic Strip
brass
iron
Fig a
Temperature and its Measurement
When deep freezer is operating, the buzzing sound of the compressor stops when the thermostat
switches off the current. Similarly, the light and the heating circuit in the electric iron switch off as a
result of the bending of the bimetallic strip in the thermostat.
2 The Bimetallic Thermometer
Thermometers can be produced using the bimetallic strip
Pointer
Dial
iron
Fig b
Fixed end
iron
Fig c
The bimetallic strip consists of strips of two different metals, such as brass and iron of the same
length, riveted together. It is straight when at room temperature (fig. a). When it is heated the strip
curves the metal with the greater expansion being on the outside of the curve.
A temperature increase causes the brass to expand more than the iron. The brass forms the outside
of the curve (fig. b) because it becomes longer than the iron. On the other hand when the same
bimetallic strip is cooled below room temperature it bends so that the brass is on the inside of the
curve (fig. c).
The bimetallic Strip has several applications in everyday life. These are:
The Thermostat
A thermostat is a device that controls temperature changes in such things as refrigerators, gas
cookers and electric irons. It is usually made of brass and invar. The invar-brass bimetallic strip is
very sensitive, and expands or contracts with the slightest change in temperature
Coiled bimetallic
SITTIO
It consists of a coiled bimetallic strip wound in the form of a spiral spring. Invar and brass are
riveted together. The end inside the spiral at B is attached to the spindle of a pointer. The other end
A is fixed.
Mode of Operation
A change in temperature provides a greater expansion in the brass than the invar.
The
difference in expansion causes the pointer to slide over the calibrated dial in a clockwise direction to
indicate the exact temperature on the dial.
The Gas Cooker Thermostat
The gas cooker thermostat is used to control the temperature in gas cookers.
Mode of Construction
Brass tube
Gas in
* Valve
To burners
Invar rod
By-pas:
207
Thermal Physics
Temperature and its Measurement
Determination of
coefficient of lincar
expansivity a of a substance in the form of a rod
Diagram:
It consists of a brass tube A projecting into the oven. The brass tube encloses an invar rod B, which
is attached to the brass tube at C. A valve is attached to the end of the invar rod in the oven to
control the flow of gas from the gas cylinder into the burners.
Mode of Operation
A temperature increase causes the brass tube A to expand and move to the left. The invar rod also
moves with it and causes the valve to partially close. This reduces the gas inflow.
A decrease in temperature causes the brass to contract and move the valve forward.
The
movement opens the entrance and increases the flow of gas to the burners A. The temperature is
adjusted by the temperature control knob which regulates the valve open.
LINEAR EXPANSION
The coefficient of linear expansion
or
expansivity a of a substance is defined as the increase in length per unit length of the substance for
each degree Kelvin rise in temperature. i.e.
Coeffecient of linear expansivity
expansion e
a = original length 1, × temperature change AT
e
a =.
unit K
4xAT
k-4
That is, a = 1,02 - 0,)
where 4,and 1 are the initial and final length of the metal (m), and O, and O, are the initial and final
temperature of the metal (K) respectively :.e= al, (02 -0,)
2
12 =4, + al, (02 - 0,) h=4|1+ a (02 - 0)]
3
Steam in
Insulating jacket
Metal rod
Micrometer screw gauge
M
Thermometer
Wooden frame
Steam out
Method: The original length 1 of a metal rod is carefully measured using a metre rule. The rod is
fixed between the stop S and micrometer M and the micrometer screw is adiusted until it touches the
free end of the rod. Initial micrometer reading x, is taken. With the aid of a thermometer the initial
temperature of the rod inside the jacket is noted.
The micrometer is then unscrewed several turns and a current of steam from a boiler passed
through the jacket for some minutes. The micrometer is once more adiusted until it again touches
the end of the rod and its new reading x2 taken.
Precautions
The micrometer should be unscrewed again and the steam flow continued for a further few minutes
before screwing the micrometer again to take the final reading. This is done to ensure that the final
reading correlates with the temperature of the steam.
Results
Original length of rod = 1,m
Initial micrometer readings = x,m
Final micrometer readings = x2M
Initial temperature of rod = O.K
208
Thermal Physics
Temperature and its Measurement
Final temperature of rod = OK
Expansion caused e = (x2 -x)m
Change in temperature, AT = (0, -0,)K
Calculations
From theory,
Linear expansivitv
a
1,0
t, -
4(02-0,)
Therefore the linear expansivity of the rod is determined.
AREA (SUPERFICIAL) B EXPANSION AND VOLUMETRIC (CUBICAL) Y EXPANSION
Area (superficial) B expansion is the increase in area of a body with temperature change is called the
superficial expansion, B.
A sheet of metal expands throughout its area when the temperature is increased over a period of
time.
A, - A,
ß=
A, (02 - 01)
The original area of sheet, A, = 4× b
Where ¼ = original length, b, = original breadth
Final area after rise in temperature, A2=½2 × b2
From equation 3, ½ =¼(1 + a0)
b2 = b, (1 + a0)
4 =1,6=1,0,（1+00)2
42 = 1,6, 1 + 200 + (00)2] a? = 0 (since a is small)
= A2 = 4b, 1 + 200]
Let 3 = area expansivity
or superficial
expansivity then, A, = 4b, I + BO]
and
B = 2a by comparison
Superficial expansivity = 2a
Cubical or volumetric expansivity is the expansion in volume of a material.
y=
½-V
K(0, -0,)
Original volume of sheet V, = 4 x b, x hi
Where 7; = original length, b, = original breadth
and hi = original height
Final volume after rise in temperature
From equation 3
½2 =4(1 + a0), b, =b, (I + a0) and h2 = h, (1 + al)
=½2 =40+ a0) xb, (1 + a0) x h, (1 + a0)
= V, = 4,5, h, (1 + a0)(1 + a0) (1 + a0)
→½=4641+300+30'0+23031
but a? ~ a? ~ 0 (since a is small)
+V =46,h, [ + 300]
If y is the cubical or volumetric expansivity then
Therefore the coefficient of cubical expansivity
y = 3a
Alternativelv
Cubic expansivity, y =
(Ar)
VAT
77 = (+47)3 - 13
PAT
-パ+31°/+3/203+（A03-13
PAT
But (AI)? ~ (A7)3 ~ 0 (since A7 is small)
-3(47)-3x 4
TAT
TAT
IAT
But A
= a = y = 3a
MAT
Examples
1. Calculate the expansion of 15 m of copper pipe when heated from 5 °C to 60 °C if the linear
expansivity of copper is
0.000017 K-1
209
Thermal Physics
Solution
Original length 4 of copper = 15 m
Initial temperature 0, = 5 °C
Final temperature 02 = 60
Linear expansivity a = 1.7 × 103K-'
e
a =.
4(02 - 0,)
1.7×10-9 = 15660-5)
e= 1.7×10-3 x15×55 e=1.4025×10-2m
2. The coefficient of linear expansion of iron is
0.000012 K-'.
a) Explain the meaning of this statement
b) Calculate the superficial expansion of the iron
c) Calculate the cubical expansion of the iron.
Solution a)
The meaning of this statement is that the fraction of the original length by which a rod of iron will.
expand per Kelvin rise in temperature is 0.000012 or the increase in length per unit length of iron
for each Kelvin or degree rise in temperature is 0.000012.
b) Linear expansivity a = 1.2 × 10S K
But B = 2a
3 = 2 × 1.2 × 10 = 2.4 × 10°K'
c Cubical expansion y = 3a
4=3 × 1.2 × 10$= 3.6 x 10°K
3. A metal rod has a length of 99.4 cm at
200°C. At what temperature will its length be
100 °C if the linear expansivity of the metal is 0.000021K
Solution
Original length 4 = 99.4 cm = 99.4 x 10-2
Final length ½ = 100 cm = 100 × 10-2
Initial temperature 01 = 200 °C
Final temperature O = ?
Temperature and its Measurement
Linear expansivity a = 2.1 × 103K-I
l, -4
2.1×10-5=.
(100 - 99.4) ×10-2
99.4×10-7 (0, - 200)
0, - 200 = 2.1×10-5 × 99.4 × 10-2
0.6×10-2
0, = 287.438 + 200
02 ~ 487°C
4. A square metal plate, each side 100 cm long at 0 °C has a circular hole diameter 40 cm in the
middle of it. At what temperature will the sides be 101 cm long and what will then be the diameter of
the hole.
(Coefficient of linear expansivity of the
metal = 0.0000125 K-")
Solution
Conditions at 0 = 0°C
40 cm
100 cm
+ 100 cm-
Conditions at Or =?
101 cm
-101 cm-
Original sides 1 = 100 cm = 100 × 10-2 m
Final sides 1 = 101cm = 101 × 102 m
Initial temperature 0 = 0 °C
Final temperature On =?
a = 1,02 - 0,)
210
Thermal Physics
(01-100)x10-2
0.0000125:
100(02 - 0)
1.25×10-S ×100
0, =
1x10-2
0, =800°C
b) Original diameter D4 = 40 cm = 40 x 10? m
Final diameter D2 =?
½=¼ (1+ad
= D2 = Di (1 + at)
= D2 = 40 × 10-2(1 + 1.25 × 10-5)
= D2 = 0.4004 m or D2 = 400.4 cm
5. The density of a metal is 8.9 gem at 0°C.
Find its density at 20 °C if its linear expansivity is 2.0 × 10-S K-1
Solution
Density at 0 °C = 8.9 gem 3
Linear expansivity = 2.0 x 10-SK I
Density at 20 °C=?
mass
Densitv = volume
AtO°C,
m
p,=.
→m=P,V; ーーーーー
At 20°C,
1 sm
=>m = P2V2 = - - - == -2
V2
Equate 1 and 2
PiV, = P2V2
P2 = PIVI
V2
½2=½(1+1(02-0）
but y = 3a.
→レニン（1+30（02-0））
substituting,
P.v
P2 =
V, (1 + 30 (02 - 0, ))
Temperature and its A
Pi
→P2F （1+30(0-0,)
8.9
P2 = 1+3x2x10-3 20 - 0)
P2 = 8.89 gcm-3
6. A compound strip of brass and iron 10 cm
long at 20 °C is held horizontally with the iron uppermost. When heated from below the
temperature of the brass is 820 °C and that of the iron is 770 °C. Calculate the difference in length of
the iron and the brass.
(Linear expansivities: brass = 1.9 × 10 K-1
iron = 1.2 × 10 K)
Solution
12 =4(1+ a(02 - 0,))
For brass,
4 = 10 cm, 01 = 20 °C, 02 = 820 °C and a =1.9 × 10-°K
½2=10(1+1.9×10° (820-20))
1 = 10.152cm
For iron,
4 = 10 cm, 0, = 20 °C; 02 = 770 °C and a =1.2 × 10-SKI ½=10(1+1.2×10-S (770 - 20))
½2 =10.09cm
Difference in length = 1 of brass - 1 of iron
=10.152-10.09
=0.062 cm
7. The internal diameter of a brass ring is 15.94 cm, and the diameter of a wheel is 16.00 cm, both
measured at the same temperature. Find the smallest rise in temperature through which the brass
ring must be heated in order that it may just slip on to the wheel.
Solution
•B=
12 - 4, 8 - 2a, 16 =
T를
A:
4
Td;
21
Thermal Physics
ㅿ0=
ㅠ,
4
rd?
4
I (a3 - d2)
10 =
I (Zad?)
4
162_15.942
дА =
2×1.8×10-5 × 15.94?
д0 =209.5 °C
8. The length of wire at 30.0 °C is 1.002 m. If the temperature of the wire is raised to 105.0
°C and the linear expansivity of the metal is 1.89 × 10-S K', calculate the increase in length of the
wire.
Solution
a=
e
:.e= al, (02 - 0,)
4(02 - 0,)
a =1.89×10-Sk-', 4 = 1.002m 02 = 105°C, 01 = 30 °C
..e = 1.89 × 10-S × 1.002 (105 - 30)
= 1 42 × 103 m
9. A metal box in the form of a cube of side
12.0 cm is heated from 20.0 °C to 100.0°C. If its linear expansivity is 14 × 10°K', calculate the new
volume of the box.
Solution
½2 = ¼(1 + y0) but y = 3a y=3×14×10-S =4.2×10-SK-1
0=100 - 20 = 80° C
If the cube is of side I, then
V. =13 =0.123
=V2 = 0.12° (1 + 4.2 × 10-S × 80)
=0.001728(1 + 0.00336)
=0.0017338 m
½2=1733.81cm?
Temperature and its Measurement
10. A telegraph wire, 50.0 m long, is made of a material whose linear expansivity is 2.0 x
10-S K-1 Determine the change in the length of the wire if the temperature changes from 40 °C to -
10 °C.
Solution
α=
12 -4
1,0, -0,)
a = 2 × 10S 0, - 0 = 40 - (-10) = 50 K
1. = 50 m
12-4 = a 4 (0 - 0) = 2 × 105 × 50 × 50
12 - 4 = 0.05 m
11. A body at a temperature of 30 °C is heated to
100 °C. If the area of the body is initially 400 mm?, calculate
i) the area coefficient of expansivity of the material of the body. i the final area of the body.
[The linear expansivity of the material of the body =1.2 × 105 K1
Solution
i) The coefficient of area expansivity B is given by
B = 2a [where a is the linear expansivity of
the materiall
a = 1.2 × 10SK-1
:.B=2×12× 10SK'=2.4 × 10SK ül) A2 = A, (1 + BO) where A2 and A, are final and initial areas of the
body respectively.
A, = 400 mm?
= 4, = 400(1 + 2.4 × 105 × 70)
= 400.67 mm?
12. A metal ball at a temperature of 20°C has a diameter of 4.02 × 10-2 m. A brass plate at the same
temperature has a circular hole of diameter 4.00 × 10-2 m. Determine the temperature to which the
plate must be heated so that the ball (still at 20°C) may just slip through the hole. [Take linear
expansivity of brass as 1.8 × 10-5 K-1
Thermal Physics
Solution
a=
4(02 - 0,)
length of hole = circumference of hole
= 27 = па
Initial circumference of hole 1, = 7× 4.0 × 10-2 m
Final circumference of hole l2
゠ケx4.02 x 102m
α=1.8x103K1
Initial temperature = 20°C = 293K
= 1.8×10-5.
4.027x10-2-4.00zx10-2
4.007 ×10-2 (0, - 293)
(4.02-4.00)zx10-
02 - 293 =
4.007 ×10-2 x1.8×10-5
0, - 293 = 277.8
..02 =570.8K
13. a What is meant by the statement:
The linear expansivity of a solid is 1.0 × 105 K-1?
b) Steel bars, each of length 3 m at 39°C
are to be used for constructing a rail line.
If the linear expansivity of steel is 1.0 × 10- K', calculate the safety gap that must be left between
successive bars if the highest temperature expected is
41°C
Solution
a) The solid will expand by 1.0 x 105 of its unit length for 1 K (or 1°C) rise in temperature.
Alternatively
- I;
1.0 x105 = 1, (02 - 01)
Where ¼ = original length, I = final length,
0 = initial temperature
O = final temperature
Temperature and its Measurement
12-1
b) 0=7,10-9)
4, 40
where A/ = increase or change in length
10 = rise in temperature
a = 1.0 × 10-S K-1
40 = 41° - 29° = 12°C; 4 = 3 m ..47=3 × 1.0 × 10S× 12 m = 36 × 10° m = 3.6 × 104
Safety gap = 3.6 × 10* m
14. The length of a side of a metallic cube at
20°C is 5.0 cm. Given that the coefficient of linear expansivity of the metal is 4.0×10°K I find the
volume of the cube at 120°C
Solution
Volume of the metallic cube at 20°C
= 5 × 5 × 5 = 125 cm?.
Coefficient of linear expansivity, a =4.0 × 105 KI
Coefficient of volume expansivity, y = 3a
= 3 × 4.0 × 105 = 12 × 105 K-1
Coefficient of volume expansivity increase in volume original volume temperature rise
increase in volume
.. 12 × 10-5
ニ
125 × (120 - 20)
.: increase in volume = 12 × 10-5 × 12 × 100
= 1.50 cm'
.. volume of the cube at 120°C = 125 + 1.50
= 126.50 cm°
Alternatively
V2 = Vi(1 + yt)
= 125(1 +12× 10-5) × (120 - 20) ст3
= 125(1 + 12 × 105 × 100) ст?
= (125 + 1.5) cm?
= 126.5 cm
Volume v2 of the cube at 120°C = 126.5 cm
213
Thermal Physics
Temperature and its Measurement
15. The ratio of the linear expansivity of copper to that of iron is 3:2. A specimen of iron and a
specimen of copper expand by the same amount per unit rise in temperature.
What is the ratio of the length of iron to that of copper, and the ratio of a cube of copper to that of
iron? What are the dimensions of a cube of copper when the volume of a cube of iron is 216 mm??
Both specimens expand by the same amount per unit rise in temperature.
L;a; =1.d...
.....(1)
where 1 and a are the lengths and linear expansivities respectively and i and c correspond to iron
and copper respectively.
From (1)
ac
1,
a.
3
put ce=을
노르
무
3
..(2)
2
mmo)¼ (4)-(중) 끝
Now
_8
216
1.=364=4mm
8
37x216=04
16. A certain bimetallic strip is made of brass and iron with linear expansivities of
19 * 105 K
and 1.2 x 10-5
respectively. At a certain temperature,
T°C, the length of the brass is 50 cm, and that of the iron is 60 cm. If the bimetallic strip is heated, at
what temperature would the lengths of the two metals be equal? (Express your answer in terms of T)
Solution
For the brass, LB, = 50 cm = 0.5 m
For the iron, LI, = 60 cm = 0.6 m
Let AT be the change in temperature and LB2 and LIz be the new lengths of the brass and iron
respectively.
LB, = LB, (1 + aBAT)
= 0.5(1 + 1.9 × 105 × 47)
Lb = LI, (1 + a, AT)
= 0.6(1 + 1.2 × 10-5 × AT)
At the desired temperature, LB2 = LIz
= 0.5(1 + 1.9 × 105 × AT)
= 0.6 (1 + 1.2 × 105 × AT)
= (1+1.910°×47)=등 (1+ 1.2x10 xAT)
= 1 + 1.9×10S×AT = 1.2 + 1.44×10 SAT
= 0.46 ×10-5 x^T = 02
- AT = 0.2x105
105
-=
- °C
0.46
2.3
But Desired Temperature = (I + AT) °C
105
=
I+23
°C
Expansion of liquids
Comparison of the expansion of various liquids
Equal volumes of different kinds of liquids expand by different amounts when heated through the
same temperature. This can be demonstrated by filling to short distances above the bulb of fairly
large glass bulbs of the same size and length with various kinds of liquids.
The bulbs are immersed in a metal trough containing cold water and left until they have reached a
steady temperature. The bath is now heated and well stirred to ensure a uniform temperature.
When the bulbs and their contents have acquired the new temperature of the bath it will be seen that
the liquid levels have risen different amounts as shown below
by
214
Thermal Physics
Temperature and its Measurement
Ether
Alco
the water reaches its maximum density at 4°C. If further cooling occurs any water below 4°C will
stay at the top owing to its higher density. In due course, ice forms on the top of the water and after
this the lower layers of water at 4°C can lose heat only by conduction.
Therefore in
deeper water there will always be water beneath the ice in which fish and other creatures can live
(figure a)
ICE
Thus for a given rise in temperature equal volume of different liquids show different expansion in
volume.
Anomalous (irregular) expansion of water
Some substances do not always expand when heated. Over certain temperature ranges they contract.
Water is an outstanding example.
When ice at about -10°C is heated. it expands in volume until the temperature reaches
0°C.
After this it begins to melt while the temperature remains constant at 0°C.
This
melting is accompanied by a contraction in volume. Between 0 and 4°C the water contracts still
further reaching its minimum volume at about 4°C.
This means that water has a
maximum density at 4°C since density
=
mass/volume. Bevond 4°C the water expands.
This behaviour of water is said to be irregular or anomalous and is depicted graphically below:
Volumeim'
Density/kgm A
temp/°
пр/с
Fig a
Fig b
Biological Importance of the Anomalous
Expansion of Water
The peculiar expansion of water has an important bearing on the preservation or aquatic life during
very cold weather. As the temperature of a pond or lake falls, the water contracts, becomes denser
and sinks. A circulation is thus set up until all
Fig a
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. a) Define linear expansivity
b) Describe experiment to determine the linear expansivity of a metal in a form of a rod.
2. Name and describe briefly one use of the different expansions of metals
3. In an experiment to measure the linear expansivity of a metal, a rod of this metal 800 mm long is
found to expand 1.36 mm when heated from 15°C to 100°C. Calculate the value of the linear
expansivity.
[0. 00002/K]
4. Calculate the expansion of 15 m of copper pipe when heated from 5°C to 60°C, if the linear
expansivity of copper is 0.000017/K
[14 mm]
5. Draw a diagram of a useful device which involves the expansion of two different metals and
indicate how the device works.
6. The linear expansivity of brass is
0.000018 K 1 Explain the meaning of this statement.
215
Thermal Physics
Temperature and its Measurement
7. Why is mercury used in thermometers and water is never used?
8. Differentiate between heat and temperature.
9. Some thick glass crack when a hot liquid is poured into them. Why do the following not crack
when so treated:
i) thin glass beakers;
il) thick jars made of certain kinds of
glass?
10. Describe how you would graduate. an unmarked mercury-in-glass thermometer, no other
thermometer being available.
11. a) What is a thermometric liquid?
b) State three desirable properties of a thermometric liquid.
12. a) Give a labelled diagram of a clinical thermometer and explain its action.
b) Explain why clinical thermometer should not sterilised in boiling water.
13. List the advantages and disadvantages of mercury and alcohol as thermometric liquids.
14. The distance between the upper fixed point and the lower fixed point of a thermometer is 192 cm.
What temperature in °C is recorded when the thread is 67.2 cm above the ice point.
15. Convert the following to Kelvin
i) 27°C
ii) -10°C
in) 87°C
16. Convert the following to °C
i) 373K
ii) 123K
ili) 263K
17. ¡What is meant by the statement that the linear expansivity of a certain metal is
1.9 × 105K 12
in) Give two reasons why the boiling point of water is sometimes higher than 100°C.
18. List the advantages of and disadvantages of alcohol and mercury as thermometric liquids.
19. State three good reasons why water is not considered for use in thermometers.
20. A wire, 20 m long is heated from a temperature of 5 °C to 155°C. If the change in length is 0.020
m, calculate the linear expansivity of the wire. 12 × 10 K-1]
21. A solid metal cube of side 10 cm is heated from 10°C to 60°C. If the linear expansivity of the
metal is 1.2 × 105 KI calculate the increase in the volume. [1.8 cm']
22. A solid material of volume, 100 cm? is heated through a temperature difference of 40°C.
Calculate the increase in the volume of the material if its linear expansivity is 2.0 × 10 ° K ' [0.024 cm
]
23. An iron rod of length, 50 m and at a temperature of 60°C is heated to 70°C.
Calculate its new length (linear expansivity of iron = 1.2 x 10-° K) [50.006 m]
24. The cubic expansivity of mercury is
1.8 × 10* K and the linear expansivity of glass is 8 × 10 K. Calculate the apparent expansivity of
mercury in a glass container.
[1.56 × 10 к-1]
25. A brass of cube of side 10 cm is heated through 30°C. If the linear expansivity of brass is 2.0 x 10-
° K-1 what is the increase in its volume? [1.80 cm37
26. The length of a side of a metallic cube at
20°C is 5.0 cm. Given that the linear expansivity of the metal is 4.0 x 10 K,find the volume of the
cube at 120°C.
[126.5 cm°7
27. a) Distinguish between real and apparent cubic expansion of a liquid.
b) A glass bottle full of mercury has mass
2.43
500 g. On being heated through 35°C, g of mercury are expelled.
Calculate the mass of mercury remaining in the bottle. (cubic expansivity of mercury is 1.8 × 10 4
per K, linear expansivity of glass is 8.0 × 106 per K)
[445 g]
216
e
d
У
e
f
Thermal Physics
Measurement of heat energy
13