REFERENCE BOOKS

1. Mechanics of Yarn and Fabric Structure and Properties- J.W.S. Hearle

2. Physical Testing of Textiles-B.P. Saville.
3. Proper properties of textile fibre- Morton.
4. Principle of Textile Testing- J.E. Booth
5. Man-made Fibres- Moncrif
 Textile Physics-I

Engineering approaches to textile Structures

Fibre Structure

Fibre

By Textile Institute fibre is defined as units of matter characterized by flexibility, fineness and a high ratio
of length to thickness (1000:1). For textile fibres a sufficient high temperature stability and a certain
minimum strength and extensibility required. Elastic upto breaking extension 5-50%. Since glasses and
crystalline solid are less extensive whereas rubber are much more extensible. Cellulose, proteins and
variety of synthetic fibres are partly oriented, partly crystalline linear polymers.

Fibre structure depends on the following information

1. Chemistry of fibre material (preparation, composition, molecular formula and reaction)

2. Absorption of infrared radiation
3. Optical and x-ray diffraction studies
4. Optical properties
5. Optical microscopy
6. Electron microscopy/diffraction
7. Thermal analysis
8. Density
9. Nuclear magnetic resonance
10. General physical properties.
Crystallinity

If a substance exposed to x-rays, gives sharp and well defined, x-ray diffraction patterns then the
substance is called crystalline substance and this property is called crystallinity. Maximum crystallinity is
possible if the polymer is annealed just at its melting temperature for sufficient long time. Crystallinity is
expressed as degree of crystallinity as below,
𝐶−𝐶𝑎𝑚
Degree of crystallinity = 𝐶
𝑐𝑟 −𝐶𝑎𝑚

here,

C- refraction Index,

Ccr –the value of property when the polymer is crystalline,

Cam- the value of property when the polymer is amorphous.

Amorphousness

If a substance exposed to x-rays, gives diffused and broad x-ray diffraction patterns, then the substance is
called amorphous substance and the property is called amorphousness.

Orientation

The molecular orientation of fibre is the alignment of long chain molecules relative to the fibre axis.
When the molecules of a material are highly oriented they are parallel to each other and parallel to the
axis of fibre. There is no 100% crystalline or 100% amorphous material.
Requirements of fibre formation

1. Polymer must have straight and long chain molecules

2. The chain must be more parallel to one another
3. Molecular weight of the polymer should be high (DP)
4. Polymer must have attraction among the molecules
5. Polymer should have resistance to different chemicals
6. Polymer should be soluble in some solvents from which it can be spun(not for melt)
7. Hygroscopic nature of the polymer should be hydrophilic
8. There should be freedom in molecular movement in order to give required extensibility.

Methods for investigation of fibre

structure

1. X-ray diffraction method

2. The absorption of infra-red
radiation
3. Optical microscopy
4. Electron microscopy
5. Nuclear magnetic resonance

X-ray diffraction method

When a beam of x-ray strikes on a

crystal, it strongly reflects and it
strikes on the layers of atoms at a certain angle θ. In this case, initial angle is equal to reflected angle.Let
the distance between atomic layers=d, wave length of x-ray =λ
Here, <FBD =900 and <FBC =θ So, <CBD=90-θ,
As, <BCD=900 So, <CBD + <BDC = 90 => 90- θ+ <BDC
= 90 =><BDC = θ
𝐵𝐶
Now, sinθ= => BC =BDsinθ =dsinθ.
𝐵𝐷
Again, <FBD= 900 and <EBA =θ, so, <ABD = 90-θ and
similarly, <BDA =θ
𝐴𝐵
Now, sinθ=𝐵𝐷 => AB=BD sinθ =dsinθ
Now, AB + BC = dsinθ + dsinθ =2dsinθ

 Nλ=2dsinθ. Where, n be the

integer no.

So, if d is greater atomic layer distance increased but

crystallinity decrease.
Absorption of infrared radiation

When infrared radiation composed

of electromagnetic waves with
wavelengths between 1 and 5µm is
passed through a material, it is
mostly highly absorbed at certain
characteristic frequency. By using
an infrared spectrometer, the
radiation in absorption can be found
and plotted against wave number.
This is illustrated in the following
which is absorption spectrum of
nylon.

Here, full-line represents electric

vector perpendicular to fibre axis and broken line represents electric vector parallel to fibre axis.

The peaks occur where the frequency of the electromagnetic waves corresponds with the natural
frequency of vibration between two atoms in the material. If these are associated with electric dipole then
the vibration of electric field set up the vibration and energy is absorbed from the radiation.

The wave no. at which absorption takes place depends primarily on the nature of the two atoms and of the
bond between the, =NH, =CO,ΞC-CΞ,=C=C=, -OH, ΞC-O-, ΞC-X, -R-CHO, -COOR, ΞC-NH2 etc.

Topics Infrared radiation method X-ray diffraction method

Method infrared radiation of wavelength between 1 the basis is reflection of x-ray beam
to 5µ is passed through the fibre from fibre
Chemical formula can be identified cannot be identified
Instrument Infrared spectrometer is used x-ray source, photographic film are
used here.
Information It can give information about molecules of It can give information about
crystalline and non-crystalline region molecules of only the crystalline
region.

Electron microscopy

Electrons are particles that can act as if they were waves with a wavelength of
order of 0.005nm; and furthermore they can be focused since their path [rays]
can be bent by electric and magnetic fields in the same way that light rays are
bent by lenses. It is therefore possible to form an image by an electron
microscope with a limit of resolution that is far smaller than is possible with an
optical microscope.

Why?
 - Allows a sample to be examined at far higher magnification and lateral resolution than is
possible with light microscopy
- Large depth of field/whole surface remaining in focus at a time
- Huge range of contrast

The electron microscope illustrated schematically in the following figure is exactly analogous to the
optical microscope. The rays from an electron source are condensed on the specimen and then focused by
electric or magnetic fields acting as lenses to give a magnetic image on a fluorescent screen or
photographic plate.

Difficulties

- Obtaining sufficient contrast

- Ordinary transmission/confusion of depth of focus
- Observed may be caused by the section-cutting [for high contrast]

Uses

- Cut face/fibre structure

- Internal details may also be shown by peeling a layer a layer off the fibre to expose a new
internal surface for replication.
- Fragments left behind after mechanical/chemical degradation
- Information same as X-ray diffraction [orientation/crystalline]

Types

1. Scanning electron microscope [detector mounted on the same side of the sample]
2. Transmission electron microscope [ detector mounted on behind the sample]

Relation between fibre properties and structure ??

Tensile/Mechanical properties

See the below web page

http://textilelearner.blogspot.com/2011/07/tensile-properties-of-textile-material.html

PRINCIPLES OF TENSILE TESTING MACHINES

CRL method: The function of applied force is to extent the specimen until it eventually breaks down. Here
the loading causes the elongation.
By adding constant rate of water flow in a container which is attached with the jaw J2 may increase the
load gradually. Thus constant rate of flow gives
constant rate of loading.

CRE method: A specimen A is gripped between

two jaws. J1 is fixed and bottom jaw J2 is
movable to down-ward at constant velocity by
mean of a screw mechanism. Initially the tension
on A is zero. But when the bottom jaw J2 moves
down-ward at a constant rate the specimen is
extended and an increasing tension is developed
until it eventually breaks down. Here the
elongation /tension causes loading.

Difference between CRL & CRE methods:

1. CRL means Constant rate of loading. 1. CRE means Constant rate of elongation.
2. This method contains container and water flow used 2. This method contains screw mechanism.
to increase load gradually.
3. In this method loading causes elongation. 3. In this method elongation/ extension causes
loading.

CRT method: a specimen is clamped between the upper jaw and lower jaw. J1 is
attached to a steel tape which run over a small pulley of radius r. J2 is given a
constant rate of traverse in a downward direction, using screw mechanism. The
small pulley is pulled round and swings the pendulum P from its vertical
position.
Let mass of pendulum P = M and centre of gravity at a distance R from the pivot
of the small pulley. Ө be the angle at any instant of the pendulum has moved
through.
Now, for a inextensible and no action of dynamic force the moments about the
pivot of the small pulley-
F.r = Mg.x = MgTsin Ө => F = Ksin Ө, if K=Mg.R/r
Hence, F ∞ sin Ө. Thus the tension in the specimen is proportion to the sine of
the angle through which the pendulum has been swing.
Inclined plane principle ( CRL):

So, CRL condition is achieved.

Extension of the specimen will not affect the rate of loading, the carriage merely rolling further down the
plane.
Ballistic or impact principle:

Measures ‘work of rupture’ of a specimen instead of max. breaking force.

Potential energy at point 1, W x h1.
When pendulum is released, it swings downward and when it is nearly
vertical, it begins to pull on the specimen (at 2)
Breaks the specimen and rises to position 3.
‘K’ is known as centre of percussion of the pendulum. it is a point on the axis
of pendulum where a force may be applied without causing a reaction about
the fulcrum. Work of rupture = W (h1 – h2) in lbs
 Flexural Properties

Flexural properties

The property of a material during bending is called flexural properties.

Importance of flexural properties in textile

1. The flexural properties of fibres influence the behavior of bulked-yarn filaments and the drape
and handle of fabrics.
2. In crease-recovery from bending is important factor.
3. Bending plays a vital role in the arrangement of fibres in a yarn.
4. Bending strength is very important in wear of fabrics.

Shape factor

Shape factor is the quantity which determines the shape of a material. Different values factor determines
different shape of a material as below-

- Shape factor is 1 for the fibre which is completely round.

- Shape factor is less than 1 for the fibre whose thickness is reduced during bending.
- Shape factor is greater than 1 for the fibre whose thickness is increased while bending.

Influence of flexural properties on-

- The behavior of yarn

- The drape and handle properties of fabrics
- The recovery from bending
- The wearness of fabrics
- The arrangement of fibres in the yarn.

The durability phenomenon of textile fibres

Durability of textile fibres means the service time of the fibres that means how long time the fibres will
give service. When shock of energy is frequently treated on the fibres, they do not break initially. But, a
succession of repeated shocks can lead up stress-strain curve to the breaking point.

Let, energy of applied shock = w

work of recovery in a given cycle = r
amount of energy used in the cycle = w(1-r)
No. of shocks for breaking the fibre =N

The total energy required to break the fibres is equal to work of rupture of that fibre, so, the durability of
the fibre can be expressed in terms of the no. of shocks N.

So, work of rupture, W = ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑤(1 − 𝑟)

 𝑊
For the constant value of w and r, W = Nw(1-r) => N = 𝑤(1−𝑟)

So, we can say from the above, if work of rupture W is higher or energy of applied shock w is less then
the no. of shocks N will be higher for breaking the fibre and durability or life time of that fibre will be
higher.

Bending length/Drape stiffness, C

This is the length of fabric that will bend under its own weight t a definite extent. It is a measure of the
stiffness that determines draping quality.
1 1
𝜃 3 𝜃 3
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠
2 2
C = lf(𝜃) = l(8𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 ) ; where, f(𝜃)= (8𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 )

Here, C= bending length

L= unsupported fabric length or length of the over-hanging fabric
𝜃=angle between the line joining the tip and the edge of the platform
For Shirley stiffness tester, 𝜃= 41.50 and f(𝜃) = 0.5

Flexural Rigidity

Flexural rigidity is the stiffness of a fibre in bending. It is defined as the couple required to bend the fibre
to unit curvature.Flexural rigidity is a measure of stiffness associated with handle. It is determined by a
test showing a close relationship between this values and the personal judgment of stiffness.

Flexural Rigidity, G = 3.39 W1C3 mg/cm = W2C3 x 103 mg/cm

=M x C3 x 9.807 x 103 Micro N.m, where C = bending length in mm
Here, C= bending length, W1= cloth wt. in oz/yd2, W2= cloth wt. in gm/cm2

𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑝𝑙𝑒 1 ɳET2

Flexural rigidity = 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 4𝜋 × 𝜌
unit: mN-mm2
E Specific Modulus (N/tex)
T Linear density of the material (Tex)
𝜌 density of the material (gm/cm3)
ɳ shape factor. (1)

Specific Flexural Rigidity

The specific flexural rigidity is equal to the ratio of flexural rigidity of a fibre and the square of linear
density.
𝐹𝑙𝑒𝑥𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑅𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑦 1 ɳE
Specific flexural rigidity = 𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 2
= 4𝜋
× 𝜌

Hence, thicker the yarn, lower the specific flexural rigidity.

Bending Recovery
Recovery from a given curvature is called bending recovery. Nylon, polyester show complete recovery
for a small curvature.

Fibre Shape factor (𝜼) Specific flexural rigidity

(mN mm2/Tex2)
Viscose fibre 0.74 0.19
Nylon 0.91 0.14
Wool 0.80 0.20
Silk 0.59 0.19
 Frictional Properties

The properties shown by the fibres due to the friction when the fibres come in different process is called
frictional properties.

Problems of frictions in textile

1. Friction generates temperature and static electricity is produced due to temperature. Dust, dirt etc
are attracted by that electricity and material becomes dirty and loses its quality.
2. For more friction, neps are generated on the fibres.
3. Due to excessive friction, yarn breakage occurs, so that yarn quality must be deteriorated.
4. The surface of textile material becomes hairy for protruding fibres due to irregularity of frictional
surface.
5. Friction warns out different machine parts during processing so that production cost becomes
high.
6. In sewing process fabrics, sewing thread or needles are damaged due to excessive friction.

Factors affecting the frictional force/intensity

1. Composition of the material: composition of the material affects the frictional force. For glass
fibres there is lower frictional force, but higher frictional force is generated for PVC fibres.
2. State of the surface of the material:if the surface of the material is rough, there must be higher
frictional force but lower frictional force will be available due to smoothness of the surface of the
material.
3. Pressure: if pressure between the surface be high then the frictional force will be high.
4. Relative humidity: frictional force will be lower due to higher relative humidity.
5. Are of contact: for more are of contact less frictional force will be available.
6. Oil contact:oil contact minimize the frictional force.
7. Sliding speed: more speed of sliding causes more frictional force/intensity.

Amonton’s law of friction

1. Frictional force is independent of the area of contact between two surface

2. Frictional force is proportional to normal load.
3. Kinetic friction is independent of speed of sliding.
Measurement of co-efficient of friction

Capstan method

1. Static capstan method

2. Dynamic capstan method.

Static Capstan Method

In this method, a loop yarn is placed over the

guide and small loads are placed on the two
sides. The load on the other side is then
decreased until there is any slippage. If
incoming tension is T 1 and outgoing tension is T 2 and angle of contact be θ, we get from Amonton’s law,

T2/T1 = eµθ => log (T2/T1) = µθ =>µ = 1/π .log (T 2/T1) where, θ=1800=π

From this equation we get, the determination of co-efficient of friction from static capstan method.

Dynamic Capstan Method

In this method, over some guides, yarn move continuously. Here, incoming tension is T 1, where outgoing
/ leaving tension is T 2, and angle of contact be θ.

From Amontons law we have,

T2/T1 = eµθ => log (T2/T1) = µθ =>µ = 1/π .log (T 2/T1) where, θ=1800=π

From this equation co-efficient of friction can be determined using dynamic

capstan method.

Measurement of inter fibre friction

Linberg and Gralen introduced a method where two fibres are twisted together for
the measurement of inter fibre friction. If the difference between the tension
applied to the opposite ends of each fibre is increased, the fibre will finally slip
over one another.

From Amontons law we have,

T2/T1 = eµθ => log (T2/T1) = µθ =>µ = 1/θ .log (T2/T1) where, θ=πnB; n-no. of
turns in twist, B- angle between the fibres axis of the twisted element.
Effects of lubricants on frictional force

On frictional force, there is a good effect of lubricant. A good lubricant acts by forming monolayer on the
surface and preventing the adhesion of the two surfaces at a point of contact. It reduced the frictional
force between two surfaced at a certain level. For metal, lubricants may reduce the co-efficient of friction
from 1.0 to 0.05.

On the other hand, lubricant has comparatively little effect on fibres and usually reduce the value of µ
between0.2 to 0.7.

A scoured cotton on steel gives µ=0.7 where as raw cotton with 5% oil and wax givesµ= 0.25. but,
lubricated scoured cotton on steel gives the value of µ=0.14 to 0.35

Again, the viscosity of the lubricant has a good effect on friction. If it increases, frictional force also
increases.

Minimization of frictional intensity

1. By processing with lubricant and softener: in jute spinning emulsion is used as lubricant material
which reduce the frictional intensity.
2. By chemical treatment: by using acid or alkali, frictional intensity can be minimized. Sharpness
of wool scale can be reduced by chemical treatment.
3. By finishing treatment: by mechanical and chemical finishing treatment, frictional intensity also
can be minimized. Mechanical finishing like ironing and calendaring and chemical finishing like
treatment with resin reduces surface irregularity and removes crease of the fabrics.

Swelling

Swelling

When a fibre absorbs water, there is change found in its dimensions. This is called swelling. Swelling is
occurred in length-wise and width-wise. It is expressed in terms of increase of the diameter, area, length
or volume. It related with dye absorption.

Importance/Effect of swelling

- It increases the dimensional stability of the fabrics

- It improves the absorption of dyes and chemical in fabrics
- It improves the fastness of dyed materials.
- The pores of closely interlaced woven fabrics become completely blocked owing to
swelling. As a result, water proof fabrics are produced.
- Swelling can change the elastic properties of the fabrics.

Typical value of swelling

SA SD SL SV
 Cotton/jute 40 20 0.1 -

Wool 25 14.8 - 37

Silk 19 16.5 16 30

Types of swelling

1. Transverse diameter swelling

When a fibre is swollen an increase in diameter of the fibre is

obtained. The ratio of increased diameter to the original
diameter of the fibre is called transverse diameter swelling. It
is denoted by SD. and SD=ΔD/D

2. Transverse area swelling

When a fibre is swollen there is an increase in area of the
fibre due to swelling. The ration of increased area of the
original area is called transverse area swelling. It is denoted
by SA. and SA=ΔA/A

Swelling Recovery

When fibre is wetted, it

usually extends owing to
swelling but swelling
recovery may cause a net
contraction. Viscose rayon
shows almost complete
recovery in water, as does
silk in steam, but acetate
shows only partial recovery.
Swelling recovery may be
useful as a reason of
restoring the original fibre
properties.
Relation between SV, SL, SA

We know, V= AL for uniform fibre along its length.

After swelling the whole volume of fibre, V+ΔV = (A+ΔA)(L+ΔL)

Or, ΔV = (A+ΔA)(L+ΔL)-AL
ΔV (A+ ΔA)(L+ ΔL)−AL 𝐴𝐿+AΔL+LΔA+ΔAΔL−AL 𝐴ΔL 𝐿ΔA ΔAΔL ΔL
Now, volume swelling, SV= 𝑉 = AL
= 𝐴𝐿
= 𝐴𝐿
+ 𝐴𝐿
+ 𝐴𝐿
= 𝐿
+
ΔA ΔAΔL
+ = SL+SA+SLSA
𝐴 𝐴𝐿

Relation between SA, SD.

𝜋𝐷 2
We know, A =πr2 = π(D/2)2 = 4

𝐷+ΔD 2 𝜋
Similarly, cross-sectional area of fibre due to swelling, A+ΔA = π( ) = (D2+ 2DΔD+ΔD2)
2 4

𝜋𝐷ΔD 𝜋ΔD2
So, ΔA = +
2 4

𝜋𝐷ΔD 𝜋ΔD2
+ 𝜋𝐷ΔD 4 𝜋ΔD2 4 2ΔD ΔD2
2 4
Now, SA = 𝜋𝐷2
= . + . = + = 2SD + SD2
2 𝜋𝐷 2 4 𝜋𝐷 2 𝐷 𝐷2
4

Measurement of Volume swelling

1
If we consider a specimen of mass 1g when dry, we have, V= 𝜌0

𝑟
1+𝑚 1+
V + ΔV = 𝜌𝑠
= 𝜌𝑠
100

Now, here, 𝜌0 = density when dry, 𝜌𝑠 = density when swollen, m =mass of water absorbed. r= regain %.
𝑟
1+
( 100 )− 1
∆𝑉 𝜌𝑠 𝜌0 𝜌0 𝑟
Hence, Sv = = 1 = (1 + )− 1
𝑉 𝜌𝑠 100
𝜌0

Thus the volume swelling may be found from measurements of density and regain.
 Thermal Properties

For simple solid materials, the thermal properties consist of the thermal conductivity, specific heat and its
variation with temperature, the co-efficient of thermal expression, the melting point and the latent heat of
melting. All cannot be studied as it depends much more on the air entrapped within Textile Material than
on the fibre conductivity. Dimensional change due to reversible swelling on moisture absorption>
Dimensional change due to reversible thermal expansion.

Glass Transition temperature

The temperature below which a polymer is hard and above which it is soft, is called glass transition
temperature. In this temperature the polymer changes from the glassy state to the rubbery state. It is
denoted by Tg.If Tg is less than room temperature the material is soft. And if the Tg is more than room
temperature the material is brittle.

Melting point

The temperature at which a polymer becomes melt or starts to melt is called melting point. At melting
point, fibre loses its density and strength and changes to viscous liquid. Cellulose and protein fibres
decompose before melting. It is denoted by Tm.When values of free energy, F in crystalline state and
molten states are same. At this temperature fibres loses its identity and contracts to molten globule.
ΔF = ΔU- TmΔS =0 hence, Tm = ΔU/ΔS.
Irreversible thermal contraction can cause shrinkage, thermal transition cause molecular change,
mechanical and other properties and heat setting.

Melting points (Tm) depends on the followings

1. Composition of fibre: Nylon 2500C and polyester 2640C

2. Structure of fibre: higher Tm for larger and rigid structure.
3. Bonding force: higher Tm for H-bond and covalent bond.

Factors influence the Tg

1. Flexibility of chain bond decreases the value of Tg.

2. Composition of ring structure in molecular chain raises the value of Tg.
3. Flexibility of side group decreases the value of Tg.
4. Bulky side group increases the value of Tg.
5. Tg increases with the molecular weight upto 20000
6. Polarity of side groups increases the value of Tg.
7. Random co-polymer has lower value of Tg than homo polymer.
8. Increase the orientation of fibre chain restricts the chain movements and increase the value of Tg.
Relation between Tg and Tm

Based on experimental observation Tg and Tm have been shown to be interconnected as follows.

Tg=Tm/2 (for symmetrical polymer)
Tg=2Tm/3 (for asymmetrical polymer)
Fibre Tg(0C) Tm(0C) Thermal conductivity (mWm-1K-1)
of 0.5 g/cm3 packed density
Polyamide 50 270 Silk 50
Nylon 6 50 250 Wool 54
Nylon 6,6 50 270 Cotton 71
Polyester 69 264 Polyester 140
PVC 81 310 Nylon 250
PAN (Poly AcryloNitril) 97 341
Polystyrene 100 250

Relative Humidity

At the same temperature the ratio of actual vapor pressure in the atmosphere to the saturated vapor
pressure expressed as percentage is called relative humidity.
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
Relative Humidity =𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 x 100 % [at the same temperature]

Standard Atmosphere

An atmosphere which has relative humidity of 65% and temperature 200C is called standard atmosphere.
In tropical and sub-tropical countries an alternative standard temperature of 27 0C is used.

For Lab test, RH = 65+/-2% and Temperature = 25 +/-20C.

Moisture Content

Amount of moisture present in the material is called its moisture content and expressed as percentage.
𝑊
MC% = x 100 % ; W = weight of water, M = weight of material
𝑊+𝑀

Moisture Regain

Amount of water absorbed by the oven dried material when exposed to air and expressed as percentage.
𝑊
MR% = 𝑀 x 100 %; W = weight of water, M = weight of the material.

Relation between MR and MC be as : R=C/(1-C/100) and C= R/(1+R/100)

Why woolen dresses are more comfortable than cotton dresses in winter season?
- Due to the lower conductivity
- There are provided air pocket into the wool fibre structure, as air prevents the cooling
atmosphere. So, wool dresses are warm in winter.

Why synthetic dresses are not suitable in winter or summer season?

Effect of moisture in textile

- When a fibre comes in moisture, it absorbs water and changes its dimensions along its
length and width.
- This property improves the absorption of dyes and chemicals.
- Improves fastness of dyed materials and changes elastic properties of fibres.
- Due to change of dimensional stability of fabrics for moisture the pores of closely
interlaced woven fabrics will be completely blocked. As a result it will be water proof.

Factors of flammability

1. Chemical structure: higher for H-bond and covalent bond. Cationic bond- low flammability.
2. Crystallinity: Crystallinity↑-Flammability↓ and Amorphous↑ - flammability↑
3. Rigidity: Rigidity↑-Flammability↓,
 Optical Properties

Refractive Index

Refractive Index is defined as the ratio of velocity of light in a vacuum to the velocity of light in a
material.
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑖
Refractive Index = 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑟 ; i=angle of incidence, r=angle
of refraction.

Birefringence

When a beam of light falls on a textile fibre, it spits up into two refracted beam.
One polarized parallel to fibre axis and other polarized perpendicular to fibre axis.
The difference between the refractive index for light polarized parallel and
perpendicular to fibre axis is called birefringence of that fibre.

Birefringence Value = nll – nL, n-refractive index for light polarized II or L to the
fibre axis.

Birefringence property depends on the following

1. The degree of orientation in fibre

2. The degree of asymmetry of molecular chain in fibre.

Measurement of birefringence

It can be done directly by determining the retardation or difference in optical path length. Since the
optical path length equals the product of the refractive index and the thickness of the specimen through
which the light passes. So, optical path retardation = Birefringence x thickness

 (𝑁 + 𝛿𝑁)𝜆 = (𝑛𝑙𝑙 − 𝑛𝐿 )𝑡
(𝑁+𝛿𝑁)𝜆
 𝑛𝑙𝑙 − 𝑛𝐿 =
𝑡

Where,(𝑁 + 𝛿𝑁) = total no. of wave length, 𝜆= wave length , t = thickness, n-refractive index for light
polarized II or L to the fibre axis.

Lusture and reflection

If a beam of light falls on a surface, it

may be reflected specularly along the
angle of reflection as in fig-a, or
diffusely in varying intensity over a
hemi-sphere as in fig-b or in a
combination of both specular and
diffused reflection as in fig-c.
The reflection may vary with angle of incidence and with the color and polarized of the light. The total
visual appearance resulting from these reflections determines the Lusture of the material.

Lusture depends on the following in respect to textile fibre

1. Incident angle of light: if light falls

across the fibre, it reflects at various
angles as in fig-a and if it falls along
the fibre, it reflects at constant
angles as in fig-b. these affect the
Lusture of the fibre differently.
2. Fineness of fibre affects the lusture.
The coarser fibre will have more lusture then finer one.
3. Irregularity: irregularity on the surface of the fibre and its cross-sectional shape will cause light to
be reflected in various directions and will reduce the lusture. Fibre should be uniform along its
length for the greatest lusture. For example, lusture is the greatest in regular filaments, like silk.
4. Shape of fibre: shape of fibre is an important factor for lusture. The lusture associated with nylon
and rayon must vary due to the pattern of light reflection of their respective circular and serrated
shape.
5. Presentation of small particles: when a beam
of light falls on the fibre, it not only reflects,
but also transmits. Some of this transmitted
light will again reflect from the internal
surface as in fig-a. if the fibre contains small
particles like TiO2 this will scatter the
transmitted light at varying angles and cause
to emerge as particularly diffuse reflection as in fig-b
6. Maturity of fibre: if the maturityof fibre is high, the reflection will be high, as a result lusture will
be high.

Dichroism

The variation in the absorption of radiation by a colored fibre with the direction of polarization of the
light is called dichroism. It may result in the differences of the depth of shape or even in the actual color.

Requirement of dichroism

1. The dye molecule must be asymmetrical

2. The dye molecule must be absorbed on to the fibre molecule in a particular direction so that the
dye molecules make the same angle or a limited range of angles with the axis of the chain
molecules.
3. The chain molecule must be preferentially oriented.
Why cross fibre absorb more radiation than parallel fibres

When the fibres are crossed, then the

first type of fibres absorb a large part of
one component and the second type of
fibres absorb another large part of
perpendicular component. But, if the
fibres are parallel, the same component
is transmitted with little absorption. So,
cross fibres absorb more radiation than
parallel fibres.