energies

Article
Research on the Characteristics of Oscillation Combustion
Pulsation in Swirl Combustor
Chongyang Liu 1,2 , Xinkun Ge 3 , Xiang Zhang 3 , Chen Yang 4 and Yong Liu 3, *

1 Sichuan Gas Turbine Establishment, Aero Engine Corporation of China, Mianyang 621000, China;
[email protected]
2 School of Power and Energy, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi’an 710072, China
3 Aero-Engine Thermal Environment and Structure Key Laboratory of Ministry of Industry and Information
Technology, Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Nanjing 210016, China;
[email protected] (X.G.); [email protected] (X.Z.)
4 Taihang Laboratory, Chengdu 610200, China; [email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: This study focuses on the center-staged swirl model combustion chamber, conducting
experiments and numerical simulations to investigate the unstable combustion characteristics of
diffusion flames under different Reynolds numbers and air–fuel ratios. The results were analyzed
using methods such as Empirical Mode Decomposition (EMD), Fast Fourier Transform (FFT), and
Proper Orthogonal Decomposition (POD). The research found that the first three intrinsic mode
functions (IMFs) of the combustion chamber pressure fluctuation signal (DP) correspond to different
physical fluctuation characteristics. Specifically, the 1st IMF represents the fluctuation characteristics
of the heat release rate, corresponding to the flame shear region in the heat release rate field; the
2nd IMF represents the fluctuation characteristics of airflow swirl, corresponding to the swirl vortex
structure region in the vorticity field; the 3rd IMF represents the flame detachment fluctuation
characteristics, corresponding to the flame detachment region in the heat release rate field. Using
the same experimental and numerical calculation methods to study another swirl model combustion
chamber, the results also showed the aforementioned correspondence, further demonstrating the
accuracy of the experimental results and the universality of this conclusion.

Keywords: swirl combustor; combustion instability; fluctuation characteristics; empirical mode

Citation: Liu, C.; Ge, X.; Zhang, X.;
decomposition; large eddy simulation
Yang, C.; Liu, Y. Research on the
Characteristics of Oscillation
Combustion Pulsation in Swirl
Combustor. Energies 2024, 17, 4164.
https://doi.org/10.3390/en17164164
1. Introduction
As the aviation industry develops, pollutants in aircraft engine exhaust have a rela-
Academic Editor: Adonios Karpetis
tively serious impact on the human living environment [1]. Therefore, improving safety
Received: 27 June 2024 performance and reducing pollution has become the focus of research in the field of aircraft
Revised: 27 July 2024 engines. Lean Premixed Prevaporized Combustion (LPP) technology has become the most
Accepted: 7 August 2024 widely applied low-emission combustion technology currently. In LPP technology, air
Published: 21 August 2024 cooling is used to reduce flame temperature, which, while reducing the generation of
thermal NOx, can easily lead to combustion instability due to its relatively low fuel–air
ratio and inherently small damping. Oscillatory combustion is a common phenomenon
that frequently occurs in various combustion devices, including the combustion chambers
Copyright: © 2024 by the authors.
of aero-engines, rocket engines, and gas turbine combustors [2]. This phenomenon can
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
seriously affect the stable combustion performance of aircraft engines and even damage
This article is an open access article
mechanical components of aircraft engines, leading to increased environmental pollution
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
or even aviation accidents [3].
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
The swirl generator is the most commonly used method for stabilizing flames in
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ aircraft engines because fuel needs to be burned stably and fully within a limited space,
4.0/). so most of this field adopts the method of injecting air into the combustion chamber in

Energies 2024, 17, 4164. https://doi.org/10.3390/en17164164 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2024, 17, 4164 2 of 19

a swirling manner [4]. Domestic and foreign scholars have conducted a large number
of studies on the influence of swirl generators. Different structures of swirl generators
have a significant impact on flow field distribution, fuel atomization, combustion, and
emissions [5]. The main principle of its stability is that air enters the combustion chamber
after generating a certain radial velocity through the swirl generator, thereby generating a
central recirculation zone in the combustion chamber to stabilize the flame. This further
promotes the full mixing of air and fuel, making combustion more complete, the combustion
efficiency higher, and the pollutant emissions lower [6].
In swirl combustion chambers, oscillatory combustion phenomena still occur and are
complex in cause, including the influence of the chamber’s geometric structure, flow field,
and fuel [7]. Enhancing the mixture of fuel and air within the combustion chamber while
creating a stable ignition zone through pressure differentials achieves rapid, stable, and
efficient combustion. However, this process leads to coupling between combustion and the
precessing vortex core (PVC) as well as turbulence [8], resulting in severe deformation of
the flame front. Locally, the flame may experience extinction and reignition, while globally,
blowout, flashback, and oscillation may occur [9,10]. These not only affect combustion
stability and efficiency but can also cause damage to the aero-engine itself. Many scholars
have found that the formation of recirculation zones in swirl burners is a phenomenon of
vortex breakdown, with the central recirculation zone also known as the vortex breakdown
bubble [8,11–14]. Vortex breakdown can lead to pressure fluctuations in the flow field,
and when the swirl intensity is high, it exhibits instability. The vortex precesses around
the central axis at low frequencies, forming a typical PVC structure. The frequency of the
PVC increases linearly with flow velocity along the direction of flow, but not necessarily
consistently, which is also related to the rate of flow rotation [8].
The sources of instability that induce unstable combustion phenomena are numerous
and exhibit a variety of differentiated mode characteristics. Firstly, there may be mu-
tual coupling between different systems that can induce oscillatory combustion: Timo
Buschhagen [15] studied the effects of inlet air temperature and equivalence ratio changes
on oscillatory combustion under lean premixed high-pressure conditions; Nicholas A.
Worth [16], Ahmed E. E. Khalil [17], Kazuaki Matsuura [18], among others have studied
the effects of different equivalence ratios on oscillatory combustion. Secondly, there may
also be pulsation sources in the structure of the combustion chamber, such as pressure
pulsations caused by periodic vortex shedding: Timo Buschhagen [15] also studied the
impact of vortex shedding on oscillatory combustion, with research indicating that the
axisymmetric and asymmetric processes of vortex shedding correspond to longitudinal
resonant modes and transverse instabilities, respectively.
In summary, the mechanism of inducing oscillatory combustion is extremely complex.
In order to establish strategies for suppressing oscillatory combustion, it is essential to
reveal the impact of different pulsation sources on oscillatory combustion. This paper
primarily focuses on the engineering-level centrally swirler stage combustor and swirl
model combustor as research objects, conducting experimental studies and numerical
simulations on oscillatory combustion, investigating the pulsation sources within the swirl
combustion chambers, and revealing the interplay between different pulsation sources and
oscillatory combustion. Consequently, this can provide certain reference significance for
the design work of combustion chambers, thereby avoiding the occurrence of oscillatory
combustion phenomena.

2. Introduction to the Experimental System

2.1. Centrally Swirler Stage Combustor
2.1.1. Experimental Research Object
The experiment focuses on a centrally swirler stage combustor (Lean Premixed Pre-
vaporized, LPP), with its geometric structure illustrated in Figure 1. This centrally swirler
stage combustor employs a single-tube combustion chamber layout, where the combustor
head consists of a primary radial swirler (main stage) and two secondary axial swirlers
Energies
Energies 2024,
2024, 17,
17, xx FOR
FOR PEER
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 33 of
of 20
20

Energies 2024, 17, 4164 3 of 19

swirler
swirler stage
stage combustor
combustor employs
employs aa single-tube
single-tube combustion
combustion chamber
chamber layout,
layout, where
where thethe
combustor
combustor head
head consists
consists of
of aa primary
primary radial
radial swirler
swirler (main
(main stage)
stage) and
and two
two secondary
secondary axial
axial
swirlers
swirlers
(pilot (pilot stages).
(pilot The
stages). stages).
main The
The main
main
stage of stage
stage of
of the
the combustor
the combustor is fueledis
combustor fueled
fueled through
isthrough through direct
direct injection
direct injectioninjection
nozzles
nozzles
nozzles distributed
distributed
distributed circumferentially,
circumferentially,
circumferentially, while
while thewhile the
pilotthe pilot stages
pilotare
stages stages
fueledare fueled
arevia
fueled via
swirlvia swirl
swirl atomizing
atomizingatomizing
nozzles.
nozzles.
nozzles. Additionally,
Additionally, cooling
cooling holes
Additionally, coolingareholes are
are configured
configured
holes in
in both
in both the
configured headthe
both andhead
the and
and the
the flame
head flame
tube
the tube
tube to
to provide
flame to
provide high-temperature
high-temperature
provide protection
protection
high-temperature for the
for the combustor
protection combustor walls.
walls. walls.
for the combustor

Figure
Figure 1.
1. Structural
Structural diagram
diagram of
of swirler.
swirler.

2.1.2. Layout of
2.1.2. Layout
Layout of Experimental
of Experimental System
Experimental System
System
The
The centrally
The centrally swirler
centrally swirler stage
swirler stage combustortest
stage combustor
combustor test
test system
system
system is is shown
is shown
shown in in Figure
in Figure
Figure 2. 2. test
2. The
The The test
test sys-
sys-
system
tem
tem consists
consists
consists of aaof
of a centrally
centrally
centrally staged
staged
staged combustor,
combustor,
combustor, intake
intake
intake and and
and exhaust
exhaust
exhaust ducts,ducts,
ducts, an ansupply
an air
air air supply
supply sys-
sys-
system,
tem, a a fuel
fuel supply
supply system,
system, and and
a a data
data acquisition
acquisition system.
system. The Thefuel
test testused
fuel is
used
RP-3is avia-
RP-3
tem, a fuel supply system, and a data acquisition system. The test fuel used is RP-3 avia-
aviation kerosene.
tion Air fromcompressor
the compressor is heated using an electric heater and enters
tion kerosene.
kerosene. Air
Air from
from the
the compressor is is heated
heated using
using anan electric
electric heater
heater and
and enters
enters the
the
the combustion
combustion chamber via an intake pipeline. The high-temperature flue gases produced
combustion chamber
chamber via via an
an intake
intake pipeline.
pipeline. TheThe high-temperature
high-temperature flue flue gases
gases produced
produced
during combustion are
during cooled through water spraying and thenthen treated by a gas processing
during combustion
combustion are are cooled
cooled through
through water
water spraying
spraying andand then treated
treated byby aa gas
gas pro-
pro-
unit before
cessing unitbeing
before discharged
being [19].
discharged [19].
cessing unit before being discharged [19].

Figure
Figure 2.
2. Schematic
Schematic diagram
diagram of
of experimental
experimental system.
system.

Intake pressure
Intake
Intake pressure pulsations,
pressure pulsations, combustion
pulsations, combustion chamber
combustion chamber pressure
chamber pressure pulsations,
pressure pulsations,and
pulsations, andfuel
and fuelpres-
fuel pres-
pres-
sure
sure pulsations
pulsations are measured using dynamic pressure sensors, model
sure pulsations are measured using dynamic pressure sensors, model PCB 113B28(PCB PCB 113B28(PCB
Piezotronics, New
Piezotronics,
Piezotronics, New York,
New York, NY,
NY, USA),
USA), with
USA), with aa sensitivity
with sensitivity of
of 15
15 mV/kPa,
mV/kPa, aaa range
mV/kPa, range of
range of 34.47
of 34.47 kPa,
34.47 kPa,
kPa,
and an uncertainty
and an uncertainty of
uncertainty of ≤ 0.3%F.S.
of ≤0.3%F.S. The
≤0.3%F.S. The fluctuation
The fluctuation in
fluctuation in the
in theheat
the heat release
heat release rate can
release rate
rate canbe
can beusedusedde-
be usedto to
to
termine
determine the combustion
the combustion status, which
status, is
which indirectly
is measured
indirectly by
measured measuring
by
determine the combustion status, which is indirectly measured by measuring the CH* the
measuring CH* chemi-
the CH*
luminescence intensity of the of
chemiluminescence
chemiluminescence intensity
flame flame
intensity of the
[20]. In thisInpaper,
the flame [20].
[20]. In this
a bandpass filter atfilter
this paper,
paper, aa bandpass
435 nm
bandpass filter at
at 435
± nm
435 nm
5 nm±±
55combined
nm with awith
combined Hamamatsu
a Photonics
Hamamatsu CH348CH348
Photonics photomultiplier tube istube
photomultiplier
nm combined with a Hamamatsu Photonics CH348 photomultiplier tube is employed
employed
is to cap-
employed
toture the CH* chemiluminescence signals. All the All
above dynamic signals are connected to
to capture
capture the
the CH*
CH* chemiluminescence
chemiluminescence signals.
signals. All the
the above
above dynamic
dynamic signals
signals are
are con-
con-
an NI
nected multichannel data acquisition system for synchronous acquisition.
nected toto an
an NI
NI multichannel
multichannel datadata acquisition
acquisition system
system forfor synchronous
synchronous acquisition.
acquisition.
2.1.3. Operating Conditions
Under atmospheric pressure, variable fuel–air ratio experiments were conducted with
three different inlet airflow rates: 100.2 g/s (Marked A), 130.1 g/s (Marked B), and 140 g/s
 Under atmospheric pressure, variable fuel–air ratio experiments were conducted
with three different inlet airflow rates: 100.2 g/s (Marked A), 130.1 g/s (Marked B), and 140
g/s (Marked C). For each set of inlet airflow rates, experiments were carried out by grad-
ually decreasing from a high fuel–air ratio to a low one, as shown in Table 1.
Energies 2024, 17, 4164 4 of 19
Table 1. Operating conditions table for oscillation combustion test of centrally swirler stage com-
bustor.
(Marked C). For each set of inlet airflow rates, experiments were carried out by gradually
Air Intake Flow Intake Air Tempera-
Testdecreasing
Number from a high fuel–air ratio to a low one, as shown in Table
Imported Re1. FAR
Rate/(g/s) ture/K
A01 1. Operating conditions
Table 100.2 table for oscillation
426 40,400 swirler stage
combustion test of centrally 0.063
combustor.
A02 100.2 426 40,400 0.057
A03 Air Intake Flow
100.2 Intake
426 Air 40,400Re 0.050
Test Number Imported FAR
Rate/(g/s) Temperature/K
A04 100.2 426 40,400 0.046
A05 A01 100.2 100.2 426
426 40,400
40,400 0.063
0.038
A02 100.2 426 40,400 0.057
A06 100.2 426 40,400 0.033
A03 100.2 426 40,400 0.050
B01 A04 130.1 100.2 423.4
426 52,000
40,400 0.054
0.046
B02 A05 130.1 100.2 423.4
426 52,000
40,400 0.052
0.038
B03 A06 130.1 100.2 426
423.4 40,400
52,000 0.033
0.048
B01 130.1 423.4 52,000 0.054
B04 130.1 423.4 52,000 0.046
B02 130.1 423.4 52,000 0.052
B05 B03 130.1 130.1 423.4
423.4 52,000
52,000 0.044
0.048
B06 B04 130.1 130.1 423.4
423.4 52,000
52,000 0.038
0.046
C01 B05 140.0 130.1 423.4
434 52,000
56,800 0.044
0.050
C02 B06 140.0 130.1 423.4
434 52,000
56,800 0.038
0.048
C01 140.0 434 56,800 0.050
C03 C02 140.0 140.0 434
434
56,800
56,800
0.045
0.048
C04 C03 140.0 140.0 434
434 56,800
56,800 0.044
0.045
C05 C04 140.0 140.0 434
434 56,800
56,800 0.040
0.044
C06 C05 140.0 140.0 434
434 56,800
56,800 0.040
0.038
C06 140.0 434 56,800 0.038

2.2. Swirl Model Combustor

2.2. Swirl Model Combustor
2.2.1. Experimental Research Object
2.2.1. Experimental Research Object
The swirl model combustor utilizes a single-stage axial swirler, with its geometric
The swirl model combustor utilizes a single-stage axial swirler, with its geometric
structure shown in Figure 3. A fuel nozzle is placed at the center of the swirler, and the
structure shown in Figure 3. A fuel nozzle is placed at the center of the swirler, and
nozzle head has 12 jet orifices of 1.0 mm diameter distributed evenly around its circum-
the nozzle head has 12 jet orifices of 1.0 mm diameter distributed evenly around its
ference for ejecting propane gas fuel. The incoming air, after passing through the inclined
circumference for ejecting propane gas fuel. The incoming air, after passing through
vanes of the swirler, forms a central recirculation zone in the downstream combustion
the inclined vanes of the swirler, forms a central recirculation zone in the downstream
chamber to stabilize the flame.
combustion chamber to stabilize the flame.

(a) (b)
FigureFigure
3. Structural diagram
3. Structural of swirler:
diagram (a) swirler;
of swirler: (b) center
(a) swirler; section.
(b) center section.

2.2.2. Layout of Experimental System

Figure 4 illustrates the overall layout of the single-stage swirl model combustor test
system. The test system primarily consists of an air intake pipeline, a fuel supply line, a
combustion chamber, and a synchronous measurement system. Tests are conducted under
normal temperature and pressure conditions, with air supplied by an external blower
flowing from left to right. The main airflow enters the combustion chamber through a pipe
with an outer diameter of 50 mm via the axial swirler. The average inlet velocity of air
entering the combustion chamber is measured using a flowmeter. The fuel used is propane,
 Figure 4 illustrates the overall layout of the single-stage swirl model combustor test
system. The test system primarily consists of an air intake pipeline, a fuel supply line, a
combustion chamber, and a synchronous measurement system. Tests are conducted un-
der normal temperature and pressure conditions, with air supplied by an external blower
Energies 2024, 17, 4164 flowing from left to right. The main airflow enters the combustion chamber through a5pipe of 19
with an outer diameter of 50 mm via the axial swirler. The average inlet velocity of air
entering the combustion chamber is measured using a flowmeter. The fuel used is pro-
supplied
pane, from an
supplied external
from gas cylinder,
an external which enters
gas cylinder, whichthe combustion
enters chamber chamber
the combustion through
jet orifices
through jetinorifices
the circumferential directiondirection
in the circumferential of the fuelofsupply
the fuelline nozzle
supply within
line the
nozzle axial
within
swirler,
the axialwith this fuel
swirler, withsupply line
this fuel havingline
supply a diameter
having aofdiameter
12 mm. Theof 12combustion chamber is
mm. The combustion
cuboid inisshape,
chamber cuboid with an axialwith
in shape, length a = 300
an axial mm. aIts= cross-sectional
length shape is square,
300 mm. Its cross-sectional with
shape is
square, with a side length of l = 100 mm. A quartz glass observation window is set on the
a side length of l = 100 mm. A quartz glass observation window is set on the side of
combustion
side chamber forchamber
of the combustion capturingfordynamic
capturing flame images.
dynamic Theimages.
flame high-temperature flue gas
The high-tempera-
is treated
ture before
flue gas being discharged
is treated before beingatdischarged
ambient pressure [21].pressure [21].
at ambient

Figure 4. Schematic
Figure 4. Schematic of
of the
the test
test system.
system.

2.2.3. Operating
2.2.3. Operating Conditions
Conditions
The experiments
The experimentswere
wereconducted
conductedusing
using a swirler
a swirler with
with a blade
a blade angle
angle 50◦ . swirl
of The
of 50°. The
swirl number S can typically be estimated using the following formula with some simple
number S can typically be estimated using the following formula with some simple struc-
structural
tural parameters
parameters of theofswirler:
the swirler:

− RRh 33 
   
1
S = 2 1 − R 2   tan θ
2 Rnh 
(1)
 n  
3
S = 1 − R h
2
tan  (1)
1 −  Rh  
3 Rn
  
where Rn and Rh are the inner and outer radii  Rofn the
 swirl vane, respectively, and θ is the
inclination angle of the swirl vane. Therefore, the swirl number of this swirler is 0.885.
where R and R are the inner and outer radii of the swirl vane, respectively, and 
The inlet nair mass hflow rate is 9.44 g/s (Re = 11,000), and the inlet fuel mass flow rate is
is the g/s
0.139 inclination angle with
(FAR = 0.015), of thetemperature
swirl vane.and
Therefore,
pressurethe swirl number
at ambient of this
conditions, swirler is
respectively.
0.885. The inlet air mass flow rate is 9.44 g/s (Re = 11,000), and the inlet fuel mass flow rate
3. 0.139
is Numerical Framework
g/s (FAR = 0.015), with temperature and pressure at ambient conditions, respec-
3.1. Centrally Swirler Stage Combustor
tively.
In our study, grid division was completed using ICEM. For the two different swirl
3. Numerical
models, Framework
we adopted different grid strategies to accommodate their respective geometric
3.1. Centrally Swirler Stage CombustorFor the central staged swirl combustor, as shown in
features and flow characteristics.
FigureIn 5,
ourdue to thegrid
study, complex swirl
division wasstructure
completedat the head,
using we chose
ICEM. unstructured
For the two differentgrids to
swirl
mesh the geometry, ensuring good grid quality, with a total grid number of
models, we adopted different grid strategies to accommodate their respective geometric14 million. The
numerical
features andsimulation employs Large
flow characteristics. For Eddy Simulation
the central staged(LES)
swirlfor the turbulence
combustor, model
as shown and
in Fig-
a non-premixed combustion model, using the Discrete Phase Model (DPM)
ure 5, due to the complex swirl structure at the head, we chose unstructured grids to meshto simulate
the breakup
the geometry, and evaporation
ensuring good process of RP-3
grid quality, kerosene
with a totalin thenumber
grid combustor as million.
of 14 a gas–liquid
The
two-phase phenomenon. This paper adopts the SIMPLE algorithm to solve
numerical simulation employs Large Eddy Simulation (LES) for the turbulence model and for the velocity
field and pressure field. The computational modeling is based upon an in-house CFD
a non-premixed combustion model, using the Discrete Phase Model (DPM) to simulate
code known as the general equation and mesh solver [22]. The Navier–Stokes equations
along with a single energy equation and five species equations are solved numerically. The
LES turbulence model is used to compute large eddies directly. The Subgrid-Scale model
used in this study is the Smagorinsky–Lilly model. The scheme is second-order-accurate in
time. A physical time step of 5 × 10−5 s is used for all simulations. Simulations are started
from quiescent conditions at atmospheric pressure and a temperature of 426 K. At the
beginning of the simulation, both the fuel and oxidizer enter the combustor simultaneously,
exposing the combustor to the incoming propellant and atmospheric backpressure. The
entrance boundary condition of the combustor is a mass flow rate inlet, with an airflow rate
 turbulence model is used to compute large eddies directly. The Subgrid-Scale model used
turbulence model is used to compute large eddies directly. The Subgrid-Scale model used
in this study is the Smagorinsky–Lilly model. The scheme is second-order-accurate in
in this study is the Smagorinsky–Lilly model. The scheme is second-order-accurate in
time. A physical time step of 5 × 10−5−5s is used for all simulations. Simulations are started
time. A physical time step of 5 × 10 s is used for all simulations. Simulations are started
from quiescent conditions at atmospheric pressure and a temperature of 426 K. At the
from quiescent conditions at atmospheric pressure and a temperature of 426 K. At the
Energies 2024, 17, 4164 beginning of the simulation, both the fuel and oxidizer enter the combustor simultane-
beginning of the simulation, both the fuel and oxidizer enter the combustor simultane- 6 of 19
ously, exposing the combustor to the incoming propellant and atmospheric backpressure.
ously, exposing the combustor to the incoming propellant and atmospheric backpressure.
The entrance boundary condition of the combustor is a mass flow rate inlet, with an air-
The entrance boundary condition of the combustor is a mass flow rate inlet, with an air-
flow rate of 100.2 g/s, a temperature of 426 K, operating at atmospheric pressure, and a
of 100.2
flow g/s,
rate a temperature
of 100.2 of 426 K, operating
g/s, a temperature at atmospheric
of 426 K, operating pressure, and
at atmospheric a totaland
pressure, fuela
total fuel flow rate of 5.71 g/s (FAR = 0.057). The convergence criterion is set with a com-
flow
total rate
fuelof 5.71rate
flow g/sof(FAR
5.71 =g/s
0.057).
(FARThe convergence
= 0.057). criterion iscriterion
The convergence set withisa set
computational
with a com-
putational residual of less than 0.001 as the standard.
residual
putationalof less than of
residual 0.001
lessas the 0.001
than standard.
as the standard.

Figure 5. Grid division of centrally swirler stage combustor.

Figure5.5. Grid
Figure Grid division
divisionof
ofcentrally
centrallyswirler
swirlerstage
stagecombustor.
combustor.

3.2.
3.2. Swirl Model Combustor
3.2. Swirl
Swirl Model
Model Combustor
Combustor
For
For the swirl model combustor,
combustor, as shown in Figure 6,6,thethehead’s single-stage swirler
For the swirlmodel
the swirl model combustor,asasshown shown inin Figure
Figure 6, the head’s
head’s single-stage
single-stage swirler
swirler
remains
remains complex,
complex, but
but the
the rear
rear half
half ofof the
the combustor
combustor is is merely
merely a a simple
simple rectangular
rectangular struc-
structure,
remains complex, but the rear half of the combustor is merely a simple rectangular struc-
ture,
so so a
a mixed mixed grid
grid grid of unstructured
of unstructured and
andand structured
structured elements
elements was
was used,
used, with a total grid
ture, so a mixed of unstructured structured elements was used,with
withaatotal
total grid
grid
number
number of 44 million.
million. Thenumerical
numericalsimulation
simulationalsoalsoemploys
employs Large Eddy Simulationfor for
numberof of 4 million.TheThe numerical simulation also employs Large
LargeEddy Simulation
Eddy Simulation the
for
the turbulence
turbulence model,
model, with with
the the combustion
combustion model model
being being
a a partially
partially premixed premixed
FGM FGM (Fi-
(Finite-Rate
the turbulence model, with the combustion model being a partially premixed FGM (Fi-
nite-Rate
Gaseous Gaseous Mixture) model [23] to numerically
simulatesimulate gaseous fuel propane. The
nite-RateMixture)
Gaseousmodel
Mixture) [23] to numerically
model [23] to numerically gaseous
simulatefuel propane.
gaseous The solution
fuel propane. The
solution
algorithm algorithm and discretization
and discretization accuracy
accuracyaccuracy are
are the same the same
as those as those
setthose set
for the for the centrally
solution algorithm and discretization are the same as setcentrally swirler
for the centrally
swirler
stage stage combustor,
combustor, and the and the boundary
boundary conditionsconditions
are set toare beset
the tosame
be the
as same
those as those de-
swirler stage combustor, and the boundary conditions are set to be the samedescribed
as those de- in
scribed
Section in Section
2.2.3 for 2.2.3
the for the experimental
experimental conditions. conditions.
scribed in Section 2.2.3 for the experimental conditions.

Figure 6.
Figure Griddivision
6. Grid divisionof
ofswirl
swirlmodel
model combustor.
combustor.
Figure 6. Grid division of swirl model combustor.
4. Data Processing Methods
4.1. Signal Processing Method
Empirical Mode Decomposition (EMD), proposed by N.E Huang et al. [24], is a
method for processing non-stationary signals. The process decomposes the original signal
based on its intrinsic characteristics, resulting in several Intrinsic Mode Functions (IMFs)
and a residue. Each IMF captures different fluctuation characteristics of the original
signal, enabling the extraction of its features. Unlike the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT),
which calculates the overall fluctuation characteristics of the signal, EMD decomposes
the signal based on its own intrinsic properties. During the decomposition process, curve
interpolation is performed on local maxima and minima to form upper and lower envelope
lines [25].
Currently, EMD has been widely applied in fault diagnosis across various scenarios.
For example, Ge et al. combined EMD with HMM to propose a fault diagnosis model
for equipment, using the energy of each IMF component and modal spectral entropy to
construct a feature vector set as input for HMM classification, effectively achieving fault
diagnosis [26]. Shen et al. integrated fault feature extraction based on EMD with fault
Energies 2024, 17, 4164 7 of 19

reasoning based on directed factor graphs, providing a viable and effective means for fault
diagnosis under conditions of information uncertainty and incompleteness [27].

4.2. Image Processing Method

Proper Orthogonal Decomposition (POD) is a powerful analytical tool for identifying
coherent structures in vector or scalar fields, capable of extracting spatial patterns of flame
fluctuations and their temporal distribution. This technique is extensively applied in
flame dynamics research. Wang et al. applied POD to CH* chemiluminescence images
corresponding to 40 oscillation cycles to explore detailed changes in flame dynamics during
transition periods [28]. Fu et al. similarly applied POD to OH* chemiluminescence images
of 1000 consecutive flame images to analyze detailed flame dynamics under three unstable
conditions at different thermal powers [29]. Liu et al. utilized the POD method to process
flame images, investigating the changing process of flame structures and studying the
phase relationship between pressure waves and heat release fluctuations [30].
The aforementioned literature primarily explores flame structures using POD. This
study further explores the dominant frequencies of pulsations in different flame structures
based on the exploration of flame structures, a part rarely mentioned in previous literature,
hence possessing certain novelty. Moreover, the POD algorithm adopted in this study has
been validated through data in reference [31]. Therefore, this paper employs the POD
method to process numerically simulated flame images [32].
If the parameter sequence of a flow field at a certain moment is represented as
Li ∈ Rn p ×1 , and after extracting the characteristic information from M snapshots to con-
struct matrix X, then X can be expressed as follows:

X = ( L1 , L2 , . . . , L n t ) ∈ R n p × n t (2)

where p represents the size of the spatial domain, which is much larger than time t. The
process involves using Singular Value Decomposition (SVD) to decompose the transposed
matrix X T , as follows:
[U, S, V ] = X T (3)
where U is the orthogonal matrix, and V is the orthogonal eigenvector matrix of X T , which
is also known as the POD mode matrix. S is the singular value matrix corresponding to V,
that is, S = diag(s1 , s2 , . . . , sr ), where the elements are arranged in order of energy of the
orthogonal bases in matrix V, which represents the POD as si , thus having s1 > s2 > . . . > sr .
Among these, the energy percentage of the m-th order POD mode is given by the following:

M
E(i) = s2m / ∑ s2m (4)
m =1

5. Results and Discussion

5.1. Analysis of Experimental Results of Centrally Swirler Stage Combustor
Since the original signal in the time domain of each working condition contains rich
information about multiple physical processes within the combustion chamber, this paper
employs EMD to decompose its pressure fluctuation signals. Taking working condition A02
as an example, its pressure fluctuation signals and spectral graph are shown in Figure 7.
Upon performing EMD decomposition, a total of seven orders of components are
obtained, with the energy primarily concentrated in the first three orders; the amplitude and
dominant frequency of the other lower-order components are very small. The waveforms
and spectra of the first three orders of components are shown in Figure 8, presented from
top to bottom as the signals for 1st–3rd IMF and their spectral results. The waveform of
the 1st IMF is similar to that of the DP waveform and amplitude, both having consistent
dominant fluctuation frequencies, which represent the main characteristics of the original
signal, although there is no secondary peak at 71.3 Hz; the waveform of the 2nd IMF
still exhibits strong intermittency, with its fluctuation energy concentrated in a broader
 M
E (i ) = sm2 /  sm2 (4)
m =1

Energies 2024, 17, 4164 8 of 19

5. Results and Discussion
5.1. Analysis of Experimental Results of Centrally Swirler Stage Combustor
frequency band
Since the around
original 53 Hz;
signal the
in the dominant
time domain fluctuation
of each workingfrequency of the
condition 3rd IMF
contains is
rich in-
centered in a low-frequency band around 23 Hz. It is generally considered that
formation about multiple physical processes within the combustion chamber, this paper em- the three
components
ploys EMD obtained after EMD
to decompose decomposition
its pressure have
fluctuation relative
signals. independence,
Taking corresponding
working condition A02 as
to three separate physical processes.
an example, its pressure fluctuation signals and spectral graph are shown in Figure 7.
2

Amplitude(kPa)
1
Energies 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 0
9 of 20
-1

-2 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Time(s)
Group A working conditions, （a）when transitioning from an FI state to a CI state, the fluctu-
ation
225 dominant frequency of the 3rd IMF gradually rises from 17 Hz to 23 Hz until it sat-
Amplitude(Pa)

141.7Hz
urates
150 at 26 Hz. Through the above analysis, it is evident that the dominant frequencies of

the first
75 three IMFs of pressure fluctuations under FI and CI states exhibit distinct charac-
71.3Hz

teristics
00
of change: the dominant frequency of the 1st IMF tends towards the system’s nat-
200 400 600 800 1000
ural frequency under lean Frequency(Hz)
CI conditions across all air intakes, whereas the dominant fre-
quencies of the 2nd IMF and (b）3rd IMF show a clear positive correlation with the airflow/Re,
indicating
Figure that
Figure7.7.A02
A02DP the physical
DPtiming
timingsignal processes
signal and
and corresponding
spectrum
spectrum under
under to
working
working these components
condition:
condition: (a) timing
(a) timing are positively
signal;
signal; (b) (b) spec-
spectrum.
related
trum. to the mean velocity of the flow field.

Amplitude(Pa)
2000
Amplitude(Pa)

Upon performing EMD decomposition, a total

1000
225
of seven 141.7Hzorders of components are

obtained,
0
with the energy primarily concentrated 150in the first three orders; the amplitude

and
-1000 dominant frequency of the other lower-−order components are very small. The wave-
75

forms
-2000 0 and spectra0.5
of the 1first three1.5orders of components
2
00 are
200 shown 400in Figure600 8, presented
800 1000
Time(s) Frequency(Hz)
from top to bottom as the signals for 1st−–3rd IMF and their spectral results. The wave-
(a)
form
1000 of the 1st IMF is similar to that of the DP waveform 30 and amplitude, both having
Amplitude(Pa)
Amplitude(Pa)

53.3Hz
consistent
500 dominant fluctuation frequencies, which 20
represent the main characteristics of
the 0original signal, although there is no secondary peak at 71.3 Hz; the waveform of the
10
2nd-500 IMF still exhibits strong intermittency, with its fluctuation energy concentrated in a

00
broader
-1000 0
frequency
0.5 band 1around 53
Time(s)
1.5Hz; the dominant
2 fluctuation
200 frequency
400
Frequency(Hz) of the 3rd
600 800 IMF 1000

is centered in a low−-frequency band around (b)23 Hz. It is generally considered that the
three
200 components obtained after EMD decomposition 10
have relative independence, corre-
Amplitude(Pa)
Amplitude(Pa)

23.4Hz
sponding to three separate physical processes.
100

0 5
Following the above-−mentioned processing method, a statistical analysis of other
-100
working conditions in the experiment was conducted 00
to obtain the variation in pressure
-200 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 200 400 600 800 1000
fluctuation components at different mass flow rates, as shown in Figure
Time(s) 9. The fluctuation
Frequency(Hz)
frequency of the 1st IMF changes significantly (c) under Group A air intake, with the domi-
nant
Figure fluctuation frequency higher during flame instability (FI) states at high fuel −-to−-air
Figure8.8.TimeTimedomain
domainand andfrequency
frequencydomain
domainof ofeach
eachcomponent
componentofofA02 A02operating
operatingcondition
conditionDP: DP:
ratios than
(a) during combustion instability (CI) states at low fuel −-to −-air ratios; under CI
(a) time
time domain
domain signal
signal ofof 1st
1st IMF
IMF (left)
(left) and
and frequency
frequency domain
domain signalsignal of of 1st
1st IMF
IMF (right);
(right); (b)
(b)time
time
conditions,
domain signal the
of influence
2nd IMF of the
(left) andinlet air mass
frequency domainflowsignal
rate on of the 1st
2nd IMF IMF is minimal,
(right); (c) time with its
domain
domain signal of 2nd IMF (left) and frequency domain signal of 2nd IMF (right); (c) time domain
mainoffrequency
signal 3rd IMF (left) varying arounddomain
and frequency the system’s
signal ofacoustic transverse oscillation eigenfre-
3rd IMF (right).
signal of 3rd IMF (left) and frequency domain signal of 3rd IMF (right).
quency of 120 Hz. For the 2nd IMF, given a constant inlet air mass flow rate, its fluctuation
dominant frequency
Following exhibits minor variations
the above-mentioned processing around
method, a fixed base value;
a statistical as theofairflow
analysis other
increases,
working the base in
conditions values for variouswas
the experiment working
conducted conditions
to obtain alsothegradually
variation in increase.
pressure In
fluctuation components at different mass flow rates, as shown in Figure 9. The fluctuation
frequency of the 1st IMF changes significantly under Group A air intake, with the dominant
fluctuation frequency higher during flame instability (FI) states at high fuel-to-air ratios than
during combustion instability (CI) states at low fuel-to-air ratios; under CI conditions, the
influence of the inlet air mass flow rate on the 1st IMF is minimal, with its main frequency
varying around the system’s acoustic transverse oscillation eigenfrequency of 120 Hz. For
the 2nd IMF, given a constant inlet air mass flow rate, its fluctuation dominant frequency
exhibits minor variations around a fixed base value; as the airflow increases, the base values
for various working conditions also gradually increase. In Group A working conditions,
when transitioning from an FI state to a CI state, the fluctuation dominant frequency of

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 9. Changes in the main frequency of pulsation of DP components at different operating con-
ditions: (a) 1st IMF; (b) 2nd IMF; (c) 3rd IMF.
 53.3Hz
500

Amplitude(
Amplitude(
20
0
10
-500

-1000 0 00 200 400 600 800 1000

0.5 1 1.5 2
Time(s) Frequency(Hz)
Energies 2024, 17, 4164 9 of 19
(b)
200 10

Amplitude(Pa)
Amplitude(Pa)
100 23.4Hz

0 5
the 3rd IMF gradually rises from 17 Hz to 23 Hz until it saturates at 26 Hz. Through
-100
the above analysis, it is evident that the dominant 0frequencies of the first three IMFs of
-200 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 200 400 600 800 1000
pressure fluctuations under Time(s)FI and CI states exhibit distinct characteristics of change: the
Frequency(Hz)
dominant frequency of the 1st IMF tends towards (c) the system’s natural frequency under
lean CI conditions across all air intakes, whereas the dominant frequencies of the 2nd IMF
Figure 8. Time domain and frequency domain of each component of A02 operating condition DP:
and 3rd IMF show a clear positive correlation with
(a) time domain signal of 1st IMF (left) and frequency domain the airflow/Re,
signal of 1st indicating
IMF (right);that the
(b) time
physical processes
domain signal of 2ndcorresponding to these components
IMF (left) and frequency domain signalareof positively related
2nd IMF (right); (c)to thedomain
time mean
velocity
signal of of3rdthe
IMFflow field.
(left) and frequency domain signal of 3rd IMF (right).

(a) (b) (c)

Energies 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 20
Figure 9.
Figure 9. Changes
Changesininthethemain
mainfrequency
frequency of of
pulsation of DP
pulsation components
of DP at different
components operating
at different con-
operating
ditions: (a) 1st IMF; (b) 2nd IMF; (c) 3rd IMF.
conditions: (a) 1st IMF; (b) 2nd IMF; (c) 3rd IMF.
5.1.1. Heat
5.1.1. Heat Release
Release Rate
Rate Analysis
Analysis
In this
In this paper,
paper,thetheCH*
CH*filter
filterisisused
usedininconjunction
conjunction with
with a phototube
a phototube to collect
to collect infor-
informa-
mation on heat release rate fluctuations. After statistical analysis of the
tion on heat release rate fluctuations. After statistical analysis of the dominant fluctuationdominant fluctua-
tion frequencies
frequencies of CH*
of CH* under under all working
all working conditions,
conditions, the changes
the changes in the
in the dominant
dominant fluc-
fluctua-
tion frequencies of CH* at three different air mass flow rates are shown in Figure 10. ItIt
tuation frequencies of CH* at three different air mass flow rates are shown in Figure 10.
can be
can be seen
seen from
from the
the figure
figure that
thatthe
thedominant
dominant fluctuation
fluctuation frequency
frequency of of CH*
CH* under
under high high
fuel-to-airratio
fuel-to-air ratioFIFIstates
statesgradually
gradually decreases
decreases as as
thethe fuel-to-air
fuel-to-air ratio
ratio decreases
decreases andand stabi-
stabilizes
lizes around
around 120 Hz 120
inHz
theinCIthe CI state;
state; comparing
comparing the dominant
the dominant fluctuation
fluctuation frequency
frequency of CH* ofwith
CH*
with the dominant fluctuation frequency of the 1st IMF for DP in
the dominant fluctuation frequency of the 1st IMF for DP in Figure 8a, it is found that Figure 8a, it is found
thatfrequency
the the frequency changes
changes in both
in both are are consistent,
consistent, leading
leading to to the
the inferencethat
inference thatthe
the1st1stIMF
IMF
fluctuation component
fluctuation component of of DP
DP can
can represent
represent thethe characteristics
characteristics of of changes
changes in in heat
heat release
release
ratefluctuations.
rate fluctuations.

Figure10.
Figure 10. CH*
CH* pulsation
pulsationfrequency
frequencyvariation.
variation.

5.1.2.
5.1.2. Cold
Cold State
State Pressure
PressureSignal
SignalAnalysis
Analysis
In the combustion flow field,
In the combustion flow field, thethesecond
secondlargest
largestinfluencing
influencingfactor
factorofof pressure
pressure fluc-
fluctu-
tuation is the macroscopic fluctuation caused by the flow field structure. After the
ation is the macroscopic fluctuation caused by the flow field structure. After the inlet airinlet
enters the combustion chamber through a multi-stage swirler and undergoes swirl action,
the resulting flow field exhibits non-uniform distribution, generating fluctuations. To an-
alyze the influence of the internal flow field structure on DP, the DP signal in the cold
state combustion chamber without ignition is analyzed. Taking Group A as an example,
after filtering the original signal and then performing FFT calculations, its dimensionless
 Figure 10. CH* pulsation frequency variation.

Energies 2024, 17, 4164 5.1.2. Cold State Pressure Signal Analysis 10 of 19
In the combustion flow field, the second largest influencing factor of pressure fluctu-
ation is the macroscopic fluctuation caused by the flow field structure. After the inlet air
enters
air the the
enters combustion
combustionchamber through
chamber a multi-stage
through swirler
a multi-stage and undergoes
swirler swirl action,
and undergoes swirl
the resulting
action, flow field
the resulting flowexhibits non-uniform
field exhibits distribution,
non-uniform generating
distribution, fluctuations.
generating To an-
fluctuations.
alyze
To the influence
analyze of the
the influence internal
of the flow
internal flowfield structure
field structureononDP,
DP,the
theDP
DP signal
signal in the cold
cold
state combustion
state combustion chamberchamber without
without ignition
ignition is is analyzed.
analyzed. Taking
Taking Group A as an an example,
example,
after filtering
after filtering thethe original
original signal
signal and
and then
then performing
performing FFT FFT calculations,
calculations, its
its dimensionless
dimensionless
spectrum is
spectrum is shown
shown in Figure 11 below. ItIt can canbe beseen
seenfrom
fromthe
thefigure
figurethat
thatthere
thereexists
existsa
adominant
dominantfluctuation
fluctuationfrequency
frequency near
near5050HzHz in in
thethe
low-frequency
low-frequency part, which
part, whichmaymaybe be
re-
related
lated totothetheinherent
inherentcharacteristics
characteristicsofofthe
thecombustion
combustionchamber.
chamber.

Figure11.
Figure 11. Cold
Cold state
stateDP
DPspectrum
spectrumof
ofGroup
GroupA.
A.

Following
Following thetheabove-mentioned
above-mentionedmethod,method, thethe results
results of the
of the changes
changes in dominant
in the the dominant fluc-
fluctuation frequency
tuation frequency caused
caused by flow
by flow field structure
field structure fluctuations
fluctuations in otherinworking
other working condi-
conditions are
tions are shown in Figure 12. It can be observed that as the inlet air mass flow
shown in Figure 12. It can be observed that as the inlet air mass flow rate increases, the domi- rate increases,
the
nantdominant fluctuation
fluctuation frequencyfrequency
of DP in oftheDP in state
cold the cold state gradually
gradually increases;increases;
at the same at the same
time, this
Energies 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW
time, this frequency change deviates from a linear increase with the inlet air mass 11 of
flow 20
rate.
frequency change deviates from a linear increase with the inlet air mass flow rate. The changes
The changes in the dominant frequency of the cold state DP under different
in the dominant frequency of the cold state DP under different inlet airflow rates are approx- inlet airflow
rates are consistent
imately approximatelywith consistent
the changes with the dominant
in the changes influctuation
the dominant fluctuation
frequency of thefrequency
2nd IMF
of the 2nd IMF
mentioned mentioned
above, indicatingabove, indicating
that the 2nd IMFthat the 2nd
contains macroIMFfluctuation
contains macro fluctuation
information about
information about the cold state flow field structure
the cold state flow field structure at that specific airflow rate. at that specific airflow rate.

Figure 12.
Figure 12. Cold
Cold state
state DP
DP sub-dominant
sub-dominant frequency
frequency variation
variation with
with intake
intake flow
flow rate.
rate.

5.1.3.
5.1.3. Fire
Fire Frequency
Frequency Analysis
Analysis
Flame
Flame detachment isisone
detachment oneofof
thethe significant
significant factors
factors contributing
contributing to changes
to changes in DP. DP.
inDur-
During combustion, as the flame moves downstream with the main airflow,
ing combustion, as the flame moves downstream with the main airflow, its position grad- its posi-
tion
uallygradually
stretches,stretches,
leading toleading to flame detachment.
flame detachment. DetachmentDetachment alters theofposition
alters the position of
high-tem-
high-temperature clusters within the combustion chamber, resulting in an uneven spatial
perature clusters within the combustion chamber, resulting in an uneven spatial temper-
temperature distribution and further causing DP variations. From a set of 150 frames
ature distribution and further causing DP variations. From a set of 150 frames capturing
capturing flame changes, 40 frames showing instances of flame detachment were selected.
flame changes, 40 frames showing instances of flame detachment were selected. It was
It was observed that the phenomenon of flame surface shedding occurred approximately
observed that the phenomenon of flame surface shedding occurred approximately twice,
twice, clearly indicating periodic alternations of light and dark in the reaction zone within
clearly indicating periodic alternations of light and dark in the reaction zone within the
the combustion chamber. The shooting frequency was 2000 Hz, with the frequency of
combustion chamber. The shooting frequency was 2000 Hz, with the frequency of occur-
occurrence estimated at about 2 × 2000/150 ≈ 26.7 Hz.
rence estimated at about 2 × 2000/150 ≈ 26.7 Hz.
After statistical analysis of the detachment frequencies for Groups B and C using the
After statistical analysis of the detachment frequencies for Groups B and C using the
above method, it was found that during CI states, the detachment frequency fluctuates
above method, it was found that during CI states, the detachment frequency fluctuates
around 29 Hz and 35 Hz, indicating that the flame detachment frequency increases with the
around 29 Hz and 35 Hz, indicating that the flame detachment frequency increases with
increase in inlet air mass flow rate during CI states. This change pattern is consistent with
the fluctuation
the increase in frequency
inlet air mass flow in
changes rate
DP during CI3rd
signal’s states.
IMFThis change
during pattern issuggesting
combustion, consistent
withthe
that thevariations
fluctuation frequency
in the 3rd IMFchanges
contain in DP signal’s
information on3rd
the IMF during
patterns combustion,
of flame sug-
detachment.
gesting that the variations in the 3rd IMF contain information on the patterns of flame
detachment.

5.2. Analysis of Numerical Simulation Results for Centrally Swirler Stage Combustor
In the combustor, there exist complex fluctuation characteristics. This paper employs
Energies 2024, 17, 4164 11 of 19

5.2. Analysis of Numerical Simulation Results for Centrally Swirler Stage Combustor
In the combustor, there exist complex fluctuation characteristics. This paper employs
the Proper Orthogonal Decomposition (POD) method to decompose the results of numerical
simulations. Due to the axisymmetric structure of the combustor, for the convenience of
data analysis, only the two-dimensional map distributed along the axial direction of the
combustor is recorded. As shown in Figure 13a, the diagrams represent the first two orders
of POD decomposition pulsation characteristics. On the left is the result of the first-order
Energies 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 20
mode, where a distinct axial pulsation characteristic along the central axis of the combustion
chamber can be observed. On the right is the result of the second-order mode, primarily
characterized by the pulsation of flame tail edge curling upstream. In Figure 13b, which
frequency
presents the of spectrum
the heat release rate analyzed
of the first-order modein of Section
the POD5.1.1 of the experimental
decomposition of the heatresults.
release
Similarly,
field withinthethephase diagram at
combustion this shear
chamber, layer
it is position
evident thatalso exhibits
there small-scale
is a dominant fluctua-
fluctuation
frequency
tion around of
characteristics 33the
Hzflame.
and another
Near thearound
central180 Hz. Based
position on axis
along the the analysis presented
of the combustion
earlier, the
chamber, thefluctuation
frequencycharacteristic
distribution at 33 Hz could
is primarily be relatedby
dominated tolow
the phenomenon
frequencies ofof33flame
Hz.
detachment, while the fluctuation characteristic at 180 Hz should be associated
From the phase diagram, it can be observed that near the central axis, there is an influence with the
fluctuations
of large-scalein the flame’s
structures heat release
in space, rate.
causing disturbances to be in phase over a wide area.

(a)

(b)
Figure
Figure13.
13.POD
PODanalysis
analysisresults
resultsof
ofheat
heatrelease
release field:
field: (a)
(a) characteristic
characteristic of first−ordermodal
of first−order modalpulsation
pulsation
(left)
(left)and
andcharacteristic
characteristic of
of second−order
second−ordermodal
modalpulsation
pulsation(right);
(right); (b)
(b)the
thefirst−order
first−ordermodal
modalspectrum.
spectrum.

To further analyze the related characteristics of these two fluctuation signals’ infor-
mation, image FFT processing was applied to this heat release field. Figure 14 shows the
frequency and phase diagrams of the FFT. Near the flame shear layer, where chemical
reactions are most intense, there exist strong fluctuations in the heat release rate. It can be
seen from the frequency diagram that the fluctuation frequency at the position of the flame
shear layer is mainly around 150 Hz, which is consistent with the dominant fluctuation
frequency of the heat release rate analyzed in Section 5.1.1 of the experimental results.
Similarly, the phase diagram at this shear layer position also exhibits small-scale fluctuation
characteristics of the flame. Near the central position along the axis of the combustion
chamber, the frequency (a) distribution is primarily dominated by low (b) frequencies of 33 Hz.
From the phase diagram, it can be observed that near the central axis, there is an influence
Figure 14. FFT results of heat release field: (a) frequency diagram; (b) phase diagram.
of large-scale structures in space, causing disturbances to be in phase over a wide area.
5.2.1. Analysis of Heat Release Rate Characteristics
For the flame shear layer region where the primary chemical reactions occur, POD
decomposition is conducted as shown in Figure 15a. It can be seen from Figure 15b that
in this heat release area, its dominant fluctuation frequency is mainly around 180 Hz,
which is not significantly different from the dominant fluctuation frequency of CH* ob-
tained from experiments, indirectly verifying that the 1st IMF fluctuation component of
DP can represent the characteristics of changes in heat release rate fluctuations. The most
 (b)
Energies 2024, 17, 4164 12 of 19
Figure 13. POD analysis results of heat release field: (a) characteristic of first−order modal pulsation
(left) and characteristic of second−order modal pulsation (right); (b) the first−order modal spectrum.

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure14.
14.FFT
FFTresults
resultsof
ofheat
heatrelease
releasefield:
field: (a)
(a)frequency
frequencydiagram;
diagram; (b)
(b) phase
phase diagram.
diagram.

5.2.1.Analysis
5.2.1. Analysisof ofHeat
HeatRelease
ReleaseRate
RateCharacteristics
Characteristics
Forthe
For the flame
flameshear
shearlayer
layerregion
regionwhere
wherethe the primary
primarychemical
chemicalreactions
reactionsoccur,
occur, POD
POD
decomposition is conducted as shown in Figure 15a. It can be seen from
decomposition is conducted as shown in Figure 15a. It can be seen from Figure 15b that Figure 15b that in
this heat release area, its dominant fluctuation frequency is mainly
in this heat release area, its dominant fluctuation frequency is mainly around 180 Hz,around 180 Hz, which
is not is
which significantly different
not significantly from the
different fromdominant fluctuation
the dominant frequency
fluctuation of CH*
frequency obtained
of CH* ob-
from experiments, indirectly verifying that the 1st IMF fluctuation
tained from experiments, indirectly verifying that the 1st IMF fluctuation component component of DP can
of
represent
DP the characteristics
can represent of changes
the characteristics in heat release
of changes in heatrate fluctuations.
release The most The
rate fluctuations. important
most
source of pressure
important source offluctuations in the combustion
pressure fluctuations flow fieldflow
in the combustion is the instantaneous
field pressure
is the instantaneous
change when premixed gas micro-clusters undergo intense chemical
pressure change when premixed gas micro-clusters undergo intense chemical reactions reactions (combustion),
constituting a constituting
(combustion), monopole source term. The
a monopole entire
source combustion
term. The entire zone contains azone
combustion largecontains
number
a large number of high heat release rate micro-clusters forming a composite pressuresource
of high heat release rate micro-clusters forming a composite pressure fluctuation fluc-
term. The coupling of heat release rate fluctuations with pressure fluctuations may lead to
an increase in combustion instability, resulting in thermoacoustic oscillations that affect the
normal operation of the combustion chamber.

(a)

(b)
FigureFigure
15. POD
15. results of local
POD results heat heat
of local release field:
release (a) local
field: analysis
(a) local area;
analysis (b)(b)
area; first-order
first-ordermodal
modalspec-
spectrum.
trum.
5.2.2. Analysis of Flame Detachment Characteristics
5.2.2. Analysis of Flame
To further Detachment
understand Characteristics
the main fluctuation characteristics in the region near the central
axis, POD decomposition was performed
To further understand the main fluctuation oncharacteristics
the local area ofinthe
theheat
regionrelease
nearfield as shown
the cen-
in Figure
tral axis, 16a, and its first-order
POD decomposition mode on
was performed spectrum is area
the local displayed in Figure
of the heat release16b.
fieldFrom
as the
shown spectrum,
in Figureit16a,
can and
be observed that the
its first-order dominant
mode fluctuation
spectrum frequency
is displayed in Figurein this
16b.area
Fromis 29 Hz,
which isitquite
the spectrum, can beconsistent
observedwith the dominant
that the detachment frequency
fluctuation mentioned
frequency earlier,
in this indirectly
area is 29
verifying that the 3rd IMF fluctuation component of DP can represent
Hz, which is quite consistent with the detachment frequency mentioned earlier, indirectly the fluctuation
characteristics
verifying that the 3rdofIMFthefluctuation
flame detachment
component phenomenon. There are
of DP can represent many reasons
the fluctuation char-for the
acteristics of the flame detachment phenomenon. There are many reasons for the occur- due
occurrence of this flame surface shedding, including the stretching of the flame surface
rence of this flame surface shedding, including the stretching of the flame surface due to
the action of swirl shear on the mainstream air, the uneven distribution of air density
caused by pressure fluctuation changes further feeding back to the pressure fluctuation
mechanism, making the flame surface discontinuous, and the effect of recirculation zones
on the flame surface, among others.
 tral axis, POD decomposition was performed on the local area of the heat release field as
shown in Figure 16a, and its first-order mode spectrum is displayed in Figure 16b. From
the spectrum, it can be observed that the dominant fluctuation frequency in this area is 29
Hz, which is quite consistent with the detachment frequency mentioned earlier, indirectly
Energies 2024, 17, 4164
verifying that the 3rd IMF fluctuation component of DP can represent the fluctuation char-13 of 19
acteristics of the flame detachment phenomenon. There are many reasons for the occur-
rence of this flame surface shedding, including the stretching of the flame surface due to
to theofaction
the action swirlof swirlon
shear shear
the on the mainstream
mainstream air, theair, the uneven
uneven distribution
distribution of air of air density
density
caused by pressure fluctuation changes further feeding back to the pressure
caused by pressure fluctuation changes further feeding back to the pressure fluctuation fluctuation
mechanism,
mechanism, making making the flame
the flame surface
surface discontinuous,
discontinuous, and
and the the effect
effect of recirculation
of recirculation zoneszones
on the flame surface, among
on the flame surface, among others. others.

(a)

(b)
FigureFigure
16. POD
16.results of local
POD results heat release
of local field:field:
heat release (a) local analysis
(a) local area;
analysis (b)(b)
area; first-order
first-ordermodal
modalspec-
spectrum.
trum.
5.2.3. Cold State Characteristic Analysis
To further explore the characteristics of macro fluctuations in the cold state flow field
structure, Large Eddy Simulation (LES) calculations were conducted on the centrally swirler
stage combustor. Since large-scale vortex structures might be generated by swirling action,
POD analysis was applied to the vorticity field, λ2 criterion vortex structure, and Q criterion
vortex structure near the central axis at the outlet of the swirler, as shown in Figure 17a.
The first-order mode spectrum diagrams are shown in Figure 17b–d. From these, it can
be seen that all three different vortex structure identification methods exhibit a dominant
fluctuation frequency around 44 Hz. It is believed that this macro fluctuation structure
is caused by the PVC structure formed when the inlet air passes through the swirl vanes
and is subjected to swirl shear. Thus, it is verified that the 2nd IMF fluctuation component
of DP contains the PVC fluctuation characteristics of the cold state flow field in the swirl
combustion chamber under that airflow rate.
To gain a more intuitive understanding of the structural characteristics related to PVC,
Figure 18 shows a schematic diagram of the PVC structure in the cold state flow field for the
calculated operating condition. It starts from the outlet of the swirler and spirals around
the central axis of the combustion chamber, extending downstream and gradually breaking
up. In this structure, the direction of the spiral winding is opposite to the direction of the
swirl (the same applies to axial and radial swirlers). However, the precession direction of
the entire structure is the same as the global rotation direction of the flow. In summary,
the cold state flow field is dominated by the fluid dynamics mode (PVC), with acoustics
playing no role [33].
 these, it can be seen that all three different vortex structure identification methods exhibit
a dominant fluctuation frequency around 44 Hz. It is believed that this macro fluctuation
structure is caused by the PVC structure formed when the inlet air passes through the
swirl vanes and is subjected to swirl shear. Thus, it is verified that the 2nd IMF fluctuation
Energies 2024, 17, 4164
component of DP contains the PVC fluctuation characteristics of the cold state flow field 14 of 19
in the swirl combustion chamber under that airflow rate.

(a)

(b)

(c)

Energies 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 20

To gain a more intuitive understanding of the structural characteristics related to

PVC, Figure 18 shows a schematic diagram of the PVC structure in the cold state flow field
for the calculated operating condition. It starts from the outlet of the swirler and spirals
around the central axis of the combustion chamber, extending downstream and gradually
(d)
breaking up. In this structure, the direction of the spiral winding is opposite to the direc-
tion
Figure ofPOD
17. the
Figure 17.swirl
POD (the
results
resultssame
of local applies
of vortex
local vortex tostructure
structure axial and
in cold radial
flow
in cold swirlers).
field:
flow (a) (a)
field: local However,
analysis
local the
area;
analysis precession
(b)
area; first-
(b) first-order
direction
order modal of the entire
modalspectrum
spectrum structure
ofofvorticity field;
vorticity is
field; the
(c)(c) same as
first-order the
modal
first-order global
modalspectrum rotation
spectrum of the 2λ2criterion;
direction
of the of the
criterion;(d) flow.
(d)first- In
first-order
summary,
modal the cold
spectrum ofstate
the Q flow field
criterion.
order modal spectrum of the Q criterion. is dominated by the fluid dynamics mode (PVC), with
acoustics playing no role [33].

(a) (b)
Figure 18.18.
Figure Schematic diagram
Schematic of PVC
diagram structure:
of PVC (a) (a)
structure: front view;
front (b)(b)
view; side view.
side view.

5.3. Experimental and Simulation Results Verification of Swirl Model Combustor

5.3.1. Analysis of Experimental Results
To further analyze the accuracy and universality of the above results, a verification
analysis was conducted on the experimental and numerical calculation results of the swirl
model combustor. The Empirical Mode Decomposition (EMD) method was also used to
process the pressure fluctuation signals, thereby decomposing the complex information
of multi-physical processes within the combustion chamber. Figure 19 shows the time-
 (a) (b)
Energies 2024, 17, 4164 15 of 19
Figure 18. Schematic diagram of PVC structure: (a) front view; (b) side view.

5.3. Experimental and Simulation Results Verification of Swirl Model Combustor

5.3. Experimental and Simulation Results Verification of Swirl Model Combustor
5.3.1.
5.3.1.Analysis
Analysisofof
Experimental
Experimental Results
Results
ToTo further analyze the accuracy
further analyze the accuracy and
anduniversality
universalityofof
the
theabove
above results,
results,a averification
verification
analysis was conducted on the experimental and numerical calculation
analysis was conducted on the experimental and numerical calculation results
resultsofof the swirl
the swirl
model combustor. The Empirical Mode Decomposition (EMD) method
model combustor. The Empirical Mode Decomposition (EMD) method was also used was also used toto
process
processthethepressure
pressurefluctuation
fluctuationsignals,
signals, thereby
thereby decomposing
decomposing the the complex
complex information
informationof
ofmulti-physical
multi-physicalprocesses
processeswithin
withinthe combustion chamber. Figure 19 shows the the
the combustion chamber. Figure 19 shows time-
time-series
series signal and spectrum diagram of pressure fluctuations inside the combustion
signal and spectrum diagram of pressure fluctuations inside the combustion chamber under cham-
ber under
this this experimental
experimental condition.condition. From theitdiagram,
From the diagram, it can be
can be observed observed
that under this thatcondition,
under
this condition, the combustion is in a stable state, and there exists a dominant fluctuation
the combustion is in a stable state, and there exists a dominant fluctuation frequency with
frequency with low amplitude.
low amplitude.

（a）

(b）
Figure 19.19.
Figure DP timing
DP signal
timing and
signal spectrum:
and (a)(a)
spectrum: timing signal;
timing (b)(b)
signal; spectrum.
spectrum.

After performing EMD decomposition, the energy is also concentrated in the first
three orders, with the dominant frequency and amplitude of other order components being
very small. The waveforms and spectra of the first three order components are shown in
Figure 20, with the time-series signals and their corresponding spectrum diagrams for the
1st–3rd IMFs displayed from top to bottom. The waveform and spectrum of the 1st IMF are
quite similar to those of the undecomposed DP signal, and the dominant frequency remains
consistent, still representing the main characteristics of the original signal; the waveform
of the 2nd IMF does not change significantly, but its fluctuation amplitude is noticeably
reduced, with the fluctuation energy mainly concentrated in a wider band near 151 Hz;
both the fluctuation amplitude and dominant frequency of the 3rd IMF are further reduced,
mainly concentrated in a band near 74 Hz. Compared with the EMD results of the centrally
swirler stage combustor, due to changes in the combustion chamber’s geometric structure,
the dominant frequencies of each order component have changed, but the patterns and
trends of changes from the 1st–3rd IMFs are consistent. It can also be considered that
these three components obtained after EMD decomposition possess relative independence,
corresponding to the three physical processes described above. The 1st IMF fluctuation
component represents the characteristic changes in heat release rate fluctuations; the 2nd
IMF represents the macro fluctuation information of the cold state flow field structure
under that airflow rate, while the changes in the 3rd IMF contain information related to
flame detachment.
 considered that these three components obtained after EMD decomposition possess rela-
tive independence, corresponding to the three physical processes described above. The
1st IMF fluctuation component represents the characteristic changes in heat release rate
fluctuations; the 2nd IMF represents the macro fluctuation information of the cold state
Energies 2024, 17, 4164 16 of 19
flow field structure under that airflow rate, while the changes in the 3rd IMF contain in-
formation related to flame detachment.

(a)

(b)

(c)
Figure
Figure 20.
20. Time
Timedomain
domainandandfrequency
frequencydomain
domainof ofvarious
variouscomponents
componentsof ofDP
DPin
in the
the swirl
swirl model
model
combustor:
combustor:(a) (a)time
timedomain
domainsignal
signalof
of1st
1stIMF
IMF(left)
(left)and
andfrequency
frequencydomain
domainsignal
signalof
of1st
1stIMF
IMF(right);
(right);
(b)
(b) time
time domain
domainsignal
signalof
of2nd
2ndIMF
IMF (left)
(left) and
and frequency
frequency domain
domainsignal
signalof
of2nd
2ndIMF
IMF(right);
(right);(c)
(c) time
time
domain signal of 3rd IMF (left) and frequency domain signal of 3rd IMF (right).
domain signal of 3rd IMF (left) and frequency domain signal of 3rd IMF (right).

5.3.2.
5.3.2.Analysis
Analysisof ofNumerical
NumericalCalculation
CalculationResults
Results
Based on the conclusions
Based on the conclusions drawn from the centrally
from the centrallyswirler
swirlerstage
stagecombustor,
combustor,each each or-
order
der component
component of the
of the EMDEMD decomposition
decomposition cancan correspond
correspond to atocertain
a certain physical
physical character-
characteristic.
istic.
FigureFigure 21 shows
21 shows the spectrum
the spectrum diagram
diagram obtained
obtained fromfromPODPOD processing
processing of specific
of specific local
local
areasareas
in theinheat
the heat release
release field field and cold
and cold statestate vorticity
vorticity fieldfield calculated
calculated numerically.
numerically. The
The 1st IMF
1st IMF represents
represents the fluctuation
the fluctuation characteristics
characteristics of theofheat
the release
heat release rate, mainly
rate, mainly re-
reflected
in the dominant
flected fluctuation
in the dominant frequency
fluctuation of regions
frequency undergoing
of regions intense
undergoing chemical
intense reactions.
chemical re-
Therefore, POD decomposition was performed on the heat release field
actions. Therefore, POD decomposition was performed on the heat release field in the in the flame shear
layer shear
flame area as shown
layer areainasthe left image
shown of Figure
in the left image 21a, with its
of Figure 21a,first-order mode spectrum
with its first-order mode
shown on the right. It can be seen that there is a dominant frequency near 314 Hz, which is
quite close to the 315 Hz dominant fluctuation frequency of the 1st IMF. This further verifies
that the 1st IMF component can somewhat represent the fluctuation characteristics of the
heat release rate in the swirl combustion chamber. Similarly, local POD was performed on
the cold state criterion vortex structure field and heat release field containing large-scale
PVC vortex structures, also yielding spectrum diagrams with a clear dominant fluctuation
frequency for both, as shown on the right in Figure 21b,c, corresponding to the cold state
characteristics and flame detachment fluctuation characteristics of the 2nd IMF and 3rd
IMF, respectively.
Figure 22 shows the dominant frequencies of each order component for both the
centrally swirler stage combustor and the swirl model combustor under experimental
and simulation results. It can be observed from the figure that as the order increases,
the dominant frequency gradually decreases for both types of combustion chambers, and
the numerical calculation results are in good agreement with the experimental results,
verifying the accuracy and universality of the EMD components corresponding to different
physical characteristics.
 acteristics of the heat release rate in the swirl combustion chamber. Similarly, local POD
was performed on the cold state criterion vortex structure field and heat release field con-
taining large-scale PVC vortex structures, also yielding spectrum diagrams with a clear
dominant fluctuation frequency for both, as shown on the right in Figure 21b,c, corre-
Energies 2024, 17, 4164 17 of 19
sponding to the cold state characteristics and flame detachment fluctuation characteristics
of the 2nd IMF and 3rd IMF, respectively.

(a)

(b)

(c)
Figure
Figure21.
21.Numerical
Numericalresult
resultspectrums
spectrumsofofphysical
physicalcharacteristics
characteristics of
ofswirl
swirlmodel
modelcombustor:
combustor: (a)
(a)heat
heat
Energies 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW
release characteristic dominant frequency; (b) cold state characteristic dominant frequency; (c)18flame
of 20
release characteristic dominant frequency; (b) cold state characteristic dominant frequency; (c) flame
detachment
detachmentcharacteristics
characteristics main
main frequency.
frequency.

Figure 22 shows the dominant frequencies of each order component for both the cen-
trally swirler stage combustor and the swirl model combustor under experimental and
simulation results. It can be observed from the figure that as the order increases, the dom-
inant frequency gradually decreases for both types of combustion chambers, and the nu-
merical calculation results are in good agreement with the experimental results, verifying
the accuracy and universality of the EMD components corresponding to different physical
characteristics.

Figure 22.
Figure 22. Comparison
Comparison of
of experimental
experimental and
and simulation
simulation results
resultsof
oftwo
twocombustors.
combustors.

6.
6. Conclusions
Conclusions
This
This paper
paperfocuses
focuseson ontwo
twotypes
types ofof
swirl combustion
swirl combustion chambers
chambers as the research
as the objects.
research ob-
Through experiments and numerical calculations, and by utilizing
jects. Through experiments and numerical calculations, and by utilizing methods such methods such as EMD, as
FFT,
EMD, and POD,
FFT, andthe pulsation
POD, characteristics
the pulsation withinwithin
characteristics the swirl
the combustion
swirl combustionchamber were
chamber
studied.
were studied.It was discovered
It was thatthat
discovered the the
third-order
third-ordermode
mode of of
thetheDP DPsignal’s
signal’sEMD
EMDin in the
the
combustion
combustionchamberchambercould couldcorrespond
correspondtotothree
threedifferent
differentphysical
physical pulsation
pulsationcharacteristics,
characteris-
leading to thetofollowing
tics, leading conclusions:
the following conclusions:
(1) The 1st IMF can represent
(1) The 1st IMF can represent the the pulsation
pulsation characteristics
characteristics ofof the
the heat
heat release
release rate,
rate, mainly
mainly
reflected in the flame shear zone of the heat release rate field in numerical
reflected in the flame shear zone of the heat release rate field in numerical calcula- calculations;
(2) The tions;2nd IMF can represent the pulsation characteristics of airflow swirl, primarily
(2) Themanifested
2nd IMF in can
the swirl vortex
represent thestructure
pulsation region of the vorticity
characteristics field; swirl, primarily
of airflow
(3) The 3rd IMF can represent the pulsation characteristics of
manifested in the swirl vortex structure region of the vorticity field; flame detachment, mainly
(3) Theevident
3rd inIMF thecan
flame detachment
represent zone of the
the pulsation heat releaseofrate
characteristics field.
flame detachment, mainly
evident in the flame detachment zone of the heat release rate field.
The conclusions of this study possess a certain degree of universality. In the experi-
ments and numerical results from another swirl model combustor, the third-order mode
of EMD was also found to correspond to three different physical pulsation characteristics.
This further validates the accuracy of these results.
Energies 2024, 17, 4164 18 of 19

The conclusions of this study possess a certain degree of universality. In the experi-
ments and numerical results from another swirl model combustor, the third-order mode
of EMD was also found to correspond to three different physical pulsation characteristics.
This further validates the accuracy of these results.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, C.L. and Y.L.; methodology, X.G. and X.Z.; writing—original
draft, C.L.; resources, Y.L.; formal analysis, C.L. and X.G.; investigation, C.Y. and X.G.; project administra-
tion, Y.L.; software, X.Z.; supervision, Y.L. and X.Z.; validation, X.Z. and C.L.; writing—review and editing,
Y.L. and C.L. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the National Science and Technology Major Project, grant
number J2022-III-0007-0016.
Data Availability Statement: The original contributions presented in this study are included in the
article material; further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding authors.
Conflicts of Interest: Author Chongyang Liu was employed by the company Sichuan Gas Turbine
Establishment, Aero Engine Corporation of China. The remaining authors declare that the research
was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as
a potential conflict of interest.

References
1. Zhao, J. Pollutant Emission and Development of Low-Emission Combustion Technology for Civil Aero Engine. J. Aerosp. Power
2008, 23, 986–996. (In Chinese)
2. Zhang, C. The Mechanism and Control for Combustion Instabilities of Aeroengine Afterburner. Ph.D. Thesis, Beijing University
of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Beijing, China, 2010. (In Chinese)
3. Huang, L. Investigation on the Mechanism of Combustion Oscillation in a LPP Combustor. Master’s Thesis, Nanjing University
of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Nanjing, China, 2017. (In Chinese)
4. Yan, H.; Zhang, S.; Yu, X.; Li, F.; Lin, X. Flame Structure and Dynamics Characters Investigation by OH and CH2O Planar
Laser-Induced Fluorescence in the Swirl Combustor. J. Aerosp. Power 2019, 34, 894–907. (In Chinese)
5. Liu, T. Numerical Simulation Study on Performances of Swirl Burners in Aero-engine Combustors. Master’s Thesis, Tianjin
University, Tianjin, China, 2017. (In Chinese)
6. He, Z.; Wang, P.; Murugesan, M.; Ferrante, A.; Li, W.; Jiang, L. Experimental Investigation on Thermoacoustic Oscillation of a
New Dual-Swirl Combustor. J. Exp. Fluid Mech. 2021, 35, 44–52. (In Chinese)
7. Lieuwen, T.C.; Yang, V. Combustion Instabilities in Gas Turbine Engines: Operational Experience, Fundamental Mechanisms, and
Modeling; American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics: Reston, VA, USA, 2005.
8. Syred, N. A Review of Oscillation Mechanisms and the Role of the Precessing Vortex Core (PVC) in Swirl Combustion Systems.
Prog. Energy Combust. Sci. 2006, 32, 93–161. [CrossRef]
9. Renard, P.H.; Thévenin, D.; Rolon, J.C.; Candel, S. Dynamics of Flame/Vortex Interactions. Prog. Energy Combust. Sci. 2000, 26,
225–282. [CrossRef]
10. Candel, S.; Durox, D.; Schuller, T.; Bourgouin, J.F.; Moeck, J.P. Dynamics of Swirling Flames. Annu. Rev. Fluid Mech. 2013, 46,
147–161. [CrossRef]
11. Lucca-Negro, O.; O’Doherty, T. Vortex Breakdown: A Review. Prog. Energy Combust. Sci. 2001, 27, 431–481. [CrossRef]
12. Hall, M.G. Vortex Breakdown. Annu. Rev. Fluid Mech. 1972, 4, 195–218. [CrossRef]
13. Billant, P.; Chomaz, J.M.; Huerre, P. Experimental Study of Vortex Breakdown in Swirling Jets. J. Fluid Mech. 1998, 376, 183–219.
[CrossRef]
14. Shtork, S.I.; Cala, C.E.; Fernandes, E.C.; Heitor, M.V. Coherent Helical Structures in Swirl Flows. Tech. Phys. Lett. 2005, 31, 660–662.
[CrossRef]
15. Buschhagen, T.; Gejji, R.; Philo, J.; Tran, L.; Enrique Portillo Bilbao, J.; Slabaugh, C.D. Experimental Investigation of Self-Excited
Combustion Instabilities in a Lean, Premixed, Gas Turbine Combustor at High Pressure. J. Eng. Gas Turbines Power 2018, 140,
111503. [CrossRef]
16. Worth, N.A.; Dawson, J.R. Effect of Equivalence Ratio on the Modal Dynamics of Azimuthal Combustion Instabilities. Proc.
Combust. Inst. 2017, 36, 3743–3751. [CrossRef]
17. Khalil, A.E.E.; Gupta, A.K. Acoustic and Heat Release Signatures for Swirl Assisted Distributed Combustion. Appl. Energy 2017,
193, 125–138. [CrossRef]
18. Matsuura, K.; Eguchi, T.; Oide, S.; Yamada, H.; Kurosawa, Y.; Yamamoto, T.; Hayashi, S. Simultaneous Kerosene/OH LIF
Visualization Inside the Pre-Mixing Duct and Combustion Chamber of a Lean Staged Aero-Engine Combustor under Combustion
Oscillations at Elevated Pressure and Temperature. In Proceedings of the 51st AIAA/SAE/ASEE Joint Propulsion Conference,
Orlando, FL, USA, 27–29 July 2015.
Energies 2024, 17, 4164 19 of 19

19. Wang, X.; Liu, Y.; Zhang, X.; Yang, C.; Li, H. Characteristic analysis of dynamic pressure signal of unstable combustion in central
staged swirl combustor. J. Aerosp. Power 2023, 38, 2883–2894. (In Chinese)
20. Nori, V.N.; Seitzman, J.M. CH∗ Chemiluminescence Modeling for Combustion Diagnostics. Proc. Combust. Inst. 2009, 32, 895–903.
[CrossRef]
21. Yang, C.; Liu, Y.; Zhang, X.; Li, H.; Ge, X.; Jin, F.; Liu, C. Experimental Study on Flame Response Characteristics of a Non-Premixed
Swirl Model Combustor. Energies 2023, 16, 6834. [CrossRef]
22. Li, D.; Xia, G.; Sankaran, V.; Merkle, C. Computational Framework for Complex Fluids Applications. In Proceedings of the 3rd
International Conference on Computational Fluid Dynamics, Berlin, Germany, 12–16 July 2004.
23. Oijen, J.A.V.; Goey, L.P.H.D. Modelling of Premixed Laminar Flames using Flamelet-Generated Manifolds. Combust. Seience
Technol. 2000, 161, 113–137. [CrossRef]
24. Huang, N.E.; Shen, Z.; Long, S.R.; Wu, M.C.; Shih, H.H.; Zheng, Q.; Yen, N.; Tung, C.; Liu, H.H. The Empirical Mode
Decomposition and the Hilbert Spectrum for Nonlinear and Non-Stationary Time Series Analysis. Proc. R. Soc. London. Ser. A
Math. Phys. Eng. Sci. 1998, 454, 903–995. [CrossRef]
25. Du, J. Hilbert Huang Transform and lts Application in Feature Extraction. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Science and Technology
Beijing, Beijing, China, 2017. (In Chinese)
26. Ge, X.; Hu, J.; Ning, J.; Zhou, H.; Wang, S. Diagnostic Model Based on EMD-HMM and Its Application. Math. Pract. Theory 2012,
42, 138–144. (In Chinese)
27. Shen, Y.; Zhang, X.; Wang, Z. Spacecraft fault diagnosis based on empirical mode decomposition and directed factor graph. J.
Harbin Inst. Technol. 2013, 45, 19–24. (In Chinese)
28. Wang, X.; Han, X.; Sung, C. Transitions of thermoacoustic modesandflamedynamicsina centrally-staged swirl combustor. Energy
2023, 263, 125813. [CrossRef]
29. Fu, P.; Wen, Q.; Hou, L.; Li, J.; Ma, H. Interaction among flame structures and thermoacoustic instabilities in a centrally staged
combustor. Appl. Therm. Eng. 2024, 254, 123862. [CrossRef]
30. Liu, Y.; Li, J.; Han, Q.; Yan, Y. Study of combustion oscillation mechanism and flame image processing. AIAA J./AIAA J. Disc. 2019,
57, 824–835. [CrossRef]
31. Higham, J.; Brevis, W.; Keylock, C. Implications of the selection of a particular modal decomposition technique for the analysis of
shallow flows. J. Hydraul. Res. 2018, 56, 796–805. [CrossRef]
32. Lai, A.; Liu, Y.; Fu, Y.; Yan, Y. Image Processing of Combustion Oscillating Flame. J. Combust. Sci. Technol. 2020, 26, 10–17.
(In Chinese)
33. Selle, L.; Benoit, L.; Poinsot, T.; Nicoud, F.; Krebs, W. Joint Use of Compressible Large-Eddy Simulation and Helmholtz Solvers for
the Analysis of Rotating Modes in an Industrial Swirled Burner. Combust. Flame 2006, 145, 194–205. [CrossRef]

Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual
author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to
people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.