Seminar 2

1. Neutral vocabulary.

Neutral words, which form the bulk of the English vocabulary, are used in both literary and
colloquial language. Neutral words are the main source of synonymy and polysemy. It is the neutral
stock of words that is so prolific in the production of new meanings.
Neutral words are characterized by the following points:
- they can be used in any style of speech without causing a special stylistic effect
- they can be used not only in written speech which abounds in literary words but also in colloquial
speech without causing any stylistic effect
- they are generally devoid of any emotional meaning, unless special means are employed for this
purpose.

Neutral words have a monosyllabic character as in the progress of development from Old English to
Modern English most of the parts of speech lost their distinguishing suffixes. This phenomenon has
led to the development of conversion as the most productive means of word-building or word
derivation where a word is formed because of a shift in the part of speech. Unlike all other groups
of words the neutral words have NO SPECIAL STYLISTIC COLORING.

2. Literary vocabulary:
Literary vocabulary refers to words and phrases typically found in formal writing, especially in
literature, essays, and other forms of sophisticated or artistic expression. Here's a breakdown:
Characteristics of Literary Vocabulary:
- formality: Unlike colloquial language, literary vocabulary is often more formal and refined. It’s
chosen to evoke specific tones, moods, or atmospheres.
- complexity: Literary words are often more complex, both in structure and meaning. They might
include advanced or specialized terms, like "melancholy" instead of "sadness."
- richness and precision: The vocabulary is rich and precise, often chosen to convey specific nuances
and detailed imagery. For example, using "serene" to describe a peaceful scene rather than just
"calm."
- figurative language: Literary language frequently employs figurative language such as metaphors,
similes, and personification. An example might be, "The wind whispered through the trees," instead
of just saying, "The wind blew."

1) bookish words/common literary

Common literary words are chiefly used in writing and in polished speech. One can always tell a
literary word from a colloquial one. The reason for this lies in certain objective features of the
Special Literary Vocabulary terms Nonce -words Foreignisms Barbarisms Archaic words Poetic
words Neutral words Common Literary Vocabulary Special colloquial vocabulary Common literary
vocabulary Common colloquial vocabulary Professio nalisms slang Nonce -words jargon vulgarisms
dialectisms literary layer of words, that is why literary unite always stand in opposition to colloquial
units, forming pairs of synonyms.

Many general literary words in modern English have a clear-cut bookish character: concord,
adversary, divergence, volition, calamity, susceptibility, sojourn, etc. A lot of phraseological
combinations also belong to the general literary stratum: in accordance with, with regard to, by
virtue of, to speak at great length, to draw a lesson, to lend assistance. The primary stylistic
function of general literary words which appear in the speech of literary personages is to
characterize the person as pompous and verbose.

2) terms
Terms are generally associated with a definite branch of science and therefore with a series of
other terms belonging to that particular branch of science. They know no isolation; they always
come in clusters, either in a text on the subject to which they belong, or in special dictionaries
which, unlike general dictionaries, make a careful selection of terms. All these clusters of terms
form the nomenclature, or system of names, for the objects of study of any particular branch of
science.

Terms are characterized by a tendency to be monosemantic and therefore easily call forth the
required concept. Terms may appear in scientific style, newspaper style, publicistic style, the belles-
lettres style, etc. Terms no longer fulfill their basic function, that of bearing an exact reference to a
given notion or concept. The their function is either to indicate the technical peculiarities of the
subject dealt with, or to make some references to the occupation of a character whose language
would naturally contain special words and expressions. A term has a stylistic function when it is
used to create an atmosphere or to characterize a person.

3) poetic words
First of all poetic words belong to a definite style of language and perform in it their direct function.
If encountered in another style of speech, they assume a new function, mainly satirical, for the two
notions, poetry and prose, have been opposed to each other from time immemorial.

Poetic language has special means of communication, i.e. rhythmical arrangement, some
syntactical peculiarities and certain number of special words. The specific poetic vocabulary has a
marked tendency to detach itself from the common literary word stock and assume a special
significance. Poetic words claim to be, as it were, of higher rank.
Poetic words and ser expressions make the utterance understandable only to a limited number of
readers. It is mainly due to poeticisms that poetical language is sometimes called poetical jargon.

4) archaic words
The word stock of a language is in an increasing state of change. In every period in the development
of a literary language one can find words which will show more or less apparent changes in their
meaning or usage, from full vigour, through a moribund state, to death, i.e. complete
disappearance of the unit from the language.
We’ll distinguish 3 stages in the aging process of words:
1) the beginning of the aging process when the word becomes rarely used. Such words are called
obsolescent, i.e. they are in the stage of gradually passing out of general use;
2) The second group of archaic words are those that have already gone completely out of use but
are still recognized by the English speaking community. These words are called obsolete.
3) The third group, which may be called archaic proper, are words which are no longer recognized
in modern English, words that were in use in Old English and which have either dropped out of the
language entirely or have changed in their appearance so much that they have become
unrecognizable.

There is another class of words which is erroneously classed as archaic, historic words. Words of
this type never disappear from the language.
Archaic words are used in historical novels, in official and diplomatic documents, in business letters,
legal language, etc. Archaic words, word-forms and word combinations are also used to create an
elevated effect.

5) barbarism and foreign words

Barbarisms are words of foreign origin which have not entirely been assimilated into the English
language. They bear the appearance of a borrowing and are felt as something alien to the native
tongue. The great majority of the borrowed words now form part of the rank and file of the English
vocabulary. There are some words which retain their foreign appearance to greater or lesser
degree. These words, which are called barbarisms, are also considered to be on the outskirts of the
literary language. Most of them have corresponding English synonyms. Barbarisms are not made
conspicuous in the text unless they bear a special load of stylistic information.

Foreign words do not belong to the English vocabulary. In printed works foreign words and phrases
are generally italicized to indicate their alien nature or their stylistic value. There are foreign words
which fulfill a terminological function. Many foreign words and phrases have little by little entered
the class of words named barbarisms and many of these barbarisms have gradually lost their
foreign peculiarities, become more or less naturalized and have merged with the native English
stock of words.

Both foreign words and barbarisms are widely used in various styles of language with various aims,
aims which predetermine their typical functions. One of these functions is to supply local color.
Barbarisms and foreign words are used in various styles of writing, but are most often to be found
in the style of belles-lettres and the publicistic style.

6) literary coinages (neologisms)

Every period in the development of a language produces an enormous number of new words or
new meanings of established words. Most of them do not live long. They are coined for use at the
moment of speech, and therefore possess a peculiar property – that of temporariness. The given
word or meaning holds only in the given context and is meant only to “serve the occasion”.
However, a word or a meaning once fixed in writing may become part and parcel of the general
vocabulary irrespective of the quality of the word.

The coining of new words generally arises with the need to designate new concepts and also with
the need to express nuances of meaning called forth by a deeper understanding of the nature of
the phenomenon in question.
There are 2 types of newly coined words:
1) those which designate new-born concepts, may be named terminological coinages or
terminological neologisms;
2) words coined because their creators seek expressive utterance may be named stylistic coinages
or stylistic neologism.

Neologisms are mainly coined according to the productive models for word-building in the given
languages. Most of the literary coinages are built by means of affixation and word compounding.
3) Colloquial vocabulary:
1) common colloquial vocabulary
These are words or phrases commonly used in everyday, informal conversations rather than in
formal writing or speech. They are familiar to most people within a particular community or culture.
Characteristics:
- informality: Colloquial vocabulary is informal and often used in casual, everyday interactions. For
example, saying "gonna" instead of "going to."
- simple language: It often uses simpler, shorter words or phrases that are easy to understand, like
"kid" instead of "child."
- idiomatic expressions: Common colloquial vocabulary frequently includes idioms or phrases that
don't literally mean what they say, such as "break the ice" to mean starting a conversation.
- frequent usage: These words or phrases are commonly used and widely understood within the
community that uses them.
- contextual dependence: The meaning of colloquial terms can depend heavily on the context in
which they are used.

2) slang
The Oxford English Dictionary defines slang as “language of a highly colloquial style, considered as
below the level of standard educated speech, and consisting either of new words or of current
words employed in some special sense.”
All or most slang words are current words whose meanings have been metaphorically shifted. Each
slang metaphor is rooted in a joke, but not in a kind or amusing joke. This is the criterion for
distinguishing slang from colloquialisms: most slang words are metaphors and jocular, often with a
coarse, mocking, cynical colouring.

Then why do people use slang? For a number of reasons. To be picturesque, arresting, striking and,
above all, different from others. To demonstrate one’s spiritual independence and daring. To sound
“modern” and “up-to-date”.

3) professionalisms
Professionalisms are the words used in a definite trade, profession or calling by people connected
by common interests both at work or at home. Professional words name anew already existing
concepts, tools or instruments, and have the typical properties of a special code. Their main feature
is technicality. They are monosemantic.
Professionalisms do not aim at secrecy. They fulfill a socially useful function in communication,
facilitating a quick and adequate grasp of the message. Professionalisms are used in emotive prose
to depict the natural speech of a character. The skilful use of a professional word will show not only
the vocation of a character, but also his education, breeding, environment and sometimes even his
psychology.

4) jargonisms
Jargon is a recognized term for a group of words that exist in almost every language and whose aim
is to preserve secrecy within one or another social group. Jargonisms are generally old words with
entirely new meanings imposed on them. Most of the jargonisms of any language are absolutely
incomprehensible to those outside the social group which has invented them. They may be defined
as a code within a code. Jargonisms are social in character. In England and in the USA almost any
social group of people has its own jargon. There is a common jargon and special professional
jargons. Jargonisms do not always remain on the outskirts of the literary language. Many words
entered the standard vocabulary.

5) dialectal words
Dialectal words are those which in the process of integration of the English national language
remained beyond its literary boundaries, and their use is generally confined to a definite locality.
There sometimes is confusion between the terms dialectal, slang and vernacular. All these groups
when used in emotive prose are meant to characterize the speaker as a person of a certain locality,
breeding, education, etc.

Some dialectal words are universally accepted as recognized units of the standard colloquial
English. Of quite a different nature are dialectal words which are easily recognized as corruptions of
standard English words. Dialectal words are only to be found in the style of emotive prose, very
rarely in other styles. And even here their use is confined to the function of characterizing
personalities through their speech.

6) vulgar words
The term vulgarism is rather misleading. Webster’s “New International Dictionary” defines
vulgarism as “a vulgar phrase or expression, or one used only in colloquial, or, esp. in unrefined or
low, speech”. I.R.Galperin defines vulgarisms as expletives or swear-words and obscene words and
expressions.
There are different degrees of vulgar words. Some of them, the obscene ones, are called “four-
letter” words. A lesser degree of vulgarity is presented by expletives and they sometimes appear in
euphemistic spelling.

The function of vulgarisms is almost the same as that of interjections, that is to express strong
emotions. They are not to be found in any style of speech except emotive prose, and here only in
the direct speech of the characters.

7) colloquial coinages (nonce-words)

Colloquial coinages (nonce-words), unlike those of a literary-bookish character, are spontaneous
and elusive. This proceeds from the very nature of the colloquial words as such. Not all of the
colloquial nonce-words are fixed in dictionaries or even in writing and therefore most of them
disappear from the language leaving no trace in it whatsoever.

Unlike literary-bookish coinages, nonce-words of a colloquial nature are not usually built by means
of affixes but are based on certain semantic changes in words that are almost imperceptible to the
linguistic observer until the word finds its way into print.

It is only a careful stylistic analysis of the utterance as a whole that will reveal a new shade of
meaning inserted into the semantic structure of a given word or word-combination.

Nonce-coinage appears in all spheres of life. Almost every calling has some favourite catch-words
which may live but a short time. They may become permanent and generally accepted terms, or
they may remain nonce-words. Most of the words which we call here colloquial coinages are newly-
minted words, expressions or meanings which are labelled slang in many modern dictionaries.