Dayanand Science College, Latur.

Department of Computer Science

Computer Network Notes Unit II

Unit II Network Hardware

Network Topologies
• Types of Network Topology
• Network Topology is the schematic description of a network arrangement, connecting
various nodes(sender and receiver) through lines of connection.
BUS Topology
• Bus topology is a network type in which every computer
and network device is connected to single cable. When it
has exactly two endpoints, then it is called Linear Bus
topology. It transmits data only in one direction.

Working of Bus topology

• Bus topology is often used when a network
installation is small, simple or temporary.
• On a typical bus network the cable is just one or
more wires with no active electronics to amplify the
signal or pass it along from computer to computer
this makes a bus a passive topology.
• When one PC sends a signal up and down the wire, all PC’s on network receive the
information as it is broadcasting.
• But only one (the one with the address that matches the one enclosed in the message)
accepts the information the rest will not respond the message.
• Only one PC at a time can send a message therefor number of PC’s attached to a bus
network can significantly affects the speed of the network.
• A PC must wait until the bus is free before it can transmit. Otherwise the bandwidth
will simply get waste.
Advantages and Disadvantage of Bus Topology
Advantage
• simple, reliable in very small network easy to use and easy to understand.
• It is easy for installation
• less expensive
• It is easy to extend-
• A repeater can also be used to extend a bus-
• If one node fails others are not affected.
Disadvantage
• Cables fails then whole network fails.
• If network traffic is heavy the performance of the network decreases.
• Cable has a limited length.
• is difficult to troubleshoot faults as bus cable break or malfunctioning computer.
• A cable break or loose connection also cause reflection and bring down the whole
network and causing all the network activity to stop.
RING Topology
• It is called ring topology because it forms a ring as each computer is connected to
another computer, with the last one connected to the first.
• Exactly two neighbors for each device.
• The transmission is unidirectional.

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Computer Network Notes Unit II

• Data is transferred in a sequential manner that is bit by bit.

• Data transmitted, has to pass through each node of the network, till the destination
node.

Working of ring topology

• Every PC is connected to next computer in the ring and each transmits what it receives
from the previous PC.
• The message flows around the ring in one direction.
• Since each PC retransmits what it receives a ring is an active network.
• There is no termination because there is no end to the ring.

Advantages of Ring Topology

• Transmitting network is not affected by high traffic or by
adding more nodes, as only the nodes having tokens can
transmit data.
• Cheap to install and expand
Disadvantages of Ring Topology
• Troubleshooting is difficult in ring topology.
• Adding or deleting the computers disturbs the network activity.
• Failure of one computer disturbs the whole network.
STAR Topology
• In this type of topology all the computers are connected to a single hub through a
cable.
• This hub is the central node and all others nodes are connected to the central node.
• Every node has its own dedicated connection to the hub.
• Hub acts as a repeater for data flow.

Working of star topology

• Each PC on star network communicate with central hub that
resends the message either to all the PC’s (in a broadcast star
network) or only to the destination PC (in a switched star network)
when the communication between two nodes is to occur a
complete circuit is dedicated to the connection for duration of call. The hub in a
broadcast star network can be active or passive.
• An active hub regenerates the electrical signal and sends it to all the computers
connected to it. This type of hub is often called a multipoint repeater. Active hubs and
switches require electrical power to run; a passive hub such as wiring panel or patch
block merely at as a connection point and does not amplify or regenerate the signal.
Passive hub doesn’t require electrical power to run.
• E.g.: - Ethernet to base t is a popular network based on star topology
Advantages and Disadvantage of Star Topology
Advantage
• Fast performance
• Low network traffic.
• Hub can be upgraded easily.
• Easy to troubleshoot.
• Easy to setup and modify.

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Computer Network Notes Unit II

• Only that node is affected which has failed, rest of the nodes can work smoothly.
Disadvantage
• Cost of installation is high.
• Expensive to use.
• If the hub fails then the whole network is stopped because all the nodes depend on the
hub.
• Performance is based on the hub that is it depends on its capacity
Tree Topology
• Tree topology has a group of star networks connected to a linear bus backbone cable.
• It incorporates features of both star and bus topologies.
• Tree topology is also called hierarchical topology.

Advantage
• Ideal if workstations are located in groups.
• Used in Wide Area Network.
• Existing network can be easily expanded
• Point-to-point wiring for individual segments means
easier installation and maintenance
• Well suited for temporary networks
Disadvantage
• Technical expertise required to configure and wire tree topology
• Failure of backbone cable brings down entire network
• Insecure network
• Maintenance difficult for large networks
MESH TOPOLOGY
• In a mesh topology, every node can be connected to all other nodes in a network and
also provide the dedicated links between every nodes with each other.
• In a mesh network topology, each of the network node, computer and other devices,
are interconnected with one another. In fact a true mesh topology is the one where
every node is connected to every other node in the network.

Advantage
• Each connection can carry its own data load.
• It is robust.
• Fault is diagnosed easily.
• Provides security and privacy.
Disadvantage
• Installation and configuration is difficult.
• Cabling cost is more.
• Bulk wiring is required.
HYBRID Topology
• It is two different types of topologies which is a mixture of two or more topologies. For
example if in an office in one department ring topology is used and in another star
topology is used, connecting these topologies will result in Hybrid Topology (ring
topology and star topology).

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Computer Network Notes Unit II

Advantage
• Reliable as Error detecting and trouble shooting is easy.
• Effective.
• Scalable as size can be increased easily.
• Flexible.
Disadvantage
• Complex in design.
• Costly.
2.2 Network control devices
• To expand a single network without breaking it into new pass or connecting it through
another different network. All networks require devices to provide connectivity and
functionality.
• Purpose of Using Network Devices.
• Allow a greater number of nodes to be connected to the network.
• Extend the distance over which a network can extend.
• Localize traffic on the network.
• Can merge existing networks.
• Isolate network problems so that they can be diagnosed more easily.
Devices and the layers at which they operate

• You can usually use one of the following devices.

• NIC • Bridges
• Connectors • Switches
• Hubs • Routers
• Repeaters • Modem, etc.
Network Interface Card (NIC)
• A network interface card (NIC) is a hardware component without which a computer
cannot be connected over a network.
• It is a circuit board installed in a computer that provides a dedicated network
connection to the computer.
• It is also called network interface controller, network adapter or LAN adapter.
Purpose
• NIC allows both wired and wireless communications.
• NIC allows communications between computers connected via local area network
(LAN) as well as communications over large-scale network through Internet Protocol
(IP).

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Computer Network Notes Unit II

• NIC is both a physical layer and a data link layer device, i.e. it provides the necessary
hardware circuitry so that the physical layer processes and some data link layer
processes can run on it.
Types of NIC Cards
• Internal NIC
• External NIC
Internal Network Cards
• In internal networks cards, motherboard has a slot for the network card where it can
be inserted.
• It requires network cables to provide network access. Internal network cards are of
two types.
• The first type uses Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI) connection, while the
second type uses Industry Standard Architecture (ISA).
External Network Cards
• In desktops and laptops that do not have an internal NIC, external NICs are used.
• External network cards are of two types: Wireless and USB based.
• Wireless network card needs to be inserted into the motherboard, however no
network cable is required to connect to the network.
• They are useful while traveling or accessing a wireless signal.
Connectors
• To connect cable between two computers.
• Connectors are of different type such as –
➢ Twisted Pair cable
➢ Co-axial Cable
➢ Fibre optic cable.
• Connectors are type such as-
➢ Jacks
➢ Plugs
➢ Sockets and ports
BNC Connector
• (Bayonet Nut Coupling) A commonly used plug and socket for audio, video and
networking applications that provides a tight connection.
• This connector has a center pin connected to the center cable conductor and a metal
tube connected to the outer cable shield.
• A rotating ring outside the tube locks the cable to any female connector.
• BNCs are used to connect a variety of different coaxial cable types.
• After the plug is inserted, it is turned, causing pins in the socket to be pinched into a
locking groove on the plug.

RJ-11 (Registered Jack)

• Standard telephone cable connectors, RJ-11 has 4 wires (and RJ-12 has 6 wires).
• RJ-11 is the acronym for Registered Jack-11, a four- or six-wire
connector primarily used to connect telephone equipment.

F-Type

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Computer Network Notes Unit II

•
The F connector is a type of RF connector commonly used for cable and universally for
satellite television.

RJ-45 (Registered Jack)

• The acronym for Registered Jack-45 is RJ-45.
• The RJ-45 connector is an eight-wire connector that is commonly used to connect
computers to a local area network (LAN), particularly Ethernet LANs.
• Although they are slightly larger than the more commonly used RJ-11 connectors, RJ-
45s can be used to connect some types of telephone equipment.

ST (Straight Tip) and SC (Subscriber Connector or

Standard Connector)
• Fibre network segments always require two fibre
cables: one for transmitting data, and one for
receiving.
• Each end of a fibre cable is fitted with a plug that
can be inserted into a network adapter, hub, or switch.
• In the North America, most cables use a square SC
connector (Subscriber Connector or Standard Connector) that slides and locks into
place when inserted into a node or connected to another fibre cable,
• Europeans use a round ST
connector (Straight Tip) instead.

USB (Universal Serial Bus)

• Universal Serial Bus, or USB, is a computer standard designed to
eliminate the guesswork in connecting peripherals to a PC.
• It is expected to replace serial and parallel ports.
• A single USB port can be used to connect up to 127 peripheral
devices, such as mice, modems, keyboards, digital camera's, printers,
scanners, MP3 players and many more.
• USB also supports Plug-and-Play installation and hot plugging.

Repeaters
• A repeater or regenerator is an electronic device that operates on only the physical
layer of the OSI MODEL.
• Signal that carry information within a network can travel a fix distance before
attenuation(weakning) enlarges the integrity of data.
• It is installed on a link receives the signal before it becomes too weak, and put the
refresh copy back on the link.
• It allows us extending only the physical length of a network.
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Computer Network Notes Unit II

• It does not change the functionality of the network in any way.

• The two sections (segments) connected by the repeater in fig are in reality one
network.
• The repeater doesn’t have the intelligence to keep the frame from passing to the right
side when it is meant for a station on the left.
• The difference is that with the repeater stations receives the true copy of the frame.

• Repeater as not an amplifier

• An amplifier can’t discriminate between the intended signal and noise. It amplifies
equally everything fed into it.
• A repeater doesn’t amplify the signal. It regenerates it. When it receives a weak end or
corrupted signal it creates a copy bit at the original strength.
• The location of the repeater on a link is vital. A repeater must replace so that a signal
reaches it before any noise changes the meaning of any of its bits. A little noise can
alert the precision of a bits voltage with losing its identity.
Hub
• Networks using a Star topology require a central point for the devices to connect.
• Originally this device was called a concentrator since it consolidated the cable runs
from all network devices.
• The basic form of
concentrator is the hub.

• As shown in Figure; the hub

is a hardware device that contains
multiple, independent ports that
match the cable type of the
network.
• Most common hubs interconnect Category 3 or 5 twisted-pair cable with RJ-45 ends,
• The hub is considered the least common denominator in device concentrators.
• Hubs offer an inexpensive option for transporting data between devices, but hubs
don't offer any form of intelligence. Hubs can be active or passive.
Important Points
• A hub is used as a central device.
• Connects the computers in star topology.

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• Hubs are simple devices that direct data packets

to all devices connected to the hub.
• Hubs regenerate and retime network signals
• hubs work at the OSI physical layer
• They cannot filter network traffic.
• They cannot determine best path
• They are really multi-port repeaters
• There are three main types of HUB
• Passive HUB
• Active HUB
• Intelligent HUB

Passive HUB
• A passive hub simply combines the signal of n/w segment.
• There is no signal processing or regeneration because it does not boost the signal and
in fact absorbs some of the signal.
• A passive hub reduces by half the maximum, cabling distance permitted.
• E.g. If a segment normally allows a reliable transmission distance of 100 meters, the
distance between a passive hub and a device can be only 50m also with a passive HUB
each pc can receive the signal send from all the other pc’s connected to the hub.
Active HUB
• These are like passive hub except that they have electronic component that regenerate
or amplify signal.
• Because of this the distance between devices can be increased.
• The main drawback to some active hub, i.e. they amplify noise as well as signal
depending on whether they function as simple amplifies or an as signal regenerator.
• They are also much more expensive than passive hubs function as repeaters (Create a
duplicate copy of signal).
• They are sometimes called multi- port repeaters.
Intelligent HUB
• In addition to signal regenerations these hubs perform some n/w management and
intelligent path selection.
• A switching HUB chooses only the port of the device where the signal leads to go
rather than sending the signal along all paths.
• Many switching hubs can choose which alternative path with be weakest and send the
signal that way.
• One disadvantage to this is that you can permanently connect all transmission media
segments because each segment will be used only when a signal is send to device using
that segment.
•
Bridges
• A bridge is used to join two network segments together, it allows computers on either
segment to access resources on the other.
• They can also be used to divide large networks into smaller segments.

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Computer Network Notes Unit II

• Bridges have all the features of repeaters, but can have more nodes, and since the
network is divided, there is fewer computers competing for resources on each segment
thus improving network performance.

• Bridges can also connect networks that run at different speeds, different topologies, or
different protocols.
• But they cannot, join an Ethernet segment with a Token Ring segment, because these
use different networking standards.
• Bridges operate at both the Physical Layer and the MAC sub layer of the Data Link
layer.
• Bridges read the MAC header of each frame to determine on which side of the bridge
the destination device is located, the bridge then repeats the transmission to the
segment where the device is located.

• Unlike the repeaters which simply passes on all the signals it receives a bridges
selectively determines the appropriate segment to which it should pass a signal.
• It does this by reading the address of the entire signal it receives.
• The bridges read the physical location of the source and destination computers from
the addresses and store it to a table.

• The process works like this

• For learning bridges receives all signals
from both the segments.
• The bridge reads the address and discards
(filters) all signals from segment1 that are
address to segment1 because they don’t need
to cross the bridge.

• The figure shows the

messages or signals which
do not need to cross the
bridge (Message from
computer-A to Computer- D)
and other half part shows
the messages that needs to pass through the bridge (Message from computer-A to
Computer-G).
• Bridges also provide security through this portioning of traffic.
•
Basic types of bridges.
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Transparent bridges
• Keeps a table of addresses in memory to determination where to send the data.
• Also called learning bridges
• Build a table of MAC addresses as frames arrive.
• Ethernet networks use transparent bridge
• Duties are : Filtering frames, forwarding and blocking
Source routing bridge
• Requires the entire rule to be included in the transmission and don’t rout packets
intelligently.
• IBM token ring n/w uses this type of bridges.
• If a segment on n/w is been used only 60% then consider, using bridges will improve
performance.
• Used in Token Ring networks
• Frame contains not only the source and destination address but also the
• bridge addresses.
Reasons to go for bridges
• To divide the big n/w like university.
• Organization may geographically spread over multiple buildings.
• To split an n/w logical.
• Single LAN is adequate (sufficient but physical distance is too great).
• For reliability bridges can be placed at critical nodes. To prevent a single node go out of
order from bringing down the entire system. (E.g. bus topology)
• For security insert bridges at various places and being careful not to forward sensitive
traffic.
Advantages of using a bridge
• Extend physical network
• Reduce network traffic with minor segmentation
• Reduce collisions
• Connect different architecture
Disadvantages of using bridges
• Slower than repeaters due to filtering
• Do not filter broadcasts
• More expensive than repeaters
Switch
• On the surface, a switch looks much like a hub.
• Despite their similar appearance, switches are far more efficient than hubs and are far
more desirable for today’s network environments.
• Following Figure shows an example of a 32-port Ethernet switch.
• If you refer to it you’ll notice few differences in the appearance of the high-density hub
and this switch.

• a hub forwards data to all ports,

regardless of whether the data is planned
for the system connected to the port.

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• This arrangement is inefficient; however, it requires little intelligence on the part of the
hub, which is why hubs are inexpensive.
• Rather than forwarding data to all the connected ports, a switch forwards data only to
the port on which the destination system is connected.
• It looks at the Media Access Control (MAC) addresses of the devices connected to it to
determine the correct port.
• A MAC address is a unique
number that is stamped into
every NIC.
• By forwarding data only to
the system to which the data is
addressed, the switch
decreases the amount of traffic
on each network link
dramatically.
• In effect, the switch literally channels (or switches, if you prefer) data between the
ports.

Router
• Routers are an increasingly common sight
in any network environment, from a small home
office that uses one to connect to an Internet
service provider (ISP) to a corporate IT
environment where racks of routers manage data
communication with disparate remote sites.
• Routers are network devices that literally
route data around the network. By examining data
as it arrives, the router can determine the
destination address for the data; then, by using
tables of defined routes, the router determines the
best way for the data to continue its journey.
• Unlike bridges and switches, which use the
hardware-configured MAC address to determine
the destination of the data, routers use the
software-configured network address to make
decisions.
• This approach makes routers more functional than bridges or switches, and it also
makes them more complex because they have to work harder to determine the
information.
Working of Router
• The basic requirement for a router is that it must have at least two network interfaces.
• If they are LAN interfaces, the router can manage and route the information between
two LAN segments.
• More commonly, a router is used to provide connectivity across wide area network
(WAN) links.

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Computer Network Notes Unit II

• Figure shows a router with two LAN ports (marked AUI 0 and AUI 1) and two WAN
ports (marked Serial 0 and Serial 1).
• This router is capable of routing data between two LAN segments and two WAN
segments.

Gateway
• The term gateway is applied to any device, system, or software application that can
perform the function of translating data from one format to another.
• The key feature of a gateway is that it converts the format of the data, not the data
itself.
• Software gateways can be found everywhere.
• Many companies use an email system such as Microsoft Exchange or Novell
GroupWise.
• These systems transmit mail internally in a certain format. When email needs to be
sent across the Internet to users using a different email system, the email must be
converted to another format, usually to Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP).
• This conversion process is performed by a software gateway.

Modem
• Modem is a contraction of the terms modulator and demodulator.
• Modems perform a simple function: They translate digital signals from a computer
into analog signals that can travel across conventional phone lines.
• The modem modulates the signal at the sending end and demodulates at the receiving
end.
• Modems are available as internal devices that plug into expansion slots in a system;
external devices that plug into serial or USB ports; PCMCIA cards designed for use in
laptops; and specialized devices designed for use in systems such as handheld
computers.
• In addition, many laptops now come with integrated modems. For large-scale modem
implementations, such as at an ISP, rack-mounted modems are also available

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