Engineering Geology

Part One
Associate Prof Dr Alsidqi Hasan
 Table of contents
01 Introduction 02 Geologic Time Scale

03 Rocks and Rock- 04 Surface Processes

Forming Minerals
 01
Introduction
1.1 Geology and Civil Engineering
1.2 The structure of the earth
1.3 Endogenic and exogenic processes
1.4 Tectonic plates
1.5 Origin of Continents
Introduction Engineering is
application of
science to
innovate, design
and build.

Engineering
Geology & Geology is
Geology is
application of
science or study Civil geology to
about solid earth. Engineering engineering
practice.

Civil Engineering
is one of the
engineering
disciplines that
deals with
construction.
 The Structure Of The Earth

Earth Facts Earth Structure

• Formed 4.5 billion years ago. Consists of:
• Mainly consists of solid and fluid Crust, Mantle,
surrounded by atmosphere. Outer Core, Inner Core
• Its density is approximately 5.5 The layers were determined by
ton/m3 , the densest planet on the monitoring changes in seismic
solar system. waves velocity (P-wave and S-
wave), which is correlated with
• Its radius is approximately 6370 km. the density of the layers.
 Earth Layers
Crust Mantle
• Located below the crust.
• Upper part of the layers.
• Denser than crust because it has more
• Ranging from 0-40 km.
magnesium, less aluminum and silicon.
• Makes less than 1% of Earth’s mass.
• Makes up 67% of Earth’s mass.
• Consists of Oceanic crust and
• The boundary between Crust and Mantle is called
Continental crust (40 km thick, 5 to 10
the Moho, which comes from Mohorovicic
time thicker than Oceanic Crust).
discontinuity (The seismic P-wave abruptly
• Composed of rocks and solid materials.
changes from 5-8 km/s to >8 km/s).
• Continental crust is mainly made up of
• About 2900 km thick.
oxygen, silicon and aluminum
• Has three sublayers: Upper mantle (from the moho
(light minerals).
down to 400 km, Transition Zone (from 400 km to
• Oceanic crust is mainly made up of more
670 km) and Lower mantle (670 km to 2900 km)
iron, calcium and magnesium–heavier
• Composed of solid but behaves as a very viscous
minerals than continental crust.
fluid in geological time.
 Earth Layers
Outer Core Inner Core
• Extends from 5150 km to 6370 km
• Extends from 2900 km (mantle) to
deep (centre of earth).
5150 km deep.
• Composed of extremely hot solid ball
• Composed of very hot liquid iron
made of iron and nickel.
and nickel.
• The temperature is about 5400 oC .
• The temperature is about 4000 oC.
• Makes up 33% of Earth’s mass.
 Rheological Layers Of Earth
Lithosphere Asthenosphere Mesosphere
• Uppermost • Plastic layer of the • Meso means medium
rheological layer of mantle on which the or middle.
earth. tectonic plates move. • ˆLocated at the lower
• Rigid layer of earth. • Made of solid rock part of the mantle
• Consists of the crust that flows very slowly. between the
and upper part of the asthenosphere and the
mantle. outer core.
• Divided into pieces
that are called
tectonic plates.
Rheological layer
of earth
 Endogenic &
Exogenic
Processes

Endogenic Exogenic
Process Process

A geologic process due to Example of endogenic A geologic process due to Example of exogenic
forces that are active process: tectonic activity forces that are active process: weathering
internally (within the earth, (folding and faulting), externally (on the crust or process such erosion,
beneath the crust). volcanic activity. surface of the earth). glacier formation.

The forces are driven by The forces are mainly

internal heat transfer driven by internal energy
inside the earth. from the sun.

It affects movement
of the crust, such as
continent and ocean floor
and produces more crust.
 Pieces of the
lithosphere that
move around
(floats) on the
top of the
asthenosphere.
Not all The word,
boundaries tectonic, refers to
between the deformation
continents and of the crust as a
oceans are plate consequence of
boundaries. plate interaction.

Tectonic
Plates
Most plates contain
both oceanic and Tectonic plates
continental crust. A covers the entire
few contain only asthenosphere
oceanic crust. Thus and forms a
a plate is not the “jigsaw puzzle”.
same continent.
Tectonic plates
consist of the
crust and the
rigid, outermost
part of the
mantle.
 Tectonic
Plates
• New plates can be created as a result
of collision of major plates. For
example, Australian and Indian plates
were fused and then separated million
since 3 million years ago.
• Plate’s movement causes them to
collide, pull apart, or scrape against
each other, or transform. The plates
move because of convection cell.
• Three different type of tectonic
boundaries:
1. Convergent/collide.
2. Divergent/separate/move away.
3. Transform/sliding each other.
 Mechanicsm
in boundaries
Convection Cell
 Convergent Plate Boundaries
• Crust is destroyed or subducted as plates moves towards each other which are
responsible for earthquakes, tsunamis, creating mountains, & consumes old crust.
Mechanism • Effect of movement is also known as Subduction or Collision.
• Eventually, a subduction zone may swallow all of the dense oceanic crust.
• ˆTwo plates of continental material cannot subduct because they are not dense enough.

Examples • India into Asia

• NW Coast of U.S. into SW coast of South America

Types of convergent • Ocean-ocean. For example, Pacific Ring of Fire, Java.

• Ocean-continent. For example, Nasca Plate (ocean destroyed).
boundaries • Continent-continent. For example, Indo-Australian plate create Himalaya mountains.

Subduction • This happens because oceanic lithosphere is more dense than the asthenosphere – it
When two plates collide, one plate bends and sinks under continental lithosphere.
sinks downward into the asthenosphere (under • Sinking rates range 10-15 cm/year.
the other plate).
 Convergent Plate Boundaries
• The descending plate contains fluids, squeezed out at 150 km depth.
• Causes the overlying plate to partially melt.
Volcanic Arc • Magmas burn upward, fueling volcanic eruptions.
• A curved Earth dictates that volcanic belts are curved.
Volcanic belt on an overriding plate.
• Arc type depends on overriding plate: Continental crust, Continental arc,
Oceanic–Island arc.

Subducted Plate • The current hypothesis about the fate of subducted plates suggests that
they may sink all the way to the lower mantle near the core/mantle

Graveyard boundary.
• Geophysical techniques and models may help figure this out.

• Convergence case, subduction.

Sumatera 9 Richter • A large portion of the boundary between the Burma Plate and the India-
Australian Plate slipped. Over 1600 km of the boundary underwent thrust
Earthquake faulting and shifted an average of 15 m, with the sea floor being uplifted
several meters.
26 December 2004 • This rise in the sea floor generated a massive tsunami that killed
approximately 229,800 people.
Subduction
 Divergent Plate Boundaries
• Creating ridges and volcanoes, can produce new crust.
• Sea-floor spreading (effect of movement in the ocean) is the process by which new
oceanic lithosphere forms as magma rises toward the surface and solidifies.
Mechanism • Magma wells up to fill the gap, and then Magma cools adding material to the plates.
• It creates linear mountain ranges in Earth’s ocean basins. Example: The Mid-Atlantic
Ridge, range from North-to-South through the entire Atlantic Ocean. Elevated ridge
1,500 km wide and 2 km above abyssal plains (bed of the ocean).

• Mid Atlantic Ridge

Examples • East Pacific Rise

Continental rift • Eastern Africa is currently being rifted apart is called the East African Rift.
• The western U.S.-most of Nevada, part of Utah, California, Arizona, Oregon,
Zones where a plate are being pulled apart. and Idaho are being stretched apart.
Sea-floor spreading
 Responsible for
earthquakes, do
not consume or
create crust.
Examples:
North
No volcanoes Anatolian
created. Fault, Dead
Sea Fault, San
Andreas Fault

Transform
Plate
ˆSome Boundaries San Andreas is
transforms cut the most famous
through and most visible
continental transform fault
crust. in the world.

Effect of
Most
movement is
transforms
also known as
offset spreading
Transform
ridge segments.
Faulting.
 Origin Of Continents
The northern
Based on Alfred Later the super
part of pangea is
Wegner’s theory, Pangea is Greek continent has
known as
all the continents for “all earth.” It split into several
Laurasia and the
that were joined existed about 245 pieces what looks
southern part of
together named million years ago. like in present
pangea is known
Pangea. day.
as Gondwana.

Alfred Continental drift is Evidence for Sea-

Wegener’s the hypothesis that Evidence to Floor Spreading is
theory is called states that support the magnetic reversals.
For example,
Continental Drift continents once continental drift
magnetic polarity of
hypothesis that formed a single hypothesis the rock of the ocean
were developed landmass, broke up, comes from sea- floor creates pattern
in the early and drifted to their floor spreading. as a result of sea-
present locations. floor spreading.
1900s.
 Magnetic
Reversal
• Some of the stripes of ocean floor have
normal polarity, meaning that the minerals
(rocks) in these stripes produce a magnetic
field aligned in the same direction as the
earth’s present-day magnetic field. Other
stripes shows opposite direction in the
magnetic field as the earth’s present-day
magnetic field.
• Earth’s magnetic field has undergone
numerous times in polarity reversals. South
becomes North, North becomes South.
• Mathematical simulations suggest a full
reversal process may take about one to
several thousand years to finish.
 02
Geologic Time Scale
2.1 Correlation
2.2 Standard Geologic Time Scale
2.3 Absolute Age
2.4 Age of the Earth
 Correlation

The process by which the

age relationships between
rock units exposed at
different localities are
determined.

Stratigarphic
Lithologic correlation Fossil correlation
correlation

The same formations Uses the presence of certain index The process by which the
present in locations that fossils, fossils that only are found time relationship between
within rocks of a very limited age,
are sometimes many or fossil assemblages to correlate strata (layers) in different
kilometers apart. between units that are far apart. areas is established.

Formations may also have If they correlate to each

differing thicknesses in other and must have been
different locations. formed at the same time.
 The time scale
was developed
over century ago,
before the
radiometric age
technology was
developed. The standard
geological time
Human history is scale is a system
0.000001% (1/100 of chronological
billion) of Earth’s measurement that
history. correlates the
layers of earth
crust to time.
Standard
Geologic
Time Scale
In some literature, The geologic time
Precambrian is scale was
also called subdivided into:
supereon. Epoch
can be also be
Eon, Era,
divided into ages. After the Period, Epoch
radiometric
technology was
found, the geologic
time scale can be
approximated in
terms of number of
years before
present.
 Absolute Age
Ways of Dating Geological Materials

Numerical
Relative ages
ages
- Based upon order of formation.
- Qualitative method developed
century ago (time scale).
Physical Principles For
- Permit determination of older
vs. younger relationships. Determining Relative Ages

The Principle
The Principle The Principle The Principle The Principle
The Principle of of Cross- The Principle
of of Original of Original of Baked
Uniformitarianism Cutting of Inclusions
Superposition Horizontality Continuity Contacts
Relations
 Physical Principles For Determining Relative Ages
The Principle of The Principle of
Uniformitarianism Superposition
• Physical processes as we see today • In a sequence of non-overturned
are also operated in the past at sedimentary rocks, each layer
approximately the same rates. must be younger than the one
• The rates of some processes have below because a layer of sediment
changed through time because of cannot accumulate if there is no
factors such as climate change, and substrate on which it can collect.
occasional catastrophic events • Sedimentary rocks that are
(meteor impacts, floods, etc.) intensely folded to the point that
• Example: A paleozoic mud cracks they are overturned, violate this.
and today mud cracks observed in
tidal flats must have formed in a
similar manner and in similar
amounts of time.
 Physical Principles For Determining Relative Ages
The Principle of The Principle of
Original Horizontality Original Continuity
• Sediments settle out of a fluid and • Sediments generally accumulate
are subjected to gravity, so they in continuous sheets.
are deposited on relatively • If you find a layer that is cut by
horizontal surfaces. a canyon or river, then you can
• If deposited on a slope, the assume that the layer once
sediment would gradually be spanned the canyon and was
transported downhill until a later eroded away.
horizontal substrate is reached.
• We can easily see folds, i.e. rocks
have undergone deformation.
 Physical Principles For Determining Relative Ages
The Principle of The Principle of
The Principle of Inclusions
Cross-Cutting Relations Baked Contacts
• If an igneous intrusion
• If one geologic feature contains fragments of • Igneous intrusions
cuts another, the feature another rock, bake (contact
that has been cut must • the fragments must be older metamorphism)
be older. than the intrusion. surrounding rocks.
• Example: The strata cut • If a layer of sediment • The rock that has been
by dike must be older deposited on top of an baked must be older
than the dike. igneous layer includes than the intrusion
pebbles of the igneous rock,
then the sedimentary layer
is younger.
• The xenoliths in an igneous
body or the pebbles or sand
grains in a sedimentary rock
are all older than the rock
that they are in.
 Absolute Ages or Numerical Ages
Some elements in rocks
- Quantitative method have unstable isotopes Radioactive elements This study to determine
developed recently. (atoms with the same decay at a constant rate, rock ages based on
- Age is given as a number. number of protons, which can be measured in radiometric is called
- Based on radiometric different number of a lab and are specified in radiometric dating, or
technology. neutrons), which decay years. geochronology.
and “radiate” energy.

These reactions change The original isotope that In isotope decaying, there
After a given time, unstable
the atomic number undergoes the change is is a term called half life. It
isotopes undergo radioactive
(number protons) of an called Parent Isotope. The is the time taken for the
decay, which converts them
element and include: isotope that is created is radioactivity of a specified
into different elements and
Alpha decay, Beta decay, called the Daughter isotope to fall to half its
releases heat.
Electron capture Isotope. original value.
 Before radioactivity
was discovered in
1896, scientists
made many
estimates of the
Earth’s age that
were all incorrect
and too young.

Rocks older than 4.2

The oldest rocks
Ga won’t be found that geologists have
because Earth was so found are
hot that most rocks Age Of The quartzites
didn’t solidify for the
first nearly half billion
Earth (metasandstones)
from Australia =
or so years after 4.1-4.2 Ga (billion
Earth’s formation.
years).

If we assume that
most of the objects
formed at about the
same time from the
interstellar cloud
(nebular theory), Earth
must be 4.57 Ga
because meteorites
are 4.57 Ga.
 03
Rocks and Rock-
Forming Minerals
3.1 Major rock-forming minerals
3.2 Rock Cycle
3.3 Igneous Rock
3.4 Sedimentary Rock
3.5 Metamorphic Rock
 Rocks are made
from minerals.

Mineralogist is someone
Some rocks are
Most rocks have more Mineral is a naturally Mineralogy is the study who studies minerals,
monomineralic (one
than one kind of mineral. occurring substance. of minerals. their composition, uses,
mineral component).
and properties.

Examples: Can be represented

Examples: Limestone
Granite, Potassium
(Calcite), Rock salt by a chemical
feldspar, Plagioclase
Feldspar, Quartz,
(Halite), Glacial ice. formula.

Usually solid and

inorganic.

Has a crystal
structure.
 Homegeonous
Single phase,
cannot be broken
into simpler
components
without changing
its properties.
Generally Inorganic
Organic is a substance
Naturally occurring
composed of C Minerals are
bonded to H, with produced from
varying amounts of O, natural geological
N and other elements. processes. Man-
Examples of organic made minerals are
substances that are called synthetic
considered mineral
lignite & abelsonite.
minerals.

Properties of
Mineral

Orderly Arrangement
of Atoms Solid
Minerals have a fixed Minerals are able to
atomic pattern that maintain a set
repeats itself over a shape. Liquids are
large region relative to not minerals.
the size of atoms.

Definable Chemical
Composition
Minerals can be
described by a
chemical formula.
 Identifying Crystal Structure
Types of bonds:
Crystal structure Covalent (sharing of
How? Through Shape of the crystal (lattice) is held in electron pairs
Scanning Electron lattice controls the place by atomic between atoms),
Microscope (SEM), shape and bonds. Bond Ionic (attraction
X-ray diffraction properties of characteristics between oppositely
and Synchrotron. minerals. govern mineral charged ions),
properties. Metallic, Van der
Waals, & Hydrogen.

Diamond Graphite
ˆ here are minerals
T - Carbon atoms – Carbon atoms
that have the same covalently bond in
Examples of tetrahedral networks.
bond in planar
chemical – Forms strong bonds sheets. Sheets are
polymorphs are
composition but that are hard to break, so weakly bonded.
Diamond and
different crystal diamonds are very hard – Sheets are easy to
Graphite, which & dense (density break.
structure. This
both are C (Carbon). is 3.5 g/cm3). – Graphite is soft.
phenomenon is - Higher than graphite
called Polymorph. because of formation – Graphite density is
under high pressure. 2.1 g/cm3.
 Mineral Growth
• Solidification of a melt. Example: obsidian.
• Precipitation from solution. Example: calcite, malachite

How? • Solid state diffusion (metamorphic rocks). Example: slate, marble

• Biomineralization. Example: animal shell, calcium carbonate
• Fumarolic mineralization (from a gas).
Example: alarsite, some sulphates, some fluorides

Euhedral • A crystal with well formed crystal faces, easily recognized faces.
• It forms when there is sufficient space and time for the crystal to grow.

• A crystal with poorly-formed crystal faces.

Anhedral • The opposite of euhedral.
• It forms when there is limited space and time for the crystal to grow
 Minerals
Identification

Color Streak Luster

Specific Gravity Crystal Habit Cleavage

Color may be The color of the pulverized
diagnostic/characteristic for a powder of a mineral. More
few minerals, but in general, a
The way a mineral’s
consistent than color found
given mineral can have a by scraping a mineral against surface scatters light.
range of colors. a porcelain plate. The tendency of a mineral
The weight of a substance
divided by the weight of an A description of a to break along a plane of
equal volume of water. mineral’s consistent shape. weakness in the crystal
lattice.

Hardness Different than fracture

that breaks in no
consistent manner
The measure of a mineral because it has equal bond
to resist scratching. This a strength in all directions.
qualitative measure, not
quantitative measure.
Cleavage produces flat,
shiny surfaces & often
forms parallel “steps.”
Represents the strength of
bonds in the crystal lattice.

Conchoidal Fracture
The tendency for a
Measured on a qualitative mineral to break along
scale called Moh’s Hardness irregular scoop-shaped
Scale. fractures that are not
related to weaknesses in
the crystal structure.
 Reacts to Acid
[Calcite and
Dolomite:
CaCO3 &
Ca(Mg)CO3]

Striations
- Tiny, parallel lines
seen on some Special Magnetic
crystal faces.
[Plagioclase
Characteristics [Magnetite:
Feldspar: of Mineral Fe3O4]
NaAlSi3O8 &
Quartz - SiO2]

Salty taste
[Halite: NaCl]
 Major rock-forming minerals
The most common mineral group is Silicates. Less abundant of
other mineral groups is non-Silicates. Only about 50 minerals are
abundant. 98.5% of crustal mineral mass is from 8 elements.

5% 8.1% 27.7% 46.6%

Iron Aluminium Silicone Oxygen

 Major rock-forming minerals
All other minerals only made up 1.5% of crustal mineral mass.

2.1% 2.6% 2.8% 3.6%

Magnesium Potassium Sodium Calcium

Mineral group
Silicate Minerals
• The rock-forming minerals dominate the Earth’s crust.
• They are made of oxygen and silicon, make up 94.7%
of crustal volume and 74.3 % of crustal mass.

Non - Silicates Group

• Forms 10% of earth minerals.
• Typically subdivided into classes based on negatively
charged ion or complex ion and native elements such
as Gold, Copper, Sulpher, Carbon.
• Common non-silicate rock-forming minerals:
Carbonate mineral calcite and dolomite,
Sedimentary rock such as halite and gypsum.
 Types Of Silicate
The Light Silicates The Dark Silicates

Non-ferromagnesian silicates Ferromagnesian silicates

Generally light in colour Dark in colour

S.G. about 2.7 S.G. between 3.2 and 3.6

Contain varying amount of aluminium, Contain ions of iron and/or magnesium

potassium, calcium and sodium. in structures.

Orthoclase, Plagioclase, Quartz, Pyroxene, Amphibole & Olivine

Feldspar & Mica
 Forms 10% of
earth minerals.

Gemstone or gems
Rifting causes deep have equivalent
mantle rock to move
mineral names, but
upward. Hence,
gemologists usually
diamonds are found
name gemstones
in near the surface
in kimberlite pipes. something
marketable.

Precious
Stone
Diamonds originate
under extremely Examples:
high pressure 150 Diamond,
km deep in the
upper mantle. Pure
Emerald,
carbon is Amethyst,
compressed into the Sapphire
diamond structure.
Diamond
Made of Carbon and
are contained in
rocks called
kimberlites that is
formed from the
cooling of molten
magma of high
pressure volcanic
environments.
Where do mineral
deposits come from?
Mineral deposits can be found in Rocks. Rocks are naturally occurring
aggregates of minerals.

Water carries compounds dissolved in solution. Over time, water can

leave behind mineral deposits in rocks or cracks.
Magma intrusion.
 Interrelationships
between three
major groups of
rocks, through
internal and It involves
external superficial
processes. processes such as
Rocks and soils weathering,
are destroyed and transportation, and
formed in a cyclic deposition and also
process. internal processes
such as magma
generation and
metamorphism.

Rock Cycle
Each group
contains a variety Plate movement
of individual rock is the mechanism
types that differ responsible for
from one another recycling rock
on the basis of materials and
composition or therefore drives
texture of mineral Geologists the rock cycle.
grains. recognize 3 major
groups of rocks:
Igneous,
sedimentary, and
metamorphic
rocks
 Igneous Rock
It is made of cooling and solidification of magma or lava.
Based on the mineral content: Felsic and Mafic
Felsic is acidic & light coloured while mafic is basic & dark coloured.

Magma
• All magmas contain Si and O. Upon cooling, they bond together into silicon-oxygen
tetrahedrons. They become more silica (i.e. felsic), and more viscous (thicker, harder to flow).
• Magma also contains varying amounts of other elements like Na, K, Al, Ca, Mg, Fe, etc
• Dry magmas – no volatiles
• Wet Magmas – up to 15% volatiles.
• If magma does not move, no extrusive/volcanic rocks would ever have formed.
• Magma rises because it is hotter and less dense than the surrounding rock and therefore
buoyantly rise and the weight of the overlying rock (lithostatic pressure) literally squeezes the
magma out.

Volatiles
• A substance that can easily change into a gas at relatively low temperatures (H2O, CO2, etc.)
• Volatile content strongly effects the viscosity (ability to flow). More volatiles, less viscous.
• It is the opposite of stable.
 Temperature
(high temperature,
low viscosity)

The addition of
volatiles at depth
(mainly H2O) seeps Viscosity is Volatile content
(more volatiles, less
into rocks and helps
break bonds (aids in
controlled by viscous)
melting).

Silica content
Silica tends to form
silica-oxygen
tetrahedrons that
bond with each other
to make long chains
that ultimately resist
flow (more silica,
more viscous)
 Bowen’s Reaction Series
It is made up of two
Bowen’s had confirmed that as Discontinuous Ferromagnesium reaction:
trends: Discontinuous This series outlines the order
magma cools, minerals will Minerals formed are having different chemical
reaction series in which minerals form in a
crystallize out in a predictable composition and crystalline structure.
(different minerals Continuous Plagioclase feldspar reaction: cooling melt and also applies
sequence called ‘Bowen’s
form) and Continuous Minerals formed are having different chemical in reverse order to rocks that
Reaction Series’ from laboratory
reaction series compositions but similar crystalline structures. are partially melted.
experiments.
(Plagioclase only).

.As magma cools, minerals

Bowen’s reaction series crystals grow larger and some
As it cools it gets less mafic; In can describes how of them settle. The crystals that
The process continues until the
heating, the first minerals to melt different rocks are formed, remain suspended in the liquid
entire body of melt is solidified.
are silicic or felsic. the composition as well as react with the remaining melt
the rate of cooling. to form a new mineral at a
lower temperature.
 Sedimentary Rock

Made of sediments eroded These materials are deposited Lithification is the process
from igneous, metamorphic, in layers, or strata, and then Rocks are broken down and by which sediments
other sedimentary rocks, and are squeezed and compressed turned into sediments by two become compacted and
even the remains of dead into rock. Most fossils are main processes. cemented together into a
plants and animals. found in sedimentary rocks. sedimentary rock.

Sediments are loose fragments Deposition is settlement of Lithified is sediment that has
of rocks or minerals broken off The two processes are
sediments particles as been cemented together by
of bedrock, minerals that Physical Weathering &
winds/water current die geologic processes to
precipitate directly out of water, Chemical Weathering.
and shells of organisms. down, or as glaciers melt. form a rock.
 Sedimentary
Rocks
• Sedimentary rocks classified into:
- Clastic: Detrital sediments
e.g: Shale, sandstone, conglomarate
- Non Clastic: organic and chemical
sediments e.g: Limestone, Coal
• Clastic Sedimentary rocks can be
classified by:
– Clast size
– Clast composition
– Angularity and Sphericity
– Sorting
– Type of cement
 How do Sedimentary Rocks Forms?
Burial
Transportation As layers of sediment
Occurs when Deposition accumulate, the layers
Erosion currents of wind, Sediment is accumulate in
Mobilizes particles water, and moving deposited when the sedimentary basins.
Older, previously
by weathering, most ice (glaciers) transporting current
deposited sediments
commonly by transport particles slows to the point are compacted. These
rainfall & gravity. to new locations that it can no longer layers remain at depth
(downhill or carry its load. until either erosion or
downstream) tectonic processes act
on them.

Diagenesis &
Mechanically
Lithification Chemically formed
formed
Refers to the Inorganic reactions Organic sediments
Detrital or Clastic
physical and of dissolved Skeleton of animals,
Sediment. Made up
chemical changes materials in Corals, Plant remains
of Broken pieces of groundwater,
that lithify sediment or Vegetable
mineral and rocks, seawater, lakes, etc. Matters.
into rock. Includes
volcanic eruptions (Na, Cl, Ca)
pressure, heat and
of sea shells.
chemical reactions.
 Metamorphic Rock
Examples: Marble, Slate,
Quartzite, Schist, Gneiss

Produced when sedimentary or Slaty Cleavage

igneous rocks are transformed by Forms perpendicular to the
Metamorphic rocks are either compression direction, i.e. a horizontal
heat and/or pressure. These
foliated or non-foliated. squish will create vertical cleavage
extreme conditions are only planes. Compression also commonly
present deep inside the Earth. results in folding.

Foliated Non Foliated

The minerals have been flattened and Do not display layers.
pushed down into parallel layers. e.g: Quartzite, Marble, Conglomarate,
e.g: Slate, Schist, Gneiss Amphibolite, Hornfels, Graphite

Foliation
The repetition of planar surfaces or layers in a
metamorphic rock. Rocks are subjected to differential
stress, platy minerals align or alternating light and dark
layers form, giving the rock a planar fabric
 How Do We Identify Metamorphic Rocks?

Metamorphic • Grains are interlocked and grew in place.

Textures Many different types of metamorphic textures.

Metamorphic • Certain minerals only temperatures and

pressure. Called a metamorphic mineral
Minerals assemblage, or metamorphic facies.

• The alignment of platy minerals or alternating

Foliation layers of light (felsic) and dark (mafic) minerals.
 How do metamorphic textures form?
Recrystallization - Changes the shape and size of grains, but the same mineral remains. E.g.
Sandstone may rectystallize into quartzite.

Phase Change – When a mineral keeps the same composition but the atoms arrange
into a new form (polymorph). E.g. quartz (SiO2) may change to coesite (SiO2).

Metamorphic reaction/neocrystallization – The result of chemical processes that

decompose minerals and produce new minerals. Happens through diffusion of atoms
through solid crystals. Very slow process.

Pressure Solution – Mineral grains dissolve where their surfaces are in contact. Occurs
when rock is squeezed in one direction more than the others, at low temps, and usually in
the presence of water. Usually zig-zag shaped and common in carbonates.

Plastic Deformation – At high temps, minerals can behave like soft plastic and become squished
or stretched. Takes place without forming cracks and without changing the composition of the
minerals.
 Heat
Increased heat
allows chemical
bonds to break
easier.

Hydrothermal Pressure
Fluids High pressures
More than just cause minerals
water, What Causes with ‘open’
hydrothermal fluids Metamorphism? lattices to
are solutions that collapse, forming
chemically react more dense
with minerals. crystals.

Differential
Stress
When forces are
not equal in all
directions,
minerals may
deform and
change shape.
 Process Involved In Metamorphism

Contact Metamorphism Regional Metamorphism

As tectonic plates
collide and converge,
The area of rock
The intense heat intense pressure
affected by deforms and alters
Occurs when a of the magma
contact Occurs during the sedimentary and
rock is exposed to alters the rock,
metamorphism is formation of igneous rocks already
hot magma inside often causing its buried in the Earth
appropriately mountain ranges.
the Earth. minerals to folds or curves in the
known as the
recrystallize. rocks indicate the
baked zone. direction of the
intense pressure.
 Heating within Earth’s interior
results in convection cells that
power the movement of
plates, and also magma,
which forms intrusive and
extrusive igneous rock.

Plates descending back into

Earth’s interior are subjected
to increasing heat and
How are the Rock Movement along plate
boundaries may result in
pressure, which may lead to
metamorphism as well as
Cycle and Plate volcanic activity, earthquake
and in some cases mountain
generation of magma and yet
another recycling of
Tectonics Related? building.
materials.

The interaction between

atmosphere, hydrosphere
and biosphere contributes to
the weathering of rocks
exposed on Earth’s surface.
 04
Surface Processes
4.1 Weathering and alteration processes
4.2 Denudation and erosion
4.3 Transportation
4.4 Sedimentary depositional environment
4.5 Mass Wasting
 Weathering
Physical/mechanical and
chemical breakdown of rocks
at or near the surface.

Physical/Mechanical Weathering processes

Chemical
Break rocks into smaller depend on contact with air
Do have alter the chemical and water, so are strongly
pieces but no change in
composition of rocks. influenced by the climate.
chemical composition.

•Unloading joints Frost shattering is

Stress reliefs fractures, due to important in cooler
overburden removal. latitudes and at higher
Solution
•Thermal expansion latitudes.
Mainly of calcite and gypsum,
Fracturing, due to daily
in sandstone cement, veins and
temperature changes.
limestone.
•Frost shatter
Fracturing, as fissure water or Leaching
Selective removal of solutes or
Salt crystallization is
porewater freezes and expands. only significant in
specific elements.
• Wetting and drying desserts with high
Oxidation
Movement, due to loss or gain evaporation.
Notably rusting and
water in clays.
breakdown of iron.
•Root action
Hydrolysis
Tree root expansion in fissures,
and rootlet growth in pores. Most silicates react with water
to form clay minerals. All chemical processes
•Crystallization accelerate in hot wet
Growth of salt crystals, where climates.
groundwater evaporates.
 Surface Processes
Sedimentary
Denudation and erosion Transportation depositional environment
• The wearing away of the • Happens due to ’falling under gravity’ • Giving rise to
rock as a result of the and then the rocks or fragments sediments or sand
weathering processes. carried away by stream and river dunes in river delta’s
• Example: water as well as sand by wind. sea etc.
The wearing away of • There are powerful currents in the sea • ˆThe smaller (lighter)
mountains and the creation which transport huge masses of the particles, and the
of river valleys and gorges. eroded material. faster the current, the
• ˆIn rivers, from high mountains to an further they are
estuary, the ’rocks’ become smaller carried.
and more rounded the further they • ˆThis means most
have travelled due to the constant deposition will occur in
collisions in the water. a slow moving but
• Glaciers also carry considerable distant location.
eroded material away, particularly in • Example: Fine silt
the ’ice ages’. deposits in estuaries.
• Transporting Agents: Running water,
Wind, Glacial Movement (Ice), Gravity.
 Transfer of material
down slope by gravity
and erosion, and
transport of material
As gravity pulls by water, wind and
downward on material ice producing a
comprising a sloping surficial cover.
portion of Earth’s
surface, a translational Resulting from
force is formed within the
either rapid mass
slope sediment. This
force creates shear movements or slow
stress within the slope’s mass movements.
material, reducing the
slope’s strength and
making it prone to
mass wasting. Mass
People can
Wasting
minimize the effects
of mass wasting by Example of rapid
conducting geologic mass movement are:
investigation of an Rockfalls, slumps, rock
area and stabilizing slides, mudflows,
slopes to prevent and debris flows and quick
restructure clays.
movement of
the mass. Example of slow
mass movements are:
Earthflows, solifluction
and creep.
 Alteration due to Surface Processes

Surface Geomorphology
Unconsolidated Surficial Cover
Features

Unconsolidated Surficial Cover is

Geomorphology is the study of the
the material forming on the
nature and history of landforms
Earth’s surface which originates in
and the processes which create
3 different ways. The cover is
them.
normally referred as ‘soil’.

Examples: Valley, Mountain,

Examples: Residual Soil,
Alluvial fan, Meandering river,
Transported soil, Peat cover
Deltas.
 Soil Profile
• A soil profile is a vertical cross-section
from the surface down to the parent
material.
• Well-developed soils show distinct
layers called horizons. From the
surface downward, the soil horizons
are respectively designated as: O
(largely organic matter), A (largely
mineral matter), E (the fine soil
components and soluble materials
have been removed by eluviation and
leaching), B (subsoil, often referred to
as the zone of accumulation), C
(partially altered parent material).
• The parent material for residual soils
is the underlying bedrock, whereas
transported soils form on
unconsolidated deposits.
 Type of soils

Residual Soils ˆPeat Soils Transported Soils

Consist of material
Derived from in-situ Derived from plant unrelated to the bedrock in
weathering of the rocks. materials. which have been brought
from elsewhere.

The equatorial climate Formed when organic matter

causing heavy weathering accumulates more quickly The material was eroded
which resulted in the than it decays. Usually from their original location
development of residual occurs below a high water & transported.
soil deposits. table deposits.

This weathered zone can Described & classified regards to

be very thick in equatorial Characteristics the transporting agent that
regions as high Extremely soft, Wet, brought them and the local
High organic content environment that controlled
temperatures and rainfall
their deposition.
over a lengthy period of
time will result in deep
weathering of the parent
material.
 Aeolian
(wind),
deposited by
wind. Alluvial or
alluvium
(river),
Glacial (ice)
deposited as
river
sediment.

Lacustrine
Important (lake),
Coastal Transported deposited as
Deposits lake
sediment.

Colluvium Estuarine
(gravity), (estuaries),
deposited by deposited as
gravitational estuaries
action. Deltaic, sediment.
deposited at
the mouth of
a river.
 Differences between residual
and transported deposits
Residual deposits
Formed as a result of in situ weathering of rock.
Transported deposits
Materials mostly consist of sandy clayey materials. Consists of materials unrelated to bedrock.
Brownish in colour (mudstone), yellowish Formed when the rock debris that has been
(sandstone), light coloured (shale) carried by natural agent is deposited.
Minerals – contains quartz and feldspar (sandy Examples: Alluvium (water), Aeolian (wind),
materials), contains kaolinite, Colluvium (gravity).
illite (clayey materials).
 05
Geological Structures
5.1 The Formation of Geomorphological Features
5.2 Depositional Structures
5.3 Intrusive and Extrusive Structures
5.4 Deformational Structures
 The formation of geomorphological features
Surface processes such
Geological structure
as erosion, weathering
Geometrical body of earth’s arise due to deformation Geomorphological features are the
and transporting agents
crust is called geological of the earth’s crust by shape or forms of the earth
shape the earth’s crust
structure (geological feature). surface processes and surface.
into landforms, e.g.
tectonic forces.
valley, ridges, dunes, etc

Drainage pattern indicates Changes in stream

Drainage density is an
the rock type and geologic gradient, pattern and
indicator of subsurface
Drainage density is the structure. For example, density indicates rock
condition. For example, higher
drainage per area of even distribution of lakes control of drainage while
drainage density indicates the
landform. and depression indicate changes in slope indicates
landform is undrained by low
relatively flat-lying the rock type and structure
permeable soils/bedrock.
limestone bedrock. interaction.
 Depositional Structures
• Fluvial environments consist of river systems where river is the
transporting agent.
• The components: river channels, bars, levees, flood plains etc.
• Channel patterns (fluvial styles) are commonly classified as: Braided,
Fluvial Environments Meandering, Straight, and Anastomosing.
• The environments are constituted from the deposited sediments.
• Channel deposit is mainly coarse, rounded gravel and sand.
• Flood plains deposit is mainly silt and clay.

• Delta is a triangular shape deposit located at the river mouth, lake or sea.
• The sediment is deposited due to sharp drop in the velocity.
Deltas • Larger grains are deposited faster and smaller grains are transported
further away from the shore. The sequence is Sand, Silt,
then Clay sized particles.

• Fan-shaped deposit formed at the based of mountains.

Alluvial Fans • Commonly found in arid and semi-arid regions.
• It is transported by rapid rainfall erosion.

Beaches and Barrier • Dominated by sand

• Barrier Island is separated from the mainland by lagoons.
Islands • Accumulated via continuous deposition over long period of time.
Intrusive and Extrusive Structures
Extrusive/Volcanic
• Igneous rocks that form due to the freezing of melts
• above the surface of the Earth includes rocks made of
volcanic ash (pyroclastics).
• They are mostly fine grained. For example, obsidian.
• Two types of extrusive environment are explosive eruptions
and effusive eruptions.
Intrusive/Plutonic
• Form by freezing of melts below the surface of the Earth.
• They are mostly coarse grained. For example, granite.
Down-going slab
• Happens in plate subduction.
• Has lots of volatiles (e.g. H2O).
• At depth, these volatiles are heated and are squeezed from
the rock and migrate into the asthenosphere above the plate.
• The addition of volatiles changes the melting point of rocks
and causes the asthenosphere to melt above the sinking plate.
• The sinking plate may partially melt too, but most melting
occurs in the asthenosphere above the slab.
 Extrusive Environment

Explosive Eruptions Effusive Eruptions

generally occur when source magma is generally occur when source magma is

These These
volcanoes volcanoes
form lava form fluid
High in silica Low in
Low High in domes, High Low in lava flows,
(felsic- silica
temperature volatiles ash temperature volatiles fire fountains
intermediate) (mafic)
clouds (if volatiles),
and ash and lava
flows. tubes.
 Magma rises by
percolating between
grains and/or by
forcing open cracks
in the subsurface.
Batholith is a The magma that
pluton that is more doesn’t reach the
than 100 km2 in surface of the Earth
cools into intrusive
surface exposure
igneous rocks:
while stock is a Country rock or wall
pluton that is less rock, i.e. The pre-
than 100 km2 in existing rock that
surface exposure. magma intrudes.
Intrusive
Igneous Rock
Environments
Intrusive contact
Non-tabular
The boundary
intrusions
between the
Pluton, Batholith,
igneous intrusion
Stock
and the wall rock.

Tabular intrusions
Dike, Sill, Laccolith
(pseudo-tabular,
dome mushroom
like)
 Effect of
Intrusions
• Dikes form in regions of crustal stretching.
• Sills may cause uplift at the surface of the Earth.
• Plutons disrupt the surrounding layers of rock
and may cause crustal stretching above.
• Plutons grow by stoping: opening cracks and
assimilating xenolithic blocks in the melt.
• Xenolith is a rock fragment which becomes
enveloped in a larger rock during the latter’s
development and hardening.
 Removal of
volatiles.

Cooling times It rises to a

vary from days cooler location
Magma cools
minutes to and has time to
millions of because coolposited as
years. river sediment.

Cooling
depends very
much on the
geometry
(surface area)
of the intrusion.
Deformational Structures
Initially sediments are deposited forming horizontal layers.
The strata of the layers are parallel.
Examples of permanent deformation are mountains, basins, etc.
Earth crust are continuously subjected to stresses
The stresses deform the earth crust such that it transformed in position,
alignment, orientation, shape, etc.
The earth crust responds to stresses depending the properties of the rock
as well the surrounding rocks
Deformation might be elastic but also can be plastic (permanent).
Thank you!
Notes prepared by Aisya Affiqa