Major Theories Used in Social Work Practice

 Systems Theory Psychodynamic

 Social Learning
 Conflict

Developmental Theories
 Theories of moral reasoning (Kohlberg, Gilligan)
 Theories of cognition (Piaget)
 Transpersonal theories of human development (Transpersonal – means beyond or
through the persona or mask. Going beyond identity rooted in the individual body or ego
to include spiritual experience or higher levels of consciousness.)
 Stage theories – Erikson Primary Perspective

Primary Perspectives
 Strengths
 Feminist
 Eco-Systems

Current Social Work Practice Models

 Problem Solving
 Task-Centered Solution
 – Focused
 Narrative
 Cognitive-Behavioral

Crisis In brief, social work practice models are like recipes. They are step-by-step
guides for client sessions. Perspectives represent what aspects of the session are
emphasized or highlighted in a session (i.e. questions asked or time spent). Theories are
overall explanations of the person-in-environment configuration. Theories help explain
why the problem is occurring and where the most efficient intervention should take
place.

Definitions:

Theory –A general statement about the real world whose essential truth can be supported
by evidence obtained through the scientific method. – Must explain in a provable way
why something happens. Ex: Learning theory explains behavior on the basis of what
organisms have learned from the environment. Model – Is a blueprint for action. It
describes what happens in practice in a general way. Ex: The behavioral model (based on
learning theory) gives specific guidelines 1 for how to effect change. If a parent
complains that his child is having difficulty staying in his own bed at night and the
parent has been allowing the child to sleep in his/her bed( thereby reinforcing the child’s
difficulty) the practitioner would help the parent to extinguish the behavior by removing
the reinforcement. Perspective – A way of perceiving the world flows from a value
position. Note: The perspective will influence choice of theory and model. Note: Payne
( 1997) argues that social work theory succeeds best when it contains all three elements
of perspective, theory and model. Example: Men who batter their partners Theory: Social
learning theory – men learn their viol

2. Psychodynamic Theory –
o Psychodynamic psychotherapy is concerned with how internal processes such as
needs, drives, and emotions motivate human behavior.
o Emotions have a central place in human behavior.
o Unconscious, as well as conscious mental activity serves as the motivating force
in human behavior.
o Early childhood experiences are central in the patterning of an individual’s
emotions, and therefore, central to problems of living throughout life.
o Individuals may become overwhelmed by internal and/or external demands.
o Individuals frequently use ego defense mechanisms to avoid becoming
overwhelmed by internal and/or external demands.

Note: In current social work practice psychodynamic theory is what the social
worker uses when s/he looks at early attachment relationships and the
developmental history of the client which includes past trauma or abuse. In
addition, social workers use this theory in supervision to understand the dynamics
of the helping relationship (transference, countertransference).
.
Social Learning
 Social learning theory suggests that human behavior is learned as individuals
interact with their environment.
 Problem behavior is maintained by positive or negative reinforcement.
 Cognitive- behavioral therapy looks at what role thoughts play in maintaining
the problem. Emphasis is on changing dysfunctional thoughts which influence
behavior.
3. Conflict Theory –
 This theory draws attention to conflict, dominance, and oppression in social life
Groups and individuals try to advance their own interests over the interests of
others.
 Power is unequally divided, and some social groups dominate others.
 Social order is based on the manipulation and control of nondominant groups by
dominant groups.
 Lack of open conflict is a sign of exploitation.
Social change is driven by conflict, with periods of change interrupting long
periods of stability behavior in their family of origin, and from a culture that
rewards anger and violence in men; cognitive theory – what men say to
themselves in situations of stress increases their anger and their propensity to be
violent. Model: Cognitive-behavioral Perspective: Feminist Definitions are from
Syers & Boisen (2003) Course handout Payne, M. (1997)
Modern Social Work Theory. Lyceum Books 1. Systems theories – Those
concepts that emphasize reciprocal relationships between the elements that
constitute a whole. These concepts also emphasize the relationships among
individuals, groups, organizations, or communities and mutually influencing
factors in the environment. Systems theories focus on the interrelationships of
elements in nature, encompassing physics, chemistry, biology, and social
relationships (general systems theory, ecological perspective, life model, and
ecosystems perspective).
Note: Social workers use this theory to understand clients who are experiencing
oppression in some form or another in our capitalist society.
 Primary Perspectives Strengths – Stems from the work of Saleeby (1996)
The social worker assumes that the client has multiple strengths. The
social worker tries to assess the strengths of the client and emphasizes
these strengths in the helping relationship.
 Feminist – This perspective takes into account the role of gender and the
historical lack of power experienced by women in our society. Feminist
social workers emphasize the collaborative relationship between the
social worker and the client and place an emphasis on equality and
empowerment of women in our society. Current Social Work Practice
Model
CURRENT SOCIAL WORK PRACTICE MODELS

1. Problem Solving
The problem-solving model focuses on understanding the problem,
brainstorming possible solutions, having the client pick a solution, having
the client try out a solution and then evaluating how the solution worked.

2. Task-Centered – This model focuses on breaking down the problem into

small tasks that the client can accomplish. The social worker may use
rehearsal, deadlines, and contracts, in order to help the client feel
successful and motivated towards solving the problem.

3. Solution – Focused – This model starts with the solution and then helps
the client establish the steps that will lead to the solution. This model is
the one that uses the miracle question to help clients envision the future
that they want to obtain.
 4. Narrative – This model uses letters and other methods to help the client
re-author their lives. For a more in-depth explanation I suggest a very
short user-friendly book titled, “What is Narrative Therapy?” by Alice
Morgan (2000).
Developmental Theories
Developmental theories focus on how behavior changes and stays the same across the life
cycle. Stage theories are usually characterized by the following:
 Human development occurs in clearly defined stages
 Each stage of life is qualitatively different from all other stages.
 Stages of development are sequential, with each stage building on earlier stages.
 Stages of development are universal.
 All environments provide the support necessary for development.
 Theories of moral reasoning (Kohlberg, Gilligan) Kohlberg’s stages of moral
development Preconventional – Heteronymous morality – Accepting what the world says
is right – Instrumental purpose – Defining the good as whatever is agreeable to the self
and those in the immediate environment. Conventional – Interpersonal experiences –
Seeking conformity and consistency in moral action with significant others. The societal
point of view – Seeking conformity and consistency with what one perceives to be the
opinions of the larger community. Post-conventional – Ethics – Observing individual and
group (societal) rights. Conscience and logic – Seeking to apply universal principles of
right and wrong. Formal operations (11- adulthood) – The person becomes able to solve
real and hypothetical problems using abstract concepts:
 Theories of cognition (Piaget) 
 Transpersonal theories of human development (Transpersonal – means beyond or through
the persona or mask. Going beyond identity rooted in the individual body or ego to
include spiritual experience or higher levels of consciousness.)
 Stage theories – Life stages – Eriksson’s Stages of psychosocial development Infancy–
Trust vs. mistrust Early childhood – Autonomy vs. Shame and doubt Play age – Initiative
vs. guilt School age – Industry vs. Inferiority Adolescence – Identity vs. Identity diffusion
Young adulthood – Intimacy vs. isolation Adulthood – Generativity vs. self-absorption
Mature age – Integrity vs. Disgust and despair

SOCIAL CASE WORK PRACTICE IN INDIA

Social casework practitioners in India view the concepts of casework differently.
According to them, social casework can be practiced successfully in a democratic society
only. In the context of social casework practice, democracy implies freedom and self-
fulfillment. In the Indian context the concept of self-fulfillment and self-expression go
hand in hand with the concept of conformity to the group norm. It is believed that an
individual does not have a right to express himself/herself, to decide upon an action
he/she will like to undertake or which he/she is capable of undertaking. In Indian society
the individual remains, more or less, a participating member bound to his/her original
group. His/her group teaches him/her how he/ she should restrain himself/herself and
what characteristics he/she should suppress in order to be acceptable to other members.
He/she can be rejected or ridiculed by his/her group if he/she does not conform to the
social norms. In other words, in Indian context, the client will not have the right to
individualism or the right to self-determination. Indian tradition does not primarily seem
to subscribe to the concept of right. The concept of duty to one’s fellow beings has run
through ages. In his/her relation to the rest of the society, the Indian scheme lays stress
upon his/her duties – dharma by which he/she is to secure his/her own advancement and
thus he/she may be distinguished from his/her western counterpart who emphasizes
his/her rights. Although, one implies the other, right emphasizes power and comforts for
the physical self, and duty emphasizes debts which a person owes to all conscious
beings.
As mentioned above, the emphasis on right is limited to the comforts of the physical
self. In the practice of social casework, time and again, one sees that the needs of the
clients are not limited to their material wants only. If that were the case, perhaps, this
emphasis on rights would have served the purpose. But it has been observed in the
casework practice that material benefits alone can not ensure human happiness. It can
only create conditions for man’s happiness; but it can not ensure that man shall be happy
or the person’s wishes will be really fulfilled. It is observed that happiness is ensured
when the material comforts are accompanied by fulfillment of emotional needs. But
rights can not ensure the emotional needs of a client. The emotional needs can be met
only if one focuses on the concept of duty. For instance, in the case of a cancer patient,
one can provide him/her all rights to good medical facility but one can not ensure
him/her the affection of his/ her family as a matter of right. Similar is the case of the
elderly persons. One can ensure them good and safe shelter, adequate medical aid and
some economic assistance, as a matter of right. Can one say that elderly has a right to
have his/ her children’s affection? Can affection, love, care, acceptance be solicited as a
matter of right? Focus on the concept of duty becomes imperative when as caseworkers
one tries to bring about, an understanding between a mentally ill person and his/her
family. It is expected and encouraged that the family regards it as its duty to look after
the welfare of its sick member and that it takes genuine interest in what the member does
or feels. But if extreme individualism is encouraged (as in the west) on the part of the
members of the family then the need of the patient will not be looked into by them. At
the same time the social caseworker, who has to respect the individualism of the
members of the family, will have to go beyond the limits of casework practice in order to
discuss with them their areas of duty towards their relatives. The caseworker in that case
will be interfering with their self determination. In a culture where individualism is the
cherished value the caseworker will have difficulty, too, in emphasizing that the
individual should resort to self-denial to some extent and take care of others too. So an
important issue arises here. One realizes that a human being has his/ her emotional needs
which are as important as physical needs. As a matter of right the patient in the West is
entitled to sound medical care. But as a matter of right the patient cannot have relatives
motivated to look after him/her when he/she feels lonely in the hospital. On the contrary,
in India the emotional needs of the patient are taken care of by the family, friends and
relatives as a matter of duty towards the patient. In the Indian context, it becomes a little
easier for the caseworker to mobilize family support because culturally Indians are
socialized to perform their duties towards their near and dears in the hour of need. Social
Case Work Practice in Indian Context Hence, the casework practice would be seen in a
comprehensive manner when it is able to assist clients to acquire material comforts and
satisfy his emotional needs which may or may not have much to do with such comforts.
To illustrate, the goal of casework is fulfilled and the concept of duty becomes crucial
when a caseworker mobilizes the family support for the care of a disabled person.
Society always encourages individuals, families, communities to take genuine interest in
the life of people who are old, sick, infirm, disadvantaged and vulnerable. But if extreme
individualism is encouraged then the sense of responsibility towards oneself and others
will disappear. It has been observed that extreme individualization has ruined the family
as a social unit in the West. The desire of personal fulfillment without a sense of duty
towards others can lead to social destruction. Hence, in Indian culture where family is
considered as a basic social unit and is ready to support the individual in every kind of
situation, it becomes vital that casework is geared towards the concept of duty. This does
not mean that authoritarianism should prevail and people who regard themselves as
powerless
Human Behaviour and Social Environment or insignificant should resort to abject
surrender to a human being or to a group or to a power transcending man. What is
expected is a strong search for a person and his/her strength. A person must develop
his/her power of reason to understand himself/herself, his/her relationship to his/her
fellowmen and his/her position in the larger society. In this competitive society where
survival of the fittest applies very aptly, there are situations when a person fails to control
his/her selfishness and does not think about the welfare of others. His/her sense of duty
remains restricted to the personal gains only. In such a society the caseworker has a very
important role to play.

INDIGENIZATION OF CASEWORK PRACTICE:

In Indian culture, social caseworker often has to work towards enabling the client and the
members of his/her family to understand their intrinsic dignity as human beings and act
accordingly. It needs to be highlighted that often in India, there is a general tendency
towards conformity to the group norm, on the part of the people. Hence in traditional
casework situations the individual’s adjustment to his/her reality is disturbed to some
extent. However, the caseworker can help the individuals to adjust with their new reality
and make an effort to integrate new ideas and new values in their daily living. Their
conformity to the group norm should be with the proper understanding of their role as a
human being and relationship to the group and duty towards the group. Caseworker has
to enable the individuals to discharge their duties and help the family members or society
to grapple with new ideas and thinking that will ultimately benefit them. The social
worker in order to be of help to his/her client in discharging the duties involving
unselfishness and self denial must himself/herself be a person with a high sense of duty
towards the client, profession and fellowmen. Though it is true that a client can identify
with ethical principles and thereby practice them in his/ her day-to-day life, yet
identification with the concrete is more meaningful than identification with the abstract.
In India, when a client is addressed as brother, sister or mother –very subtly both
conveyed to each other that both the client and the caseworker recognize each other as
fellow beings. This reflects more of an attempt made by the caseworker to identify with
the client. Mere terms used to address the people would not lead to the emotional
closeness with the client. In fact it leads to the acceptance of the caseworker by the client
thereby enhances his efficiency in building relationship with his client. In the practice of
casework in India, however, the importance of active approach can not be denied. It may
be a result of our Indian culture and tradition. Traditionally, Indians have learnt to value
the words of the elders, or are used to being told by our seniors, what is right and what is
wrong. So rather than asking in an indirect way what is the best course of action, the
client needs to be actively facilitated in the decision making process. The active method
can be growth producing too, provided an approach is made with the right spirit and
atmosphere. A considerable section of population is not used to democracy and self-
reliance; hence it confuses them when a democratic approach is followed in the problem
solving process. Particularly in India, an active approach plays an important role and the
worker has to visit the client at his/her residence whenever possible. To illustrate, the
women clients are not used to visiting agency offices all by themselves, they feel hesitant
or afraid to go there. In such situations, the caseworker has to take an active approach
and make a home visit to remove these barriers in order to avail her of the help. Social
Case Work Practice in Indian Context A social caseworker in India is very much aware
of the difficulties of conducting an intervention with the client where family considers its
right to take decisions for their family members. The client may not even find privacy to
talk to the caseworker in front of its family members. An active approach, if planned out
properly and geared to suitable situations, will lead to required change in the client. An
active approach does not mean autocratic approach. During casework interviews, the
worker provides encouragement and facilitates to the client to reveal his/her repressed
feelings, to clarify his/her thinking and to give his/her opinion on the alternatives
suggested by the caseworker. In the practice of the social casework, there is great need
for a flexible approach on the part of the worker. While working with a person who has
come with a problem, it is important to see which casework approach is most suitable
with this particular client. This will help to enhance maximum adjustment of the client
with his/her environment. The rigidity to stick to a particular approach would lead only
to the defeat of the purpose of casework. An Indian caseworker in the course of his/her
service to human beings often has to work towards enabling the client and the members
of his/her family to understand their intrinsic dignity as human beings and act
accordingly. There is also a need to work with them to enable them to see that it is
against their dignity as human beings to be exploited by others. In being exploited they
are failing to live up to Human Behaviour and Social Environment the human dignity.