Experiment No.

01
Objective:
To study the wankel engine modal.

Apparatus:
i. Wankel Engine

Introduction

In recent years, rotary engines have been used for various applications, including
automobiles, motorcycles, and unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs). The power range of the
current rotary UAV engines around the world is between 20 and 90 hp. The UAVs that use a
rotary engine as its power plant include Harpy, Hermes, Shadow, and Searcher. The demand
for UAVs is projected to dramatically increase around the world.1–5 However, our
knowledge of the rotary engine is surprisingly inadequate, particularly for heavy-fueled
rotary engines. This report summarizes the understanding and finding from the currently
available literature in rotary engines, more specifically heavy-fueled rotary engines.

Figure 1.1: Wankel Engine

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Theory
A rotary internal combustion engine in which a curvilinear, triangular, eccentrically pivoted
piston rotates in an elliptical chamber, forming three combustion spaces that vary in volume
as it turns.A rotary engine has many advantages compared to a reciprocating engine, such as
higher power density, smooth operation, simple design, low vibration, compact size, and light
weight. But, it has also disadvantages like higher fuel consumption and more frequent
maintenance requirements. However, these drawbacks have been steadily improved upon for
gasoline-fueled rotary engines by some manufacturers, such as Mazda. Recently, the rotary
engine has become attractive to some applications, where the merits are becoming more
important. Today’s advanced combustion control and sophisticated fuel injection system may
make the rotary engines more efficient and quite. Manufacturing accuracy and materials
technology may resolve he issues of sealing leaks.
Rotary engines, particularly heavy-fueled rotary engines, have not been extensively
researched and developed compared to the reciprocating engines. Hence, considerable
opportunities exist to improve the efficiency and performance of the rotary engines by
implementing advanced fuel systems, ignition systems, control systems, and system
optimization. In addition, the rotary engine configuration itself can be further optimized with
the currently available sophisticated computational fluid dynamics tools.
Engine efficiency can be improved by improving combustion efficiency and reducing
cooling, exhaust, and friction losses, while maintaining combustion noise levels below a
threshold.
Improving combustion efficiency requires a thorough understanding of fuel spray, fuel-air
mixing, ignition, and combustion processes. An inherently low compression ratio of the
rotary engine requires external ignition sources, such as spark or glow plugs. Direct-injection
fuel stratification would enable the rotary engine to improve combustion efficiency by
keeping the fuel-air mixture from near the leading and trailing sides of the combustion
chamber. This improved efficiency would reduce engine-out unburned and incompletely
burned gases. Use of a turbocharger or supercharger would deliver higher airflow into the
combustion chamber for lean combustion. As it is already proven in diesel engines compared
to gasoline engines, lean combustion achieves higher combustion efficiency. Cooling heat
loss can be reduced by an optimized combustion rate and the use of low thermal conductivity
materials on the inner surfaces of the combustion chamber. Friction loss can be decreased by
optimizing the seal loading and by using lower friction materials for the seals with minimal
seal wear. Friction loss can also be decreased by reducing the seal area.

Various areas for further research and development are proposed in the conclusion and
recommendations section to improve efficiency, performance, durability, and reliability of
the rotary engines. Several of these areas were studied in the past; however, the scope of
work was insufficient, and crucial conclusions were not made. Furthermore, most of these
works were performed more than a decade or two ago. Thus, the currently available advanced
technologies were not used in their research and development. It is worthwhile to more
thoroughly research the rotary engines by using advanced systems and tools available today.

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Operating Principles of the Rotary Engine
A rotary engine has fewer moving parts than a reciprocating engine.
The main parts of the rotary engine include an eccentric shaft, a three-flank rotor, and a
trochoid housing. The three-flank rotor rotates about its center of gravity and at the same time
rotates around the crankshaft centerline. The rotor turns at one-third of the crankshaft speed,
driven by a gear on the crankshaft. The three corners of the rotor divide the trochoid shaped
rotor housing into three working chambers (i.e., trochoid chamber).
Each working chamber executes a full four-stroke cycle on each rotation of the rotor. Thus,
the engine achieves one power stroke per revolution of the crankshaft. The system is
completely balanced by counterbalancing the crankshaft. As an example, unlike the four-
stroke reciprocating engines, rotary engines do not have intake and exhaust valves to control
flow through the intake and exhaust ports.
The basic principles of the Wankel rotary and reciprocating engines. The fuel-air mixture
enters into the first chamber during the intake process for the rotary engine; the fuel-air
mixture is then compressed as the rotor rotates during the compression process. For an SCRE,
air enters into the combustion chamber, and fuel is injected and mixed with the air during the
compression process. When the compressed fuel-air mixture reaches its target spark timing, a
spark plug ignites the fuel-air mixture, and the combusted gases expand during the expansion
process. The expansion continues until the rotor reaches the exhaust port where the
combustion products exit. These processes take place in all three chambers at the same time.
Three events of combustion are achieved in every rotation of the rotor within the housing.
This leads to a flatter torque curve for the rotary engine compared with a one-cylinder
reciprocating engine in which combustion occurs for every two revolutions of the crankshaft
A significant difference between the two engines is the shape of the combustion chamber in
all processes, In the rotary engine, the combustion volume is traveling while the combustion
process takes place. The main difference between the mechanisms of the two engines to get
the turning force is in the expansion process. The combustion gases in the reciprocating
engine force the piston down, and the mechanical force is transferred to the connection rod,
which rotates the crankshaft. However, the combustion gases in the rotary engine exert force
to the flank of the rotor. As a result, one of the three flanks of a triangle is forced toward the
center of the eccentric shaft. This movement consists of two divided forces: one being the
force toward the crankshaft center and the other being the tangential force that rotates the
crankshaft.
The trochoid chamber is always divided into three working chambers. Because of the rotation
of the rotor, the three working chambers are always in motion and successively execute the
four processes of intake, compression, ignition and expansion, and exhaust inside the
trochoid chamber. Each process takes place in a different location in the trochoid chamber,
whereas the four processes take place within each cylinder in the reciprocating engine.

Compression Ratio
Auto ignition can be obtained with a heavy fuel when the chamber temperature reaches its
Auto ignition temperature. In a reciprocating engine, a heavy fuel-air mixture is typically
ignited by compression ignition (CI) because of its higher ignition quality (i.e., higher Cetane
number) and higher CR. The CRs of the reciprocating engines vary widely from below 10:1
to over 20:1 with SI engines on the lower side (typically below 13:1) and CI engines on the
higher side (typically above 14:1). However, a rotary engine is limited for high CRs because
of the geometric shape of the trochoid (i.e., small displacement volume). The maximum CR
is obtained when the flanks of the rotor are shaped exactly according to the inner envelope of
the trochoid; however, this is not practical. The CR for a rotary engine is defined in equation

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is the theoretical minimum volume, t V is the sum of the combustion chamber recess and
spark plug hole volumes, and d V is the displacement volume or stroke volume.
Another limiting factor for higher CR of a rotary engine is imperfect sealing of the apex and
side seals. Perfect seals between the rotor and the housing walls are needed to keep the
chambers isolated and to achieve its design CR. Lower CR will lead to incomplete
combustion resulting in lower combustion efficiency. Unlike a piston engine that has a ring
arrangement, the rotary engine has only one sealing line of contact; therefore, it cannot reach
the same tightness as in the piston engine, which leads to sealing leaks. The rotary engine
should be designed to achieve as high CR as possible to autoignite a heavy fuel-air mixture
by optimally designing the geometric CR and minimizing the sealing leaks. As an example,
figure 5 shows the effect of the engine CR on the engine performance. In this case, the CR
range (7.5 to 8.92) is narrow, thus the engine performance is increasing all but linearly.
However, this trend will not linearly increase as the CR continues to increase, as shown in
figure 6. Real engines have other limiting factors, such as knocking for SI engines and heat
loss; therefore, the efficiency increase is even lower with increasing CR.

Ignition
Even if the rotary engine has an optimal geometric CR and excellent apex and side sealing, it
cannot reach the auto ignition temperature of a heavy fuel because of its inherently small
displacement. Therefore, the engine requires an additional ignition source to locally ignite the
fuel-air mixture. Once a small volume of the mixture is ignited by the additional ignition
source, combustion will take place with subsequent flame propagation into the unburned
mixture. This additional local ignition energy (i.e., minimum ignition energy) has been
obtained in the rotary engine from spark plugs or glow plugs. One, two, or three spark plugs
have been used in the rotary engines depending on its applications. A pilot flame ignition
system was also used to improve ignitability under lean conditions in which pilot fuel is
injected toward the adjacent spark plug, and subsequently, flame propagates into the fuel-air
mixture in the main chamber, which is similar to an indirect diesel engine with a glow plug.

Direct-Injection Stratified-Charge Rotary Engine (DI-SCRE)

A major problem of the premixed SI Winkle engines is low fuel economy. DI-SCRE was
developed by the Curtiss-Wright Corporation in the mid 1960s to improve fuel economy and
reduce unburned hydrocarbon emissions. In a DI-SCRE rotary engine, fresh air is introduced
into the working chamber through the inlet port. A circular swirl is generated as the fresh air
passes through the intake port, and this swirl motion continues during the compression
process. Liquid fuel injection starts at about 30° TC (before top center). Injection duration
and quantity are determined based on the required engine load. The combustion chamber is
designed to provide a fuel-rich mixture (i.e., stoichiometric mixture) adjacent to a spark plug.
The fuel-air mixture becomes more lean the farther it gets from the spark; eventually, the
mixture consists solely of air near the walls. Right after the fuel injection starts, the spark
plug ignites the fuel rich mixture, and flame propagates. The swirling motion of the charged
air continually provides air to the burning mixture. Therefore, the DI-SCRE rotary engine
operates under lean conditions. As the engine speeds and loads increase, mixing time is
insufficient and a locally fuel-rich mixture exists causing inefficient combustion. Insufficient
mixing time can be overcome by a low equivalence ratio (or high excess air ratio) operation,
increased turbulence intensity, and/or multiple injections. Burley et al. The major causes of
high hydrocarbon emissions in rotary engines were apex seal leaks, residuals (reduced flame
temperature), and flame quenching due to cold-wall zones (i.e., long narrow combustion
chamber) and the large surface-to-volume ratio of a rotary engine (radical removal and

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reaction zone cooling). Although the DI-SCRE rotary engine operated under lean conditions,
combustion efficiency was poor at light load, which produced high unburned hydrocarbon
emissions. One of the several possible reasons for high hydrocarbon emissions was poor in-
cylinder fuel distribution, which might be caused by erratic fuel injection. The results show
that the total individual cycle heat release at light 12 loads disagrees with the total fuel energy
provided, which was caused by partial or incomplete combustion of individual cycles. The
incomplete combustion would exhaust more unburned and partially burned gases; therefore,
the energy released by combustion is lower than the energy provided by fuel supply. Today’s
sophisticated high-pressure fuel injection systems can be used to improve in-cylinder fuel
distributions. This study can be done with advanced computational fluid dynamics (CFD)
codes, which are presently available.

Figure 1.2: Engine

The rotary engine may be well suited for stratified-charge operation.

The waist of the rotor trochoid housing increases the air motion past a stationary injector,
which enhances fuel-air mixing. Since fuel stratification is sensitive to fuel properties,
especially fuel volatility, stratification is important for the rotary engine to burn heavy fuels.
The
Curtiss-Wright Corporation demonstrated the feasibility and advantages of the DI-SCRE
rotary engine. The following attributes are the most significant advantages to using the DI-
SCRE rotary engine over a premixed rotary engine:
i. Multi fuel capability: improved fuel tolerance.
ii. Higher thermal efficiency.
iii. Lower hydrocarbon emissions except at light loads.
iv. Reduced throttling losses.
Fuel stratification is an excellent method to control combustion, which is especially
beneficial for rotary engines. The realization of the DI-SCRE rotary engine depends on the
better understanding of the effect of engine design and operating parameters on unsteady,
multidimensional fluid flow, fuel injection, fuel-air mixing process, and combustion inside
the engine’s combustion chambers

Advantages
Effects Causes
i. High specific power density
ii. High power-to-weight ratio
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High power-to-volume ratio
i. Higher operating speed possible by rotation
ii. more air in and more fuel in per time more power output per engine total weight.
iii. One power pulse per shaft rotation.
Smooth operation
i. Continuous unidirectional motion.
ii. No reciprocating parts such as connecting rods and conventional crankshaft with
weight balances, only the rotor geared directly to the output shaft; eccentric shaft
shape counterbalances the offset rotor to eliminate high-speed wobbling.
iii. Ease of balancing.
iv. One power pulse per shaft rotation.
Simple design
i. Very few parts and no valves and valve trains.
ii. Half the number of parts of reciprocating engine (four-stroke).
Compact size and lightweight
i. Fewer parts.
ii. Less volume occupation.
iii. About a third of the bulk and weight of a reciprocating engine (four stroke).
Low vibration levels
i. Three power strokes per each rotation of eccentric output shaft, which leads to
extremely low torque oscillation and vibration.
Lower noise
i. Slower fuel burning rate and less mechanical noise.
ii. Depends on engine calibration.
More mixing time
i. One-third of output shafts speed (slow rotor speed)
suited for stratification.
ii. Three power pulses per rotor rotation/three shaft rotations per rotorrotation.
Higher volumetric efficiency
i. No valve restrictions. Multi fuel capability.
ii. Separates combustion region from intake region, which prevents localized hot spots
from forming; prevent pre ignition or detonation.
Lower cost
i. Simple design and smaller size , which results in lower manufacturing costs.

Lower NOx
i. Lower flame temperatures.
Easier design of emissions control devices
i. Compact size.
Non reversibility of seal paths
i. One direction rotation.
Sizing flexibility
i. Just add additional rotors.
Mechanical simplicity
i. Fewer parts and reciprocation parts.
Reliability
i. Fewer overall stress points.
ii. Positive net torque through the shaft.

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 Disadvantages
Higher fuel consumption
i. Less efficient; however, improved as the technology evolves.
ii. High fuel consumption at low speeds
iii. insufficient torque.
Lower thermal efficiency
i. High surface-to-volume ratio
i.i high heat losses
i.ii flame quenching.
ii. Long and narrow combustion chamber
ii.i longer flame travel time.
iii. Particularly at low-end torque.
Higher oil consumption
i. Rotary engine burns a lot of oil.
Coolant system weight
i. For liquid-cooled rotary engine.
Maintenance
i. Constant maintenance
Manufacturing
i. Not well established; requires different tooling from reciprocating engines.

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 Experiment No. 02
Objective:
To calculate the break power of petrol engine & torque against engine speed.

Apparatus:
i. Dynamometer
ii. Petrol Engine
iii. Air intake system
iv. Fuel Tank
v. Data Acquisition system
vi. Fly Wheel
vii. Load Cell
viii. Exhaust System.

Introduction:
The torque is measured with the help of the dynamometer coupled with the engine. In this
experimental setup eddy current water cooled dynamometer is used for loading. Eddy current
dynamometer has a stator on which electromagnets are fitted and a rotor that rotates within the
magnetic field and coupled to the output shaft of the engine. When the rotor rotates, eddy currents are
produced in the stator due to magnetic flux setup by the passage of field current in the electromagnets.
These eddy currents oppose the rotor motion, thus loading the engine. These eddy currents are
dissipated in producing heat and the cooling water carry away the heat. The load is controlled by
regulating the current in the electromagnets. A load cell is connected to the lever arm and this load
cell sends the signal to the engine indicator. Beam type load cells are employed for measuring loads.
The sensitivity depends on the cross section of the beam, modulus of elasticity of the material,
location of the load with respect to the gages and input voltage to the Wheatstone bridge.

Figure 2.1: Dynamometer

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Theory:
Types of Dynamometer:

A dynamometer is a load device which is generally used for measuring the power output of an engine.
Several kinds of dynamometers are common, some of them being referred to as “breaks” or “break
dynamometers”: dry friction break dynamometers, hydraulic or water break dynamometers and eddy
current dynamometers.

Dry friction dynamometers are the oldest kind, and consist of some sort of mechanical breaking
device, often a belt or frictional “shoe” which rubs a rotating hub or shaft. The hub or shaft is spun by
the engine. Increasing tension in the belt, or force of the shoe against the hub increases the load on the
engine.

Hydraulic dynamometers are basically hydraulic pumps where the impeller is spun by the engine.
Load on the engine is varied by opening or closing a valve, which changes back pressure on the
hydraulic pump.

Eddy current dynamometers are electromagnetic load devices. The engine being tested spins a disk
in the dynamometer. Electrical current passes through coils surrounding the disk, and induce a
magnetic resistance to the motion of the disk. Varying the current varies the load on the engine. The
dynamometer applies a resistance to the rotation of the engine. If the dynamometer is connected to the
engine’s output shaft it is referred to as an Engine Dynamometer. When the dynamometer is
connected to the vehicles drive wheels it is called a Chassis Dynamometer. The force exerted on the
dynamometer housing is resisted by a strain measuring device (for example a strain gage).

Dynamometer Operation:

Several components are typically packaged together in a dynamometer: the shaft with bearings, the
resistance surface, the resistance mechanism in a “free” rotating housing, a strain gage, and a speed
sensor (see figure 2.2 for a schematic of an Eddy Current Dynamometer). Generally some method of
cooling is also required, and this may require either a heat exchanger or air or water circulation, this is
not shown in figure 2.2. The entire assembly is typically mounted on a stout frame, which is
mechanically linked to the frame of the engine being tested. Figure 2.2.

Figure 2.2: Eddy Current Dynamometer

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The force signal (F) from the strain gage may be converted into a torque (T) by multiplying by the
distance from the center of the shaft to the pivot point of the strain gage (R):

T=RxF

If the units are in Newton-meters and shaft speed (S) is measured in radians per second, then the shaft
power or break power (P) of the engine can be calculated by multiplying the speed and the torque:

P=TxS

Obviously if you are using different units than you will need to use the appropriate conversion factors.

Dynamometer Controllers:

In order to test the engine it is generally necessary to use a dynamometer controller. This is usually an
electronic unit which has the capability of controlling the load on the dynamometer (i.e. it controls the
current to the resistance coils in an eddy current dynamometer) and can measure or sense the load and
speed. Dynamometer controllers generally operate in two modes: Speed Controlled operation or
Load Controlled operation.

In Speed Controlled mode a set speed is given to the controller (either as a voltage or a setting on
the front panel of the controller, see figure 2.3). If the measured speed of the shaft is less than that of
the set speed, the load is decreased. If the measured speed of the shaft is greater than that of the set
speed, then the load is increased. Assuming the engine has sufficient torque to attain the set speed,
this will maintain a constant speed.

Figure 2.3: Schematic of a speed controlled test of engine at WOT

In Load Controlled mode a set load is given to the controller (either as a voltage or a setting on the
front panel of the controller). If the measured load on the dynamometer is greater than that of the set
load, the load is decreased. If the measured load on the dynamometer is less than that of the set load,
then the load is increased. Assuming the engine has sufficient torque to attain the set load, this will
maintain a constant load while the speed varies.

Engine Testing: Power Curve

Several different tests can be performed with good engine dynamometer. The most common is an
Engine Power Curve (or Engine Torque Curve). In this test the engine is run at wide open throttle
(WOT), and the dynamometer is operated in Speed Controlled mode. The speed set point is initially
set to a low value, perhaps twice the idle speed. Engine speed and dynamometer torque are measured,

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and the speed set point is then increased, perhaps 500 rpm, and once the engine stabilizes at the new
speed, the new speed and torque are measured. This is repeated up to the maximum desired speed.
Break Power can then be calculated from the data, and you will have curves for the WOT torque and
power as a function of engine speed. Please note: great care should be taken when testing the engine
at WOT as any mistake in the testing could lead to am over-speed engine, possibly resulting in engine
destruction.

Engine Testing: Drive Cycle

To test an engine in a simulated drive cycle it may be best to use the load controlled mode. Generally
both the engine speed and load will vary as a function of time, so the dynamometer controller needs to
be programmable, or have a load control voltage sent to it from a programmable voltage source (i.e.
DAC). Typically a human operator is given the “speed schedule” (i.e. the speed versus time) of the
test, and can view the actual speed of the engine. His job is to maintain the engine as close to the
operating speed as possible during the course of the testing by operating the throttle. This step can
alternatively be done by a programmable speed-sensing throttle controller (very similar to a
dynamometer controller) and throttle actuator.

Power Testing: Further Explanation and Data

To test a motorcycle engine under load and measure its power output it was connected to a
dynamometer via the drive shaft sprocket. An eddy current type dynamometer was used for control
and measurement of engine power. The dynamometer consists of a drive shaft rotating a 60 tooth
speed wheel and an induction disk as seen schematically in figure 2.4. The induction disk rotates
inside a housing which contains electromagnetic coils. The housing pivots freely about the shaft.
Rotation of the housing is resisted by a strain gauge connected to the frame of the engine.

Figure 2.4: Schematic of a engine and eddy current dynamometer

Current running in the coils induces drag in the induction disk, resisting rotation of the drive shaft.
The torque produced in the housing is measured by the strain gauge and was recorded. The
dynamometer controller measures the speed of the engine, and compares it to a speed set point which
is either adjusted via the front panel of the dynamometer controller, or an external voltage. If the
speed of the shaft is greater than the speed set point the current in the coils is increased thereby
increasing the drag on the drive shaft and slowing the engine. If the speed is below that of the set

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point the current in the coils is reduced. Very near the set point the controller outputs a Pulse Width
Modulated (PWM) control signal to the coils. This allows the controller to vary the load on the engine
in order to maintain a given shaft speed.

The SAJ eddy-current type dynamometer, shown in figure 4 is rated at 30 kW and controlled by a
modified Dialog dynamometer controller. Modifications of the controller consisted of rewiring it to
operate the lower voltage coils (30V DC each) of the SAJ dynamometer, rather than the 130V initially
supplied by the controller.

Figure 2.5: The SAJ eddy current dynamometer used for engine testing

During power measurements it necessary to provide sufficient cooling air to the engine to avoid
overheating. This was supplied by a large fan and cowling which provided airflow over the engine at
approximately 40 km/h. The temperature of the head was monitored continuously via a head mounted
thermocouple throughout testing to ensure it did not overheat. The dynamometer also required cooling
to dissipate the heat generated by the induction wheel and coils. This was provided by circulating
water through the dynamometer housing via the pipes seen in the left of figure 2.5.

The dynamometer controller could vary the load on the engine and measure the drive shaft’s speed,
and torque. Typically the engine was operated at a given throttle setting, and the dynamometer was
controlled to maintain a constant shaft speed. All measurements were taken from the transmissions
final drive sprocket. These numbers could be converted back to actual engine numbers by dividing the
torque by the gearing ratio, and multiplying the speed by the gearing ratio. Note, however, that this
does not account for the efficiency of the transmission, which for a typical motorcycle can be
expected to be on the order of 90%. All of the power and torque numbers presented here are the raw
numbers, uncorrected for transmission losses.

Drive Cycle Simulation:

It is often more convenient to measure the fuel consumption and emissions of a vehicle in the lab
rather than during operations in the field. The point of drive cycle simulation is to determine what test
points (engine speed and torque) to test at in order to simulate actual driving conditions. This is how

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we determine what test points to use. First we start by measuring a typical drive cycle of the vehicle in
question. Engine speed and torque are calculated and recorded.

Brake power:

The power available at engine crank shaft for useful work is called brake power. The brake power
involves the torque and the angular speed of the engine output shaft. The torque is measured using the
dynamometer and angular speed is measured by the crank angle sensor.

Eddy-Current:

The eddy-current brake consists basically out of three assemblies, rotor and shaft assembly, casing
assembly and baseplate assembly. Two important features in the casing assembly are the coils and the
loss plates. The loss plates are cooled by water and are located with fine clearance in relation to the
rotor. It is between the rotor and loss plates that the braking torque is developed. The casing is
mounted on the baseplate by the principles of trunnion bearings.

Eddy currents are electric currents that are induced in a conductor by a magnetic field as the
conductor moves though the magnetic field which in the case of an eddy-current dynamometer is
generated by magnetizing coils. As the rotor, in most common types a toothed rotor of high magnetic
permeability steel, cuts the magnetic field it will cause disruption of the magnetic flux in the loss
plates which generates circulating eddy currents. The eddy currents in turn generates a magnetic field
that opposes the magnetic field generated by the coils this effect will counteract the rotation of the
shaft. The absorbed energy is transferred to the cooling water, which circulates through passages in
the loss plates, in the form of heat as a result of electrical resistive losses. The magnetic field
generated by the coils is controlled by adjusting the amount of current flowing through the coils. The
input current to the coils is directly proportional to the absorbed power. There are two types of eddy-
current dynamometers, dry gap and wet gap. The dry gap type has air circulating in the gap between
the rotor and loss plate and the wet gap uses water instead of air. The main difference between these
two types is that the wet gap has a higher moment of inertia, and is not as widely used in engine
testing as the dry gap. There are two common forms of dry gap dynamometers, one with a single or
several toothed disk rotors and another with a drum rotor. The dry gap dynamometer with disk rotors
has a lower inertia but is more sensitive to cooling water conditions than the drum rotor type.

A Study of Small Engine Tests 20 In general the advantage of eddy-current dynamometers is that they
are mechanically simple, have low inertia and are well adapted to computer control systems. The
downsides are on the other hand that they are sensitive to poor cooling and thermal cycling which in
turn require a well maintained and controlled water cooling system.

Magnetic Powder Brake:

The magnetic powder brake is a variant of the eddy-current brake but in the gap between the stator
and the rotor were an eddy-current brake has air the magnetic powder brake also has a fine magnetic
powder. The main advantage of the magnetic powder brake is that it can absorb full-rated torque all
the way down to zero RPM. A limiting factor with this concept is the difficulty in dissipating the
generated heat, this limits the maximum power and maximum speed of the brake, typically a
maximum of 50 kW and 2000 RPM.

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Hysteresis Brake:

Two of the most efficient technologies in the smaller power range, max 150 kW, are the hysteresis
brake and the disk-type eddy current brake. The design of the hysteresis brake allows for full torque to
be generated at full speed down to zero speed. Compared to the disk-type eddy-current design it has a
rotor and a stator with coils but the rotor is formed as a cup and the stator encapsulates the walls of the
cup instead of the stator on both sides of a disk.

Procedure:
i. Initially the experiments are conducted with petrol fuel. Engine is started by cranking.
ii. The engine is allowed to run 30 minutes to attain steady state operating conditions, and then
the load is applied gradually between 0 and 5.4 kW.
iii. At each load the engine is allowed to run 5 minutes and the readings are noted and tabulated.
iv. Then, the load on the engine is released and the engine is switched off. 81

Observation and Calculations:

Observation:

In this experiment, i observed that when i gave engine speed 2800 rpm and then torque of 1
Nm produced and the resultant break power were 293.067 W. and RPM increase result In
decrease in break power. It shows same behavior for other observations.

Table of Observations:

All readings and calculations are to be tabulated as follows:

Sr. No Engine speed Torque Break Power

(rpm)N T(Nm) (W)

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Calculation

Sr. No. i

Conclusion:
In this experiment I concluded that the most outstanding aspects of eddy currents, namely their
dissipated power. Simple tests to measure break power and to study its functional dependence on the
velocity, the sources of the magnetic field and the sample resistivity have been carried out. I also
concluded that engine speed is inversely proportional to torque and break power.

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Graph:

RPM Vs Break Power

4500
4000
3500
3000
Break POwer

2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
2200 2300 2400 2500 2600 2700 2800 2900
RPM

RPM Vs Torque
18
16
14
12
Torque

10
8
6
4
2
0
2200 2300 2400 2500 2600 2700 2800 2900
RPM

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 Experiment No. 03
Objective:
To calculate the break power of petrol engine under varying load and constant RPM.

Apparatus:
i. Dynamometer
ii. Petrol Engine
iii. Air intake system
iv. Fuel Tank
v. Data Acquisition system
vi. Fly Wheel
vii. Load Cell
viii. Exhaust System.

Introduction
The torque is measured with the help of the dynamometer coupled with the engine. In this
experimental setup eddy current water cooled dynamometer is used for loading. Eddy current
dynamometer has a stator on which electromagnets are fitted and a rotor that rotates within the
magnetic field and coupled to the output shaft of the engine. When the rotor rotates, eddy currents are
produced in the stator due to magnetic flux setup by the passage of field current in the electromagnets.
These eddy currents oppose the rotor motion, thus loading the engine. These eddy currents are
dissipated in producing heat and the cooling water carry away the heat. The load is controlled by
regulating the current in the electromagnets. A load cell is connected to the lever arm and this load
cell sends the signal to the engine indicator. Beam type load cells are employed for measuring loads.
The sensitivity depends on the cross section of the beam, modulus of elasticity of the material,
location of the load with respect to the gages and input voltage to the Wheatstone bridge.

Figure 3.1: Dynamometer

17 | P a g e
Theory:
Types of Dynamometer:

A dynamometer is a load device which is generally used for measuring the power output of an engine.
Several kinds of dynamometers are common, some of them being referred to as “breaks” or “break
dynamometers”: dry friction break dynamometers, hydraulic or water break dynamometers and eddy
current dynamometers.

Dry friction dynamometers are the oldest kind, and consist of some sort of mechanical breaking
device, often a belt or frictional “shoe” which rubs a rotating hub or shaft. The hub or shaft is spun by
the engine. Increasing tension in the belt, or force of the shoe against the hub increases the load on the
engine.

Hydraulic dynamometers are basically hydraulic pumps where the impeller is spun by the engine.
Load on the engine is varied by opening or closing a valve, which changes back pressure on the
hydraulic pump.

Eddy current dynamometers are electromagnetic load devices. The engine being tested spins a disk
in the dynamometer. Electrical current passes through coils surrounding the disk, and induce a
magnetic resistance to the motion of the disk. Varying the current varies the load on the engine. The
dynamometer applies a resistance to the rotation of the engine. If the dynamometer is connected to the
engine’s output shaft it is referred to as an Engine Dynamometer. When the dynamometer is
connected to the vehicles drive wheels it is called a Chassis Dynamometer. The force exerted on the
dynamometer housing is resisted by a strain measuring device (for example a strain gage).

Dynamometer Operation:

Several components are typically packaged together in a dynamometer: the shaft with bearings, the
resistance surface, the resistance mechanism in a “free” rotating housing, a strain gage, and a speed
sensor (see figure 3.2 for a schematic of an Eddy Current Dynamometer). Generally some method of
cooling is also required, and this may require either a heat exchanger or air or water circulation, this is
not shown in figure 3.2. The entire assembly is typically mounted on a stout frame, which is
mechanically linked to the frame of the engine being tested. Figure 3.2.

Figure 3.2: Eddy Current Dynamometer

18 | P a g e
The force signal (F) from the strain gage may be converted into a torque (T) by multiplying by the
distance from the center of the shaft to the pivot point of the strain gage (R):

T=RxF

If the units are in Newton-meters and shaft speed (S) is measured in radians per second, then the shaft
power or break power (P) of the engine can be calculated by multiplying the speed and the torque:

P=TxS

Obviously if you are using different units than you will need to use the appropriate conversion factors.

Dynamometer Controllers:

In order to test the engine it is generally necessary to use a dynamometer controller. This is usually an
electronic unit which has the capability of controlling the load on the dynamometer (i.e. it controls the
current to the resistance coils in an eddy current dynamometer) and can measure or sense the load and
speed. Dynamometer controllers generally operate in two modes: Speed Controlled operation or
Load Controlled operation.

In Speed Controlled mode a set speed is given to the controller (either as a voltage or a setting on
the front panel of the controller, see figure 3.3). If the measured speed of the shaft is less than that of
the set speed, the load is decreased. If the measured speed of the shaft is greater than that of the set
speed, then the load is increased. Assuming the engine has sufficient torque to attain the set speed,
this will maintain a constant speed.

Figure 3.3: Schematic of a speed controlled test of engine at WOT

In Load Controlled mode a set load is given to the controller (either as a voltage or a setting on the
front panel of the controller). If the measured load on the dynamometer is greater than that of the set
load, the load is decreased. If the measured load on the dynamometer is less than that of the set load,
then the load is increased. Assuming the engine has sufficient torque to attain the set load, this will
maintain a constant load while the speed varies.

Engine Testing: Power Curve

Several different tests can be performed with good engine dynamometer. The most common is an
Engine Power Curve (or Engine Torque Curve). In this test the engine is run at wide open throttle
(WOT), and the dynamometer is operated in Speed Controlled mode. The speed set point is initially
set to a low value, perhaps twice the idle speed. Engine speed and dynamometer torque are measured,

19 | P a g e
and the speed set point is then increased, perhaps 500 rpm, and once the engine stabilizes at the new
speed, the new speed and torque are measured. This is repeated up to the maximum desired speed.
Break Power can then be calculated from the data, and you will have curves for the WOT torque and
power as a function of engine speed. Please note: great care should be taken when testing the engine
at WOT as any mistake in the testing could lead to an over-speed engine, possibly resulting in engine
destruction.

Engine Testing: Drive Cycle

To test an engine in a simulated drive cycle it may be best to use the load controlled mode. Generally
both the engine speed and load will vary as a function of time, so the dynamometer controller needs to
be programmable, or have a load control voltage sent to it from a programmable voltage source (i.e.
DAC). Typically a human operator is given the “speed schedule” (i.e. the speed versus time) of the
test, and can view the actual speed of the engine. His job is to maintain the engine as close to the
operating speed as possible during the course of the testing by operating the throttle. This step can
alternatively be done by a programmable speed-sensing throttle controller (very similar to a
dynamometer controller) and throttle actuator.

Power Testing: Further Explanation and Data

To test a motorcycle engine under load and measure its power output it was connected to a
dynamometer via the drive shaft sprocket. An eddy current type dynamometer was used for control
and measurement of engine power. The dynamometer consists of a drive shaft rotating a 60 tooth
speed wheel and an induction disk as seen schematically in figure 3.4. The induction disk rotates
inside a housing which contains electromagnetic coils. The housing pivots freely about the shaft.
Rotation of the housing is resisted by a strain gauge connected to the frame of the engine.

Figure 3.4: Schematic of a engine and eddy current dynamometer

Current running in the coils induces drag in the induction disk, resisting rotation of the drive shaft.
The torque produced in the housing is measured by the strain gauge and was recorded. The
dynamometer controller measures the speed of the engine, and compares it to a speed set point which
is either adjusted via the front panel of the dynamometer controller, or an external voltage. If the
speed of the shaft is greater than the speed set point the current in the coils is increased thereby
increasing the drag on the drive shaft and slowing the engine. If the speed is below that of the set

20 | P a g e
point the current in the coils is reduced. Very near the set point the controller outputs a Pulse Width
Modulated (PWM) control signal to the coils. This allows the controller to vary the load on the engine
in order to maintain a given shaft speed.

Figure 3.5: The SAJ eddy current dynamometer used for engine testing

During power measurements it necessary to provide sufficient cooling air to the engine to avoid
overheating. This was supplied by a large fan and cowling which provided airflow over the engine at
approximately 40 km/h. The temperature of the head was monitored continuously via a head mounted
thermocouple throughout testing to ensure it did not overheat. The dynamometer also required cooling
to dissipate the heat generated by the induction wheel and coils. This was provided by circulating
water through the dynamometer housing via the pipes.

The dynamometer controller could vary the load on the engine and measure the drive shaft’s speed,
and torque. Typically the engine was operated at a given throttle setting, and the dynamometer was
controlled to maintain a constant shaft speed. All measurements were taken from the transmissions
final drive sprocket. These numbers could be converted back to actual engine numbers by dividing the
torque by the gearing ratio, and multiplying the speed by the gearing ratio. Note, however, that this
does not account for the efficiency of the transmission, which for a typical motorcycle can be
expected to be on the order of 90%. All of the power and torque numbers presented here are the raw
numbers, uncorrected for transmission losses.

Drive Cycle Simulation:

It is often more convenient to measure the fuel consumption and emissions of a vehicle in the lab
rather than during operations in the field. The point of drive cycle simulation is to determine what test
points (engine speed and torque) to test at in order to simulate actual driving conditions. This is how
we determine what test points to use. First we start by measuring a typical drive cycle of the vehicle in
question. Engine speed and torque are calculated and recorded.

21 | P a g e
Brake power:

The power available at engine crank shaft for useful work is called brake power. The brake power
involves the torque and the angular speed of the engine output shaft. The torque is measured using the
dynamometer and angular speed is measured by the crank angle sensor.

Eddy-Current:

The eddy-current brake consists basically out of three assemblies, rotor and shaft assembly, casing
assembly and baseplate assembly. Two important features in the casing assembly are the coils and the
loss plates. The loss plates are cooled by water and are located with fine clearance in relation to the
rotor. It is between the rotor and loss plates that the braking torque is developed. The casing is
mounted on the baseplate by the principles of trunnion bearings.

Eddy currents are electric currents that are induced in a conductor by a magnetic field as the
conductor moves though the magnetic field which in the case of an eddy-current dynamometer is
generated by magnetizing coils. As the rotor, in most common types a toothed rotor of high magnetic
permeability steel, cuts the magnetic field it will cause disruption of the magnetic flux in the loss
plates which generates circulating eddy currents. The eddy currents in turn generates a magnetic field
that opposes the magnetic field generated by the coils this effect will counteract the rotation of the
shaft. The absorbed energy is transferred to the cooling water, which circulates through passages in
the loss plates, in the form of heat as a result of electrical resistive losses. The magnetic field
generated by the coils is controlled by adjusting the amount of current flowing through the coils. The
input current to the coils is directly proportional to the absorbed power. There are two types of eddy-
current dynamometers, dry gap and wet gap. The dry gap type has air circulating in the gap between
the rotor and loss plate and the wet gap uses water instead of air. The main difference between these
two types is that the wet gap has a higher moment of inertia, and is not as widely used in engine
testing as the dry gap. There are two common forms of dry gap dynamometers, one with a single or
several toothed disk rotors and another with a drum rotor. The dry gap dynamometer with disk rotors
has a lower inertia but is more sensitive to cooling water conditions than the drum rotor type.

A Study of Small Engine Tests 20 In general the advantage of eddy-current dynamometers is that they
are mechanically simple, have low inertia and are well adapted to computer control systems. The
downsides are on the other hand that they are sensitive to poor cooling and thermal cycling which in
turn require a well maintained and controlled water cooling system.

Magnetic Powder Brake:

The magnetic powder brake is a variant of the eddy-current brake but in the gap between the stator
and the rotor were an eddy-current brake has air the magnetic powder brake also has a fine magnetic
powder. The main advantage of the magnetic powder brake is that it can absorb full-rated torque all
the way down to zero RPM. A limiting factor with this concept is the difficulty in dissipating the
generated heat, this limits the maximum power and maximum speed of the brake, typically a
maximum of 50 kW and 2000 RPM.

Hysteresis Brake:

Two of the most efficient technologies in the smaller power range, max 150 kW, are the hysteresis
brake and the disk-type eddy current brake. The design of the hysteresis brake allows for full torque to
be generated at full speed down to zero speed. Compared to the disk-type eddy-current design it has a

22 | P a g e
rotor and a stator with coils but the rotor is formed as a cup and the stator encapsulates the walls of the
cup instead of the stator on both sides of a disk.

Procedure:
i. Initially the experiments are conducted with petrol fuel. Engine is started by cranking.
ii. The engine is allowed to run 30 minutes to attain steady state operating conditions, and then
the load is applied gradually between 0 and 5.4 kW.
iii. At each load the engine is allowed to run 5 minutes and the readings are noted and tabulated.
iv. Then, the load on the engine is released and the engine is switched off.

Observation and Calculations:

Observation:

In this experiment, I observed that when i open throttle 20% and then torque of 1 Nm
produced and the resultant break power were 240.733 W and for constant RPM I increased
load with throttle opened %. It shows same behavior for other observations.

Table of Observations:

All readings and calculations are to be tabulated as follows:

Sr. No Throttle Torque T Break Power

Per. (Nm) (W)
2πNt/60

23 | P a g e
Calculation

Sr. No. i

Conclusion:
In this experiment I concluded that the most outstanding aspects of eddy currents, namely their
dissipated power and at constant RPM the break power of engine is directly proportional to throttle
opened.

24 | P a g e
Graph:

Throttle % VS Torque
14

12

10

8
Torque

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Throttle %

Throttle % vs Break Power

3500

3000

2500
Brak Power

2000

1500

1000

500

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Throttle %

25 | P a g e
 Experiment No. 04
Objective:
To calculate the break effective pressure of petrol engine.

Apparatus:
i. Dynamometer
ii. Petrol Engine
iii. Air intake system
iv. Fuel Tank
v. Data Acquisition system
vi. Fly Wheel
vii. Load Cell
viii. Exhaust System.

Introduction:
The torque is measured with the help of the dynamometer coupled with the engine. In this
experimental setup eddy current water cooled dynamometer is used for loading. Eddy current
dynamometer has a stator on which electromagnets are fitted and a rotor that rotates within the
magnetic field and coupled to the output shaft of the engine. When the rotor rotates, eddy currents are
produced in the stator due to magnetic flux setup by the passage of field current in the electromagnets.
These eddy currents oppose the rotor motion, thus loading the engine. These eddy currents are
dissipated in producing heat and the cooling water carry away the heat. The load is controlled by
regulating the current in the electromagnets. A load cell is connected to the lever arm and this load
cell sends the signal to the engine indicator. Beam type load cells are employed for measuring loads.
The sensitivity depends on the cross section of the beam, modulus of elasticity of the material,
location of the load with respect to the gages and input voltage to the Wheatstone bridge.

Figure 4.1: Dynamometer

26 | P a g e
Theory:
Types of Dynamometer:

A dynamometer is a load device which is generally used for measuring the power output of an engine.
Several kinds of dynamometers are common, some of them being referred to as “breaks” or “break
dynamometers”: dry friction break dynamometers, hydraulic or water break dynamometers and eddy
current dynamometers.

Dry friction dynamometers are the oldest kind, and consist of some sort of mechanical breaking
device, often a belt or frictional “shoe” which rubs a rotating hub or shaft. The hub or shaft is spun by
the engine. Increasing tension in the belt, or force of the shoe against the hub increases the load on the
engine.

Hydraulic dynamometers are basically hydraulic pumps where the impeller is spun by the engine.
Load on the engine is varied by opening or closing a valve, which changes back pressure on the
hydraulic pump.

Eddy current dynamometers are electromagnetic load devices. The engine being tested spins a disk
in the dynamometer. Electrical current passes through coils surrounding the disk, and induce a
magnetic resistance to the motion of the disk. Varying the current varies the load on the engine. The
dynamometer applies a resistance to the rotation of the engine. If the dynamometer is connected to the
engine’s output shaft it is referred to as an Engine Dynamometer. When the dynamometer is
connected to the vehicles drive wheels it is called a Chassis Dynamometer. The force exerted on the
dynamometer housing is resisted by a strain measuring device (for example a strain gage).

Dynamometer Operation:

Several components are typically packaged together in a dynamometer: the shaft with bearings, the
resistance surface, the resistance mechanism in a “free” rotating housing, a strain gage, and a speed
sensor (see figure 4.2 for a schematic of an Eddy Current Dynamometer). Generally some method of
cooling is also required, and this may require either a heat exchanger or air or water circulation, this is
not shown in figure 4.2. The entire assembly is typically mounted on a stout frame, which is
mechanically linked to the frame of the engine being tested. Figure 4.2.

Figure 4.2: Eddy Current Dynamometer

27 | P a g e
The force signal (F) from the strain gage may be converted into a torque (T) by multiplying by the
distance from the center of the shaft to the pivot point of the strain gage (R):

T=RxF

If the units are in Newton-meters and shaft speed (S) is measured in radians per second, then the shaft
power or break power (P) of the engine can be calculated by multiplying the speed and the torque:

P=TxS

Obviously if you are using different units than you will need to use the appropriate conversion factors.

Dynamometer Controllers:

In order to test the engine it is generally necessary to use a dynamometer controller. This is usually an
electronic unit which has the capability of controlling the load on the dynamometer (i.e. it controls the
current to the resistance coils in an eddy current dynamometer) and can measure or sense the load and
speed. Dynamometer controllers generally operate in two modes: Speed Controlled operation or
Load Controlled operation.

In Speed Controlled mode a set speed is given to the controller (either as a voltage or a setting on
the front panel of the controller, see figure 4.3). If the measured speed of the shaft is less than that of
the set speed, the load is decreased. If the measured speed of the shaft is greater than that of the set
speed, then the load is increased. Assuming the engine has sufficient torque to attain the set speed,
this will maintain a constant speed.

Figure 4.3: Schematic of a speed controlled test of engine at WOT

In Load Controlled mode a set load is given to the controller (either as a voltage or a setting on the
front panel of the controller). If the measured load on the dynamometer is greater than that of the set
load, the load is decreased. If the measured load on the dynamometer is less than that of the set load,
then the load is increased. Assuming the engine has sufficient torque to attain the set load, this will
maintain a constant load while the speed varies.

Engine Testing: Power Curve

Several different tests can be performed with good engine dynamometer. The most common is an
Engine Power Curve (or Engine Torque Curve). In this test the engine is run at wide open throttle
(WOT), and the dynamometer is operated in Speed Controlled mode. The speed set point is initially
set to a low value, perhaps twice the idle speed. Engine speed and dynamometer torque are measured,

28 | P a g e
and the speed set point is then increased, perhaps 500 rpm, and once the engine stabilizes at the new
speed, the new speed and torque are measured. This is repeated up to the maximum desired speed.
Break Power can then be calculated from the data, and you will have curves for the WOT torque and
power as a function of engine speed. Please note: great care should be taken when testing the engine
at WOT as any mistake in the testing could lead to an over-speed engine, possibly resulting in engine
destruction.

Engine Testing: Drive Cycle

To test an engine in a simulated drive cycle it may be best to use the load controlled mode. Generally
both the engine speed and load will vary as a function of time, so the dynamometer controller needs to
be programmable, or have a load control voltage sent to it from a programmable voltage source (i.e.
DAC). Typically a human operator is given the “speed schedule” (i.e. the speed versus time) of the
test, and can view the actual speed of the engine. His job is to maintain the engine as close to the
operating speed as possible during the course of the testing by operating the throttle. This step can
alternatively be done by a programmable speed-sensing throttle controller (very similar to a
dynamometer controller) and throttle actuator.

Power Testing: Further Explanation and Data

To test a motorcycle engine under load and measure its power output it was connected to a
dynamometer via the drive shaft sprocket. An eddy current type dynamometer was used for control
and measurement of engine power. The dynamometer consists of a drive shaft rotating a 60 tooth
speed wheel and an induction disk as seen schematically in figure 4.4. The induction disk rotates
inside a housing which contains electromagnetic coils. The housing pivots freely about the shaft.
Rotation of the housing is resisted by a strain gauge connected to the frame of the engine.

Figure 4.4: Schematic of a engine and eddy current dynamometer

Current running in the coils induces drag in the induction disk, resisting rotation of the drive shaft.
The torque produced in the housing is measured by the strain gauge and was recorded. The

29 | P a g e
dynamometer controller measures the speed of the engine, and compares it to a speed set point which
is either adjusted via the front panel of the dynamometer controller, or an external voltage. If the
speed of the shaft is greater than the speed set point the current in the coils is increased thereby
increasing the drag on the drive shaft and slowing the engine. If the speed is below that of the set
point the current in the coils is reduced. Very near the set point the controller outputs a Pulse Width
Modulated (PWM) control signal to the coils. This allows the controller to vary the load on the engine
in order to maintain a given shaft speed.

The SAJ eddy-current type dynamometer, shown in figure 4 is rated at 30 kW and controlled by a
modified Dialog dynamometer controller. Modifications of the controller consisted of rewiring it to
operate the lower voltage coils (30V DC each) of the SAJ dynamometer, rather than the 130V initially
supplied by the controller.

Figure 4.5: The SAJ eddy current dynamometer used for engine testing

During power measurements it necessary to provide sufficient cooling air to the engine to avoid
overheating. This was supplied by a large fan and cowling which provided airflow over the engine at
approximately 40 km/h. The temperature of the head was monitored continuously via a head mounted
thermocouple throughout testing to ensure it did not overheat. The dynamometer also required cooling
to dissipate the heat generated by the induction wheel and coils. This was provided by circulating
water through the dynamometer housing via the pipes seen in the left of figure 4.5.

The dynamometer controller could vary the load on the engine and measure the drive shaft’s speed,
and torque. Typically the engine was operated at a given throttle setting, and the dynamometer was
controlled to maintain a constant shaft speed. All measurements were taken from the transmissions
final drive sprocket. These numbers could be converted back to actual engine numbers by dividing the
torque by the gearing ratio, and multiplying the speed by the gearing ratio. Note, however, that this
does not account for the efficiency of the transmission, which for a typical motorcycle can be
expected to be on the order of 90%. All of the power and torque numbers presented here are the raw
numbers, uncorrected for transmission losses.

30 | P a g e
Drive Cycle Simulation:

It is often more convenient to measure the fuel consumption and emissions of a vehicle in the lab
rather than during operations in the field. The point of drive cycle simulation is to determine what test
points (engine speed and torque) to test at in order to simulate actual driving conditions. This is how
we determine what test points to use. First we start by measuring a typical drive cycle of the vehicle in
question. Engine speed and torque are calculated and recorded.

Brake power:

The power available at engine crank shaft for useful work is called brake power. The brake power
involves the torque and the angular speed of the engine output shaft. The torque is measured using the
dynamometer and angular speed is measured by the crank angle sensor.

Eddy-Current:

The eddy-current brake consists basically out of three assemblies, rotor and shaft assembly, casing
assembly and baseplate assembly. Two important features in the casing assembly are the coils and the
loss plates. The loss plates are cooled by water and are located with fine clearance in relation to the
rotor. It is between the rotor and loss plates that the braking torque is developed. The casing is
mounted on the baseplate by the principles of trunnion bearings.

Eddy currents are electric currents that are induced in a conductor by a magnetic field as the
conductor moves though the magnetic field which in the case of an eddy-current dynamometer is
generated by magnetizing coils. As the rotor, in most common types a toothed rotor of high magnetic
permeability steel, cuts the magnetic field it will cause disruption of the magnetic flux in the loss
plates which generates circulating eddy currents. The eddy currents in turn generates a magnetic field
that opposes the magnetic field generated by the coils this effect will counteract the rotation of the
shaft. The absorbed energy is transferred to the cooling water, which circulates through passages in
the loss plates, in the form of heat as a result of electrical resistive losses. The magnetic field
generated by the coils is controlled by adjusting the amount of current flowing through the coils. The
input current to the coils is directly proportional to the absorbed power. There are two types of eddy-
current dynamometers, dry gap and wet gap. The dry gap type has air circulating in the gap between
the rotor and loss plate and the wet gap uses water instead of air. The main difference between these
two types is that the wet gap has a higher moment of inertia, and is not as widely used in engine
testing as the dry gap. There are two common forms of dry gap dynamometers, one with a single or
several toothed disk rotors and another with a drum rotor. The dry gap dynamometer with disk rotors
has a lower inertia but is more sensitive to cooling water conditions than the drum rotor type.

A Study of Small Engine Tests 20 In general the advantage of eddy-current dynamometers is that they
are mechanically simple, have low inertia and are well adapted to computer control systems. The
downsides are on the other hand that they are sensitive to poor cooling and thermal cycling which in
turn require a well maintained and controlled water cooling system.

Magnetic Powder Brake:

The magnetic powder brake is a variant of the eddy-current brake but in the gap between the stator
and the rotor were an eddy-current brake has air the magnetic powder brake also has a fine magnetic
powder. The main advantage of the magnetic powder brake is that it can absorb full-rated torque all
the way down to zero RPM. A limiting factor with this concept is the difficulty in dissipating the

31 | P a g e
generated heat, this limits the maximum power and maximum speed of the brake, typically a
maximum of 50 kW and 2000 RPM.

Hysteresis Brake:

Two of the most efficient technologies in the smaller power range, max 150 kW, are the hysteresis
brake and the disk-type eddy current brake. The design of the hysteresis brake allows for full torque to
be generated at full speed down to zero speed. Compared to the disk-type eddy-current design it has a
rotor and a stator with coils but the rotor is formed as a cup and the stator encapsulates the walls of the
cup instead of the stator on both sides of a disk.

Procedure:
i. Initially the experiments are conducted with petrol fuel. Engine is started by cranking.
ii. The engine is allowed to run 30 minutes to attain steady state operating conditions, and then
the load is applied gradually between 0 and 5.4 kW.
iii. At each load the engine is allowed to run 5 minutes and the readings are noted and tabulated.
iv. Then, the load on the engine is released and the engine is switched off.

Observation and Calculations:

Observation:

In this experiment, i observed that when i gave engine speed 3000rpm and then torque of 1
Nm produced and the resultant break power and break mean effective pressure were 0.314
KW and 74.319 kpa respectively.

Table of Observations:

All readings and calculations are to be tabulated as follows:

Sr. No Engine speed Torque Break Power Break Mean

(rpm)N T(Nm) (KW) Effective
Pressure
𝑩. 𝑷 × 𝒓
=
𝑨𝑳 × 𝒏 × 𝑵

32 | P a g e
Calculation:

Sr. No. i

Conclusion:
In this experiment I concluded that the most outstanding aspects of eddy currents, namely their
dissipated power and the relationship of Engine speed is inversely proportional to break mean
Effective pressure.

Graph:

RPM VS BMEP
1200

1000

800
BMEP

600
BMEP
400

200

0
2500 2600 2700 2800 2900 3000 3100
RPM

33 | P a g e
 Experiment No. 05
Objective:
To calculate the break power of diesel engine and draw graph between torque and RPM also
RPM vs BP.

Apparatus:
i. Dynamometer
ii. Diesel Engine
iii. Air intake system
iv. Fuel Tank
v. Data Acquisition system
vi. Fly Wheel
vii. Load Cell
viii. Exhaust System.

Introduction
The torque is measured with the help of the dynamometer coupled with the engine. In this
experimental setup eddy current water cooled dynamometer is used for loading. Eddy current
dynamometer has a stator on which electromagnets are fitted and a rotor that rotates within the
magnetic field and coupled to the output shaft of the engine. When the rotor rotates, eddy currents are
produced in the stator due to magnetic flux setup by the passage of field current in the electromagnets.
These eddy currents oppose the rotor motion, thus loading the engine. These eddy currents are
dissipated in producing heat and the cooling water carry away the heat. The load is controlled by
regulating the current in the electromagnets. A load cell is connected to the lever arm and this load
cell sends the signal to the engine indicator. Beam type load cells are employed for measuring loads.
The sensitivity depends on the cross section of the beam, modulus of elasticity of the material,
location of the load with respect to the gages and input voltage to the Wheatstone bridge.

Figure 5.1: Dynamometer

34 | P a g e
Theory:
Types of Dynamometer

A dynamometer is a load device which is generally used for measuring the power output of an engine.
Several kinds of dynamometers are common, some of them being referred to as “breaks” or “break
dynamometers”: dry friction break dynamometers, hydraulic or water break dynamometers and eddy
current dynamometers.

Dry friction dynamometers are the oldest kind, and consist of some sort of mechanical breaking
device, often a belt or frictional “shoe” which rubs a rotating hub or shaft. The hub or shaft is spun by
the engine. Increasing tension in the belt, or force of the shoe against the hub increases the load on the
engine.

Hydraulic dynamometers are basically hydraulic pumps where the impeller is spun by the engine.
Load on the engine is varied by opening or closing a valve, which changes back pressure on the
hydraulic pump.

Eddy current dynamometers are electromagnetic load devices. The engine being tested spins a disk
in the dynamometer. Electrical current passes through coils surrounding the disk, and induce a
magnetic resistance to the motion of the disk. Varying the current varies the load on the engine. The
dynamometer applies a resistance to the rotation of the engine. If the dynamometer is connected to the
engine’s output shaft it is referred to as an Engine Dynamometer. When the dynamometer is
connected to the vehicles drive wheels it is called a Chassis Dynamometer. The force exerted on the
dynamometer housing is resisted by a strain measuring device (for example a strain gage).

Dynamometer Operation

Several components are typically packaged together in a dynamometer: the shaft with bearings, the
resistance surface, the resistance mechanism in a “free” rotating housing, a strain gage, and a speed
sensor (see figure 5.2 for a schematic of an Eddy Current Dynamometer). Generally some method of
cooling is also required, and this may require either a heat exchanger or air or water circulation, this is
not shown in figure 5.2. The entire assembly is typically mounted on a stout frame, which is
mechanically linked to the frame of the engine being tested. Figure 5.2.

Figure 5.2: Eddy Current Dynamometer

35 | P a g e
The force signal (F) from the strain gage may be converted into a torque (T) by multiplying by the
distance from the center of the shaft to the pivot point of the strain gage (R):

T=RxF

If the units are in Newton-meters and shaft speed (S) is measured in radians per second, then the shaft
power or break power (P) of the engine can be calculated by multiplying the speed and the torque:

P=TxS

Obviously if you are using different units than you will need to use the appropriate conversion factors.

Dynamometer Controllers

In order to test the engine it is generally necessary to use a dynamometer controller. This is usually an
electronic unit which has the capability of controlling the load on the dynamometer (i.e. it controls the
current to the resistance coils in an eddy current dynamometer) and can measure or sense the load and
speed. Dynamometer controllers generally operate in two modes: Speed Controlled operation or
Load Controlled operation.

In Speed Controlled mode a set speed is given to the controller (either as a voltage or a setting on
the front panel of the controller, see figure 5.3). If the measured speed of the shaft is less than that of
the set speed, the load is decreased. If the measured speed of the shaft is greater than that of the set
speed, then the load is increased. Assuming the engine has sufficient torque to attain the set speed,
this will maintain a constant speed.

Figure 5.3: Schematic of a speed controlled test of engine at WOT

In Load Controlled mode a set load is given to the controller (either as a voltage or a setting on the
front panel of the controller). If the measured load on the dynamometer is greater than that of the set
load, the load is decreased. If the measured load on the dynamometer is less than that of the set load,
then the load is increased. Assuming the engine has sufficient torque to attain the set load, this will
maintain a constant load while the speed varies.

Engine Testing: Power Curve

Several different tests can be performed with good engine dynamometer. The most common is an
Engine Power Curve (or Engine Torque Curve). In this test the engine is run at wide open throttle
(WOT), and the dynamometer is operated in Speed Controlled mode. The speed set point is initially
set to a low value, perhaps twice the idle speed. Engine speed and dynamometer torque are measured,

36 | P a g e
and the speed set point is then increased, perhaps 500 rpm, and once the engine stabilizes at the new
speed, the new speed and torque are measured. This is repeated up to the maximum desired speed.
Break Power can then be calculated from the data, and you will have curves for the WOT torque and
power as a function of engine speed. Please note: great care should be taken when testing the engine
at WOT as any mistake in the testing could lead to an over-speed engine, possibly resulting in engine
destruction.

Engine Testing: Drive Cycle

To test an engine in a simulated drive cycle it may be best to use the load controlled mode. Generally
both the engine speed and load will vary as a function of time, so the dynamometer controller needs to
be programmable, or have a load control voltage sent to it from a programmable voltage source (i.e.
DAC). Typically a human operator is given the “speed schedule” (i.e. the speed versus time) of the
test, and can view the actual speed of the engine. His job is to maintain the engine as close to the
operating speed as possible during the course of the testing by operating the throttle. This step can
alternatively be done by a programmable speed-sensing throttle controller (very similar to a
dynamometer controller) and throttle actuator.

Power Testing: Further Explanation and Data

To test a motorcycle engine under load and measure its power output it was connected to a
dynamometer via the drive shaft sprocket. An eddy current type dynamometer was used for control
and measurement of engine power. The dynamometer consists of a drive shaft rotating a 60 tooth
speed wheel and an induction disk as seen schematically in figure 5.4. The induction disk rotates
inside a housing which contains electromagnetic coils. The housing pivots freely about the shaft.
Rotation of the housing is resisted by a strain gauge connected to the frame of the engine.

Figure 5.4: Schematic of a engine and eddy current dynamometer

Current running in the coils induces drag in the induction disk, resisting rotation of the drive shaft.
The torque produced in the housing is measured by the strain gauge and was recorded. The
dynamometer controller measures the speed of the engine, and compares it to a speed set point which
is either adjusted via the front panel of the dynamometer controller, or an external voltage. If the

37 | P a g e
speed of the shaft is greater than the speed set point the current in the coils is increased thereby
increasing the drag on the drive shaft and slowing the engine. If the speed is below that of the set
point the current in the coils is reduced. Very near the set point the controller outputs a Pulse Width
Modulated (PWM) control signal to the coils. This allows the controller to vary the load on the engine
in order to maintain a given shaft speed.

The SAJ eddy-current type dynamometer, shown in figure 4 is rated at 30 kW and controlled by a
modified Dialog dynamometer controller. Modifications of the controller consisted of rewiring it to
operate the lower voltage coils (30V DC each) of the SAJ dynamometer, rather than the 130V initially
supplied by the controller.

Figure 5.5: The SAJ eddy current dynamometer used for engine testing

During power measurements it necessary to provide sufficient cooling air to the engine to avoid
overheating. This was supplied by a large fan and cowling which provided airflow over the engine at
approximately 40 km/h. The temperature of the head was monitored continuously via a head mounted
thermocouple throughout testing to ensure it did not overheat. The dynamometer also required cooling
to dissipate the heat generated by the induction wheel and coils. This was provided by circulating
water through the dynamometer housing via the pipes seen in the left of figure 5.5.

The dynamometer controller could vary the load on the engine and measure the drive shaft’s speed,
and torque. Typically the engine was operated at a given throttle setting, and the dynamometer was
controlled to maintain a constant shaft speed. All measurements were taken from the transmissions
final drive sprocket. These numbers could be converted back to actual engine numbers by dividing the
torque by the gearing ratio, and multiplying the speed by the gearing ratio. Note, however, that this
does not account for the efficiency of the transmission, which for a typical motorcycle can be
expected to be on the order of 90%. All of the power and torque numbers presented here are the raw
numbers, uncorrected for transmission losses.

Drive Cycle Simulation

It is often more convenient to measure the fuel consumption and emissions of a veichle in the lab
rather than during operations in the field. The point of drive cycle simulation is to determine what test

38 | P a g e
points (engine speed and torque) to test at in order to simulate actual driving conditions. This is how
we determine what test points to use. First we start by measuring a typical drive cycle of the vehicle in
question. Engine speed and torque are calculated and recorded.

Brake power

The power available at engine crank shaft for useful work is called brake power. The brake power
involves the torque and the angular speed of the engine output shaft. The torque is measured using the
dynamometer and angular speed is measured by the crank angle sensor.

Eddy-Current

The eddy-current brake consists basically out of three assemblies, rotor and shaft assembly, casing
assembly and baseplate assembly. Two important features in the casing assembly are the coils and the
loss plates. The loss plates are cooled by water and are located with fine clearance in relation to the
rotor. It is between the rotor and loss plates that the braking torque is developed. The casing is
mounted on the baseplate by the principles of trunnion bearings.

Eddy currents are electric currents that are induced in a conductor by a magnetic field as the
conductor moves though the magnetic field which in the case of an eddy-current dynamometer is
generated by magnetizing coils. As the rotor, in most common types a toothed rotor of high magnetic
permeability steel, cuts the magnetic field it will cause disruption of the magnetic flux in the loss
plates which generates circulating eddy currents. The eddy currents in turn generates a magnetic field
that opposes the magnetic field generated by the coils this effect will counteract the rotation of the
shaft. The absorbed energy is transferred to the cooling water, which circulates through passages in
the loss plates, in the form of heat as a result of electrical resistive losses. The magnetic field
generated by the coils is controlled by adjusting the amount of current flowing through the coils. The
input current to the coils is directly proportional to the absorbed power. There are two types of eddy-
current dynamometers, dry gap and wet gap. The dry gap type has air circulating in the gap between
the rotor and loss plate and the wet gap uses water instead of air. The main difference between these
two types is that the wet gap has a higher moment of inertia, and is not as widely used in engine
testing as the dry gap. There are two common forms of dry gap dynamometers, one with a single or
several toothed disk rotors and another with a drum rotor. The dry gap dynamometer with disk rotors
has a lower inertia but is more sensitive to cooling water conditions than the drum rotor type.

A Study of Small Engine Tests 20 In general the advantage of eddy-current dynamometers is that they
are mechanically simple, have low inertia and are well adapted to computer control systems. The
downsides are on the other hand that they are sensitive to poor cooling and thermal cycling which in
turn require a well maintained and controlled water cooling system.

Magnetic Powder Brake The magnetic powder brake is a variant of the eddy-current brake but in the
gap between the stator and the rotor were an eddy-current brake has air the magnetic powder brake
also has a fine magnetic powder. The main advantage of the magnetic powder brake is that it can
absorb full-rated torque all the way down to zero RPM. A limiting factor with this concept is the
difficulty in dissipating the generated heat, this limits the maximum power and maximum speed of the
brake, typically a maximum of 50 kW and 2000 RPM.

Hysteresis Brake Two of the most efficient technologies in the smaller power range, max 150 kW,
are the hysteresis brake and the disk-type eddy current brake. The design of the hysteresis brake
allows for full torque to be generated at full speed down to zero speed. Compared to the disk-type

39 | P a g e
eddy-current design it has a rotor and a stator with coils but the rotor is formed as a cup and the stator
encapsulates the walls of the cup instead of the stator on both sides of a disk.

Procedure:
i. The engine cooling water circulation is set to 300 lph and calorimeter water circulation is set
to 70 lph and the values are kept constant for all the experiments.
ii. Initially the experiments are conducted with diesel fuel. The fuel injection pressure is set to
150 bar and engine is started by cranking.
iii. The engine is allowed to run 30 minutes to attain steady state operating conditions, and then
the load is applied gradually between 0 and 5.4 kW.
iv. At each load the engine is allowed to run 5 minutes and the readings are noted and tabulated.
v. Then, the load on the engine is released and the engine is switched off.
vi. The fuel injection pressure is changed to 200 bar and 250 bar and procedure is repeated.

Observation and Calculations:

Observation:

In this experiment, i observed that when i gave engine speed 2900 rpm and then torque of 3
Nm produced and the resultant break power were 0.911 KW. and I observed that at high
RPM break power is minimum. It shows same behavior for other observations.

Table of Observations:

All readings and calculations are to be tabulated as follows:

Sr. No RPM Torque Break Power Break Power

T(Nm) (W) (KW)

40 | P a g e
Calculation:

Sr No. i

Conclusion
In this experiment I concluded that the most outstanding aspects of eddy currents with diesel engine,
namely their dissipated power and also concluded that engine speed is inversely proportional to break
power and torque.

41 | P a g e
Graph:

RPM Vs Torque
16

14

12

10
Torque

0
2400 2500 2600 2700 2800 2900 3000
RPM

RPM Vs Break Power

4500
4000
3500
3000
Break Power

2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
2400 2500 2600 2700 2800 2900 3000
RPM

42 | P a g e
43 | P a g e
 Experiment No. 06
Objective:
To determine the diesel engine characteristics under varying load and constant RPM. Draw
graph between throttle percentage and torque.

Apparatus:
i. Dynamometer
ii. Diesel Engine
iii. Air intake system
iv. Fuel Tank
v. Data Acquisition system
vi. Fly Wheel
vii. Load Cell
viii. Exhaust System.

Introduction:
The torque is measured with the help of the dynamometer coupled with the engine. In this
experimental setup eddy current water cooled dynamometer is used for loading. Eddy current
dynamometer has a stator on which electromagnets are fitted and a rotor that rotates within the
magnetic field and coupled to the output shaft of the engine. When the rotor rotates, eddy currents are
produced in the stator due to magnetic flux setup by the passage of field current in the electromagnets.
These eddy currents oppose the rotor motion, thus loading the engine. These eddy currents are
dissipated in producing heat and the cooling water carry away the heat. The load is controlled by
regulating the current in the electromagnets. A load cell is connected to the lever arm and this load
cell sends the signal to the engine indicator. Beam type load cells are employed for measuring loads.
The sensitivity depends on the cross section of the beam, modulus of elasticity of the material,
location of the load with respect to the gages and input voltage to the Wheatstone bridge.

Figure 6.1: Dynamometer

44 | P a g e
Theory:
Types of Dynamometer:

A dynamometer is a load device which is generally used for measuring the power output of an engine.
Several kinds of dynamometers are common, some of them being referred to as “breaks” or “break
dynamometers”: dry friction break dynamometers, hydraulic or water break dynamometers and eddy
current dynamometers.

Dry friction dynamometers are the oldest kind, and consist of some sort of mechanical breaking
device, often a belt or frictional “shoe” which rubs a rotating hub or shaft. The hub or shaft is spun by
the engine. Increasing tension in the belt, or force of the shoe against the hub increases the load on the
engine.

Hydraulic dynamometers are basically hydraulic pumps where the impeller is spun by the engine.
Load on the engine is varied by opening or closing a valve, which changes back pressure on the
hydraulic pump.

Eddy current dynamometers are electromagnetic load devices. The engine being tested spins a disk
in the dynamometer. Electrical current passes through coils surrounding the disk, and induce a
magnetic resistance to the motion of the disk. Varying the current varies the load on the engine. The
dynamometer applies a resistance to the rotation of the engine. If the dynamometer is connected to the
engine’s output shaft it is referred to as an Engine Dynamometer. When the dynamometer is
connected to the vehicles drive wheels it is called a Chassis Dynamometer. The force exerted on the
dynamometer housing is resisted by a strain measuring device (for example a strain gage).

Dynamometer Operation:

Several components are typically packaged together in a dynamometer: the shaft with bearings, the
resistance surface, the resistance mechanism in a “free” rotating housing, a strain gage, and a speed
sensor (see figure 6.2 for a schematic of an Eddy Current Dynamometer). Generally some method of
cooling is also required, and this may require either a heat exchanger or air or water circulation, this is
not shown in figure 6.2. The entire assembly is typically mounted on a stout frame, which is
mechanically linked to the frame of the engine being tested. Figure 6.2.

Figure 6.2: Eddy Current Dynamometer

45 | P a g e
The force signal (F) from the strain gage may be converted into a torque (T) by multiplying by the
distance from the center of the shaft to the pivot point of the strain gage (R):

T=RxF

If the units are in Newton-meters and shaft speed (S) is measured in radians per second, then the shaft
power or break power (P) of the engine can be calculated by multiplying the speed and the torque:

P=TxS

Obviously if you are using different units than you will need to use the appropriate conversion factors.

Dynamometer Controllers:

In order to test the engine it is generally necessary to use a dynamometer controller. This is usually an
electronic unit which has the capability of controlling the load on the dynamometer (i.e. it controls the
current to the resistance coils in an eddy current dynamometer) and can measure or sense the load and
speed. Dynamometer controllers generally operate in two modes: Speed Controlled operation or
Load Controlled operation.

In Speed Controlled mode a set speed is given to the controller (either as a voltage or a setting on
the front panel of the controller, see figure 6.3). If the measured speed of the shaft is less than that of
the set speed, the load is decreased. If the measured speed of the shaft is greater than that of the set
speed, then the load is increased. Assuming the engine has sufficient torque to attain the set speed,
this will maintain a constant speed.

Figure 6.3: Schematic of a speed controlled test of engine at WOT

In Load Controlled mode a set load is given to the controller (either as a voltage or a setting on the
front panel of the controller). If the measured load on the dynamometer is greater than that of the set
load, the load is decreased. If the measured load on the dynamometer is less than that of the set load,
then the load is increased. Assuming the engine has sufficient torque to attain the set load, this will
maintain a constant load while the speed varies.

Engine Testing: Power Curve

Several different tests can be performed with good engine dynamometer. The most common is an
Engine Power Curve (or Engine Torque Curve). In this test the engine is run at wide open throttle
(WOT), and the dynamometer is operated in Speed Controlled mode. The speed set point is initially
set to a low value, perhaps twice the idle speed. Engine speed and dynamometer torque are measured,

46 | P a g e
and the speed set point is then increased, perhaps 500 rpm, and once the engine stabilizes at the new
speed, the new speed and torque are measured. This is repeated up to the maximum desired speed.
Break Power can then be calculated from the data, and you will have curves for the WOT torque and
power as a function of engine speed. Please note: great care should be taken when testing the engine
at WOT as any mistake in the testing could lead to an over-speed engine, possibly resulting in engine
destruction.

Engine Testing: Drive Cycle

To test an engine in a simulated drive cycle it may be best to use the load controlled mode. Generally
both the engine speed and load will vary as a function of time, so the dynamometer controller needs to
be programmable, or have a load control voltage sent to it from a programmable voltage source (i.e.
DAC). Typically a human operator is given the “speed schedule” (i.e. the speed versus time) of the
test, and can view the actual speed of the engine. His job is to maintain the engine as close to the
operating speed as possible during the course of the testing by operating the throttle. This step can
alternatively be done by a programmable speed-sensing throttle controller (very similar to a
dynamometer controller) and throttle actuator.

Power Testing: Further Explanation and Data

To test a motorcycle engine under load and measure its power output it was connected to a
dynamometer via the drive shaft sprocket. An eddy current type dynamometer was used for control
and measurement of engine power. The dynamometer consists of a drive shaft rotating a 60 tooth
speed wheel and an induction disk as seen schematically in figure 2.4. The induction disk rotates
inside a housing which contains electromagnetic coils. The housing pivots freely about the shaft.
Rotation of the housing is resisted by a strain gauge connected to the frame of the engine.

Figure 6.4: Schematic of a engine and eddy current dynamometer

Current running in the coils induces drag in the induction disk, resisting rotation of the drive shaft.
The torque produced in the housing is measured by the strain gauge and was recorded. The
dynamometer controller measures the speed of the engine, and compares it to a speed set point which
is either adjusted via the front panel of the dynamometer controller, or an external voltage. If the
speed of the shaft is greater than the speed set point the current in the coils is increased thereby
increasing the drag on the drive shaft and slowing the engine. If the speed is below that of the set

47 | P a g e
point the current in the coils is reduced. Very near the set point the controller outputs a Pulse Width
Modulated (PWM) control signal to the coils. This allows the controller to vary the load on the engine
in order to maintain a given shaft speed.

The SAJ eddy-current type dynamometer, shown in figure 4 is rated at 30 kW and controlled by a
modified Dialog dynamometer controller. Modifications of the controller consisted of rewiring it to
operate the lower voltage coils (30V DC each) of the SAJ dynamometer, rather than the 130V initially
supplied by the controller.

Figure 6.5: The SAJ eddy current dynamometer used for engine testing

During power measurements it necessary to provide sufficient cooling air to the engine to avoid
overheating. This was supplied by a large fan and cowling which provided airflow over the engine at
approximately 40 km/h. The temperature of the head was monitored continuously via a head mounted
thermocouple throughout testing to ensure it did not overheat. The dynamometer also required cooling
to dissipate the heat generated by the induction wheel and coils. This was provided by circulating
water through the dynamometer housing via the pipes seen in the left of figure 6.5.

The dynamometer controller could vary the load on the engine and measure the drive shaft’s speed,
and torque. Typically the engine was operated at a given throttle setting, and the dynamometer was
controlled to maintain a constant shaft speed. All measurements were taken from the transmissions
final drive sprocket. These numbers could be converted back to actual engine numbers by dividing the
torque by the gearing ratio, and multiplying the speed by the gearing ratio. Note, however, that this
does not account for the efficiency of the transmission, which for a typical motorcycle can be
expected to be on the order of 90%. All of the power and torque numbers presented here are the raw
numbers, uncorrected for transmission losses.

Drive Cycle Simulation:

It is often more convenient to measure the fuel consumption and emissions of a vehicle in the lab
rather than during operations in the field. The point of drive cycle simulation is to determine what test
points (engine speed and torque) to test at in order to simulate actual driving conditions. This is how

48 | P a g e
we determine what test points to use. First we start by measuring a typical drive cycle of the vehicle in
question. Engine speed and torque are calculated and recorded.

Brake power:

The power available at engine crank shaft for useful work is called brake power. The brake power
involves the torque and the angular speed of the engine output shaft. The torque is measured using the
dynamometer and angular speed is measured by the crank angle sensor.

Eddy-Current:

The eddy-current brake consists basically out of three assemblies, rotor and shaft assembly, casing
assembly and baseplate assembly. Two important features in the casing assembly are the coils and the
loss plates. The loss plates are cooled by water and are located with fine clearance in relation to the
rotor. It is between the rotor and loss plates that the braking torque is developed. The casing is
mounted on the baseplate by the principles of trunnion bearings.

Eddy currents are electric currents that are induced in a conductor by a magnetic field as the
conductor moves though the magnetic field which in the case of an eddy-current dynamometer is
generated by magnetizing coils. As the rotor, in most common types a toothed rotor of high magnetic
permeability steel, cuts the magnetic field it will cause disruption of the magnetic flux in the loss
plates which generates circulating eddy currents. The eddy currents in turn generates a magnetic field
that opposes the magnetic field generated by the coils this effect will counteract the rotation of the
shaft. The absorbed energy is transferred to the cooling water, which circulates through passages in
the loss plates, in the form of heat as a result of electrical resistive losses. The magnetic field
generated by the coils is controlled by adjusting the amount of current flowing through the coils. The
input current to the coils is directly proportional to the absorbed power. There are two types of eddy-
current dynamometers, dry gap and wet gap. The dry gap type has air circulating in the gap between
the rotor and loss plate and the wet gap uses water instead of air. The main difference between these
two types is that the wet gap has a higher moment of inertia, and is not as widely used in engine
testing as the dry gap. There are two common forms of dry gap dynamometers, one with a single or
several toothed disk rotors and another with a drum rotor. The dry gap dynamometer with disk rotors
has a lower inertia but is more sensitive to cooling water conditions than the drum rotor type.

A Study of Small Engine Tests 20 In general the advantage of eddy-current dynamometers is that they
are mechanically simple, have low inertia and are well adapted to computer control systems. The
downsides are on the other hand that they are sensitive to poor cooling and thermal cycling which in
turn require a well maintained and controlled water cooling system.

Magnetic Powder Brake The magnetic powder brake is a variant of the eddy-current brake but in the
gap between the stator and the rotor were an eddy-current brake has air the magnetic powder brake
also has a fine magnetic powder. The main advantage of the magnetic powder brake is that it can
absorb full-rated torque all the way down to zero RPM. A limiting factor with this concept is the
difficulty in dissipating the generated heat, this limits the maximum power and maximum speed of the
brake, typically a maximum of 50 kW and 2000 RPM.

Hysteresis Brake Two of the most efficient technologies in the smaller power range, max 150 kW,
are the hysteresis brake and the disk-type eddy current brake. The design of the hysteresis brake
allows for full torque to be generated at full speed down to zero speed. Compared to the disk-type

49 | P a g e
eddy-current design it has a rotor and a stator with coils but the rotor is formed as a cup and the stator
encapsulates the walls of the cup instead of the stator on both sides of a disk.

Procedure:

i. The engine cooling water circulation is set to 300 lph and calorimeter water circulation is set
to 70 lph and the values are kept constant for all the experiments.
ii. Initially the experiments are conducted with diesel fuel. The fuel injection pressure is set to
150 bar and engine is started by cranking.
iii. The engine is allowed to run 30 minutes to attain steady state operating conditions, and then
the load is applied gradually between 0 and 5.4 kW.
iv. At each load the engine is allowed to run 5 minutes and the readings are noted and tabulated.
v. Then, the load on the engine is released and the engine is switched off.
vi. The fuel injection pressure is changed to 200 bar and 250 bar and procedure is repeated.

Observation and Calculations:

Observation:

In this experiment, i observed that when i open throttle 20% and then torque of 3 Nm
produced and the resultant break power were 0.722 KW. I also observed that for constant
RMP under varying load throttle opened % will increase continuously.

Table of Observations:

All readings and calculations are to be tabulated as follows:

Sr. No Throttle % Torque Break Power Break Power

T(Nm) (W) (KW)

50 | P a g e
Calculation:

Sr. No. i

Conclusion:
In this experiment I concluded the most outstanding aspects of eddy currents, namely their dissipated
power and also observed that I continuously open the throttle for constant RMP under varying load
and the relationship of throttle % and break power is directly proportional.

Graph:

Throttle % Vs Torque
16

14

12

10
Torque

0
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70%
Throttle %

51 | P a g e
52 | P a g e
 Experiment No. 07
Objective:
To study Cutaway model of Multistage centrifugal air compressor.

Components:

Inlet:
The inlet to a centrifugal compressor is typically a simple pipe. It may include features such
as a valve, stationary vanes/airfoils (used to help swirl the flow) and both pressure and
temperature instrumentation. All of these additional devices have important uses in the
control of the centrifugal compressor.

Figure 7.1:Multistage Centrifugal Compressor

Centrifugal impeller:
The key component that makes a compressor centrifugal is the centrifugal impeller, Figure
0.1, which contains a rotating set of vanes (or blades) that gradually raises the energy of the
working gas. This is identical to an axial compressor with the exception that the gases can
reach higher velocities and energy levels through the impeller's increasing radius. In many
modern high-efficiency centrifugal compressors the gas exiting the impeller is traveling near
the speed of sound.

Impellers are designed in many configurations including "open" (visible blades), "covered or
shrouded", "with splitters" (every other inducer removed) and "w/o splitters" (all full blades).
Both Figures 0.1 and 3.1 show open impellers with splitters. Most modern high efficiency
impellers use "back sweep" in the blade shape.

53 | P a g e
Diffuser:
The next key component to the simple centrifugal compressor is the diffuser. Downstream of
the impeller in the flow path, it is the diffuser's responsibility to convert the kinetic energy
(high velocity) of the gas into pressure by gradually slowing (diffusing) the gas velocity.
Diffusers can be vaneless, vanned or an alternating combination. High efficiency vanned
diffusers are also designed over a wide range of solidities from less than 1 to over 4. Hybrid
versions of vanned diffusers include: wedge, channel, and pipe diffusers. There are
turbocharger applications that benefit by incorporating no diffuser.

Collector:
The collector of a centrifugal compressor can take many shapes and forms. When the diffuser
discharges into a large empty chamber, the collector may be termed a Plenum. When the
diffuser discharges into a device that looks somewhat like a snail shell, bull's horn or a
French horn, the collector is likely to be termed a volute or scroll. As the name implies, a
collector’s purpose is to gather the flow from the diffuser discharge annulus and deliver this
flow to a downstream pipe. Either the collector or the pipe may also contain valves and
instrumentation to control the compressor.

Working principle:
The idealized compressive dynamic turbo-machine achieves a pressure rise by adding
kinetic energy/velocity to a continuous flow of fluid through the rotor or impeller. This
kinetic energy is then converted to an increase in potential energy/static pressure by slowing
the flow through a diffuser. The pressure rise in impeller is in most cases almost equal to the
rise in the diffuser section.

Applications:
i. Compressed gas or air
ii. Food Industry
iii. Centrifugal compressors are mostly used in gas turbines such as
i. Turboshaft
ii. Turboprop
iii. Micro turbines
iv. Auxiliary power units
v. Oil refiners, petrochemical and chemical plants

vi. Refrigeration and air control

54 | P a g e
Comparison between reciprocating and centrifugal compressors:

Sr. no Reciprocating compressors Centrifugal Compressors

i. Reciprocating compressors have Centrifugal compressors have better

poor mechanical efficiency due to mechanical efficiency due to absence
large sliding parts. of sliding parts.

ii. Pressure ratio up to 5 to 8. Pressure ratio up to 4.

iii. Higher pressure ratio up to 500 It is not suitable for multistage.

atmosphere is possible with
multistage of compressor.
iv. It runs intermittently and delivers It runs continuously and delivers
pulsating air. steady and pulsating free air.

v. Less amount of volume is handled. Large amount of volume is handled.

vi. More maintenance is required. Less maintenance is required.

vii. Weight of reciprocating Less weight compared to other

compressor is more. compressors.

viii. Reciprocating compressor operates Centrifugal compressors operates at

at low speed. high speed.

ix. Isothermal efficiency should be Isentropic efficiency should be

better. better.

55 | P a g e
 Experiment No. 08
Objective:
Study the variation of temperature in each stages. In two stage reciprocating air
compressor/ Function intercooler in two stage reciprocating air compressor.
Apparatus:
i. Two stage air compressor

Figure 8.1: Two Stage Air Compressor

Components
An Air Compressor is a simple piece of machinery, with many important components which
are vital for its proper operation and functioning. There are some clearances which must be
maintained to operate the compressor efficiently. In this article, let us discuss on various parts
of an Air Compressor.

Compressor Parts:
There are various types of compressors and thus has wide variety of parts depending upon the
type of compressor. For simplicity and easy understanding, we will discuss about the
common usually found reciprocating air compressors. The discussion will be on major
working components of a reciprocating air compressor and parts which are essential for
automatic operation are not included as they may vary depending upon requirement.
A reciprocating air compressor is one which reciprocates inside a cylinder (liner) unit. The piston
moves up and down continuously to pump the air after compression into the air receiver. Important
parts of a reciprocating air compressor are as follows:
i. Cylinder Head ii. Suction/ Intake valve
iii. Delivery valve iv. Cylinder liner/ Wall/ cooling water jacket
v. Compressor casing vi. Crank case
vii. Piston viii. Connecting rod

56 | P a g e
ix. Crank shaft x. Main Bearings Bed plate or Bottom structure
xi. Foundation xii. Lubricating Oil strainer,
xiii. Stage relief valves xiv. Intercoolers
xv. Suction filter, and other minor components.

Cylinder Head and Valve assembly:

An Air Compressor has a cylinder head which differs depending upon the type. It may be in-
line or even in “V"-shape. If it is in-line, usually the 1st stage and 2nd stage are in a same
cylinder head block. But in a “V"-shaped compressor, the 1st stage and 2nd stage may be
entirely different connected by high pressure pipes. The cylinder head consists of pockets for
holding the intake/suction and delivery valves. They also have air cooling fins or water jacket
for cooling water passage. There are usually network of pipes for cooling water and
compressed air delivery to the next successive stage. One of the main components of the
cylinder head assembly is the suction filter for the air intake. The filter is usually mounted
onto the cylinder head allowing filtered air to enter compressor unit.

Piston, Cylinder wall/Liner, and Connecting Rod:

The piston moves inside the cylinder wall or the liner, reciprocating up and down. The liner
supports and guides the piston, forming a main part of the air compression chamber. The
piston may or may not have rings for sealing depending on type and purpose. The piston
obtains its reciprocating motion from the connecting rod which connects the piston to the
crankshaft. Thus we can claim that it is the connecting rod which transfers the rotary motion
from the crank shaft into reciprocating motion of the piston.
Crankshaft, Crankcase, and other fittings:
The connecting rod connects the piston and the crankshaft. The crankshaft is connected to the
drive which may be an electric motor, turbine, or a diesel engine. As the crankshaft rotates it
in turn make the connecting rod to move with it thus making the piston to reciprocate. The
crankshaft is positioned with perfection inside the crankcase, which is filled with lubricating
oil. The entire crankcase, sometimes act as a lubricating oil sump. The crankshaft rests on
bed-plate with the bearings sandwiched in between. These bearings serve to avoid friction
and also withstand the fluctuating load when the piston compresses air. The intercoolers and
the after coolers are usually mounted on the body of the compressor allowing the hot
compressed air to exchange its heat with the forced circulation water. Some air compressors
are cooled by forced circulation of ambient air itself. Other safety devices like relief valves
and crankcase relief doors are also incorporated depending upon the design of the
compressor. Thus these are the various parts of the compressor and in the future articles, we
will discuss about the different types of compressors.

57 | P a g e
Theory:
Bernoulli’s principle:
A flow of air through a venturi meter. The kinetic energy increases at the expense of the fluid
pressure, as shown by the difference in height of the two columns of water.

In fluid dynamics, Bernoulli's principle states that an increase in the speed of a fluid occurs
simultaneously with a decrease in pressure or a decrease in the fluid's potential energy. The
principle is named after Daniel Bernoulli who published it in his book Hydrodynamica in
1738. Although Bernoulli deduced that pressure decreases when the flow speed increases, it
was Leonard Euler who derived Bernoulli's equation in its usual form in 1752. The principle
is only applicable for isentropic flows: so when the effects of irreversible processes (like
turbulence) and non-adiabatic processes (e.g. heat radiation) are small and can be neglected.

Figure 8.1: Two Stage Air Compressor

Bernoulli's principle can be applied to various types of fluid flow, resulting in various forms
of Bernoulli's equation; there are different forms of Bernoulli's equation for different types of
flow. The simple form of Bernoulli's equation is valid for incompressible flows (e.g. most
liquid flows and gases moving at low Mach number). More advanced forms may be applied
to compressible flows at higher Mach numbers (see the derivations of the Bernoulli
equation).

Bernoulli's principle can be derived from the principle of conservation of energy. This states
that, in a steady flow, the sum of all forms of energy in a fluid along a streamline is the same
at all points on that streamline. This requires that the sum of kinetic energy, potential energy
and internal energy remains constant. Thus an increase in the speed of the fluid – implying an
increase in its kinetic energy (dynamic pressure) – occurs with a simultaneous decrease in
(the sum of) its potential energy (including the static pressure) and internal energy. If the
fluid is flowing out of a reservoir, the sum of all forms of energy is the same on all
streamlines because in a reservoir the energy per unit volume (the sum of pressure and
gravitational potential ρ g h) is the same everywhere.

Bernoulli's principle can also be derived directly from Isaac Newton's Second Law of Motion.
If a small volume of fluid is flowing horizontally from a region of high pressure to a region of
low pressure, then there is more pressure behind than in front. This gives a net force on the
volume, accelerating it along the streamline.

58 | P a g e
Procedure:

i. Double stage or two stage reciprocating air compressors consists of two cylinders.
One is called low-pressure cylinder and another is called high-pressure cylinder.
ii. When piston in a low-pressure cylinder is at its top dead center (TDC) the weight of
air inside a cylinder is zero (neglecting clearance volume), as piston moves towards
bottom dead center (BDC) pressure falls below atmospheric pressure & suction valves
open due to a pressure difference.
iii. The fresh air is drawn into the low-pressure cylinder through air suction filter. This air
is further compressed by piston and pressure inside & outside the cylinder is equal, at
this point suction valves closed.
iv. As the piston moves towards TDC compression of air took place and when the
pressure of air is in a range of 1.5 kg/cm² to 2.5 kg/cm² delivery valves opens & this
compressed air is then entered into a high-pressure cylinder through the intercooler.
This called as low-pressure compression.
v. Suction valves of a high-pressure cylinder open when the air pressure in a high-
pressure side is below to the receiver pressure & air from low-pressure cylinder drawn
into the high-pressure cylinder.
vi. As piston moves towards the TDC, first stage air is further compressed. When air
pressure from the low-pressure cylinder and inside the high-pressure cylinder is equal,
suction valves closed.
vii. Now the air is further compressed by piston until the pressure in the High-Pressure
Cylinder exceeds that in the receiver & discharge valves open. This desired high-
pressure air is then delivered to a receiver.
viii. The Same procedure is repeated in every cycle of operation. If suction & discharge
stroke took place on both sides of the piston then it is called double-acting high-
pressure compression.

59 | P a g e
 Observation:
In this experiment, I observed that the Initial temperature T1 of inlet air is 30o which is room
temperature and after work done by piston the temperature T2 of air raises up to 49o and after
cooling air temperatureT3 drop up to 38o which is 2nd inlet temperature and again after piston
work the 2nd outlet temperature T4 is 52o and T5 is 32o which is storage tank temperature and
T6 is 32o which is final outlet temperature

Table of observation:
All readings and calculation are to be tabulated as follow:

Initial 1st Outlet 2nd Inlet 2nd Outlet Storage Tank Final Outlet
Temperature Temperature Temperature Temperature Temperature Temperature
(T1) (T2) (T3) (T4) (T5) (T6)

1st Outlet 2nd Inlet 2nd Outlet Storage Tank

Temperature Temperature Temperature Temperature
(T2) (T3) (T4) (T5)
ix.
Initial
Temperature
x. Final Outlet
(T 1)
Intercooler
xi. Temperature
(T6)
xii.
Air Storage
xiii.
Filter Tank

Flow Chart of Two Stage Air Compressor

Conclusion:
From this experiment, I concluded that Temperature of air rises by work done on air through
piston and intercooler is used to lower the temperature of outlet of previous cylinder to make
it for inlet of other cylinder and due to isothermal system we required lower work done.

60 | P a g e
Discussion Questions

ix. What is Purpose of intercooler?

An intercooler is an intake air cooling device commonly used on turbocharged and

supercharged engines. An intercooler cools the air compressed by the turbo/supercharger,
reducing its temperature and thereby increasing the density of the air supplied to the engine.

x. Why intercooler attached in multistage air compressor?

Intercooler is a cooling device .which is generally used in between high pressure and low
pressure compressor in brayton cycle .It's function is to reduce the temperature of air to initial
temperature at constant pressure in order to reduce compression work.

xi. Why air is compressed in two stage air compressor?

In a single stage compressor, the air is compressed one time; in a two stage compressor, the
air is compressed twice for double the pressure. It is similar to that of a single stage, but with
one variation: the compressed air isn’t sent to a storage tank; it’s instead sent to a smaller
piston for a second stroke, this time at roughly 175 psi. From there, the double–pressurized
air is cooled and delivered to a storage tank, where it serves as energy for vast arsenals of
high–powered equipment.

61 | P a g e
 Experiment No. 09
Objective:
To calculator the break power of motor in two stage reciprocating air compressor.

Apparatus:
i. Two stage air compressor

Induction:
The purpose of compressors is to move air and other gases from place to place. Gases,
unlike liquids, are compressible and require compression devices, which although similar to
pumps, operate on somewhat different principle's. Compressors, blowers, and fans are such
compression devices.

i. Compressors. Move air or gas in higher differential pressure ranges from 35 psi to as
high as 65,000 psi in extreme cases.
ii. Blowers. Move large volumes of air or gas at pressures up to 50 pounds per square inch.
iii. Fans. Move air or gas at a sufficient pressure to overcome static forces. Discharge
pressures range from a few inches of water to about 1 pound per square inch.

Reciprocating compressors are the best known and most widely used compressors of the
positive displacement type. They operate on the same principle as the old, familiar bicycle
pump, that is, by means of a piston in a cylinder. As the piston moves forward in the
cylinder, it compresses the air or gas into a smaller space, thus raising its pressure.

The basic reciprocating compression element is a single cylinder com-pressing on one side
of the piston (single-acting). A unit compressing on both sides of the piston (double-acting)
consists of two basic single-acting elements operating in parallel in one casting. Most of the
compressors in use are of the double-acting type.

Figure 9.1: Two Stage Air Compressor

62 | P a g e
Theory:

Air compressor:
An air compressor is a device that converts power into kinetic energy by compressing and
pressurizing air which on command can be released in quick burst. There are numerous
number of air compressors that can be divided either positive displacement or negative
displacement types. Compressor designed on the basis of their working and operation
principle.

Types of air compressor

i. Reciprocating compressor
ii. Rotary compressor
iii. Turbo compressor
Reciprocating air compressor

A reciprocating compressor or piston compressor is a positive-displacement

compressor that uses pistons driven by a crankshaft to deliver gases at high pressure. The
intake gas enters the suction manifold, then flows into the compression cylinder where it
gets compressed by a piston driven in a reciprocating motion via a crankshaft, and is then
discharged. Applications include oil refineries, gas pipelines, chemical plants, natural gas
processing plants and refrigeration plants. One specialty application is the blowing of plastic
bottles made of polyethylene terephthalate (PET).
Break power:
Break power is the power output of the drive shaft of an engine without the power loss
caused by gears, transmission and friction etc. It is called pure power , useful power, true
power or wheel power as well as other terms.

Indicated power:
Indicated power is the theoretical maximum output power of the engine. The indicated
power is the total power available from the expanding gases in the cylinders negating any
friction, heat loss or entropy within system.

Starting and running torque are the first parameters to consider when sizing a motor. Starting
torque requirements can vary from a small percentage of full load to a value several times
full-load torque. Starting torque varies because of a change in load conditions or the
mechanical nature of the machine. The latter could be caused by the lubricant, wear of
moving parts, or other reasons.

63 | P a g e
Motor torque supplied to the driven machine must be more than that required from start to
full speed. The greater the reserve torque, the more rapid the acceleration.

Power rating:
The horsepower required to drive a machine is typically referred to as motor load. The most
common equation for power based on torque and rotational speed is: hp = (torque X
rpm)/5,250.

If load is not constant and follows a definite cycle, a horsepower versus time curve for the
driven machine is helpful. From this curve both peak and rms horsepower can be
determined. Rms load horsepower indicates the necessary continuous motor rating. Peak
load horsepower is not necessarily an indication of the required motor rating. However,
when a peak load is maintained for a period of time, the motor rating usually should not be
less than peak load horsepower.

Duty cycle:
Continuous steady-running loads over long periods are demonstrated by fans and blowers.
On the other hand, machines with flywheels may have wide variations in running loads.
Often, the flywheel supplies the energy to do the work, and the motor does nothing but
restore lost energy to the flywheel. Therefore, choosing the proper motor also depends on
whether the load is steady, varies, follows a repetitive cycle of variation, or has pulsating
torque or shocks.

For example, motors that run continuously in fans and blowers for hours or days may be
selected on the basis of continuous load. But devices like automatically controlled
compressors and pumps start a number of times per hour. And motors in some machine tools
start and stop many times per minute.

Duty cycle is a fixed repetitive load pattern over a given period of time which is expressed
as the ratio of on-time to cycle period. When operating cycle is such that the motor operates
at idle or a reduced load for more than 25% of the time, duty cycle becomes a factor in
sizing the motor. Also, energy required to start a motor (that is, accelerating the inertia of the
motor as well as the driven load) is much higher than for steady-state operation, so frequent
starting could overheat the motor.

For most motors (except squirrel-cage motors during acceleration and plugging) current is
almost directly proportional to developed torque. At constant speed, torque is proportional to
horsepower. For accelerating loads and overloads on motors that have considerable droop,
equivalent horsepower is used as the load factor. The next step in sizing the motor is to
examine motor performance curves to see if the motor has enough starting torque to
overcome machine static friction, to accelerate the load to full running speed, and to handle
maximum overload.

64 | P a g e
 Procedure:
i. First of all run the motor at specific R.P.M and note down the value of rpm.
ii. I noted the weight that spring balance carry and convert into force by multiplying it with
gravitational acceleration F=ma
iii. Subtract the error of spring balance from mass value.
iv. Calculate torque by formula T=F×L
2𝜋𝑁𝑇
v. Calculate the brake power from the following formula B. P = 60

Observation and calculation:

Observation:
In this experiment I observed the break power of motor of two stage air compressor when
m=2.2 kg with l=0.120 and force is 21.582 where torque is 2.590 and break power become
394.407 W. I also observed that the b.p is approximately same as 399.856W by h.p.

Table of Observation:
All readings and calculation are to be tabulated as follow:

mkg F=mg L T B.P KW

mf L T N H.P W KW

Calculation:

65 | P a g e
Conclusion:
In this experiment I concluded that break power is approximately same in si system and in
h.p which is B. P = 0.394KW and h.p=0.3999KW.

66 | P a g e
 Experiment No. 10
Objective:
Find the swept volume per second in two stage reciprocating air compressor.

Apparatus:
i. Two stage air compressor

Introduction:
The purpose of compressors is to move air and other gases from place to place. Gases, unlike
liquids, are compressible and require compression devices, which although similar to pumps,
operate on somewhat different principle's. Compressors, blowers, and fans are such
compression devices.

i. Compressors. Move air or gas in higher differential pressure ranges from 35 psi to as
high as 65,000 psi in extreme cases.
ii. Blowers. Move large volumes of air or gas at pressures up to 50 pounds per square inch.
iii. Fans. Move air or gas at a sufficient pressure to overcome static forces. Discharge
pressures range from a few inches of water to about 1 pound per square inch.

Reciprocating compressors are the best known and most widely used compressors of the
positive displacement type. They operate on the same principle as the old, familiar bicycle
pump, that is, by means of a piston in a cylinder. As the piston moves forward in the cylinder,
it compresses the air or gas into a smaller space, thus raising its pressure.

The basic reciprocating compression element is a single cylinder com-pressing on one side of
the piston (single-acting). A unit compressing on both sides of the piston (double-acting)
consists of two basic single-acting elements operating in parallel in one casting. Most of the
compressors in use are of the double-acting type

Figure 10.1: Two Stage Air Compressor

67 | P a g e
 Theory:

Air compressor:
An air compressor is a device that converts power into kinetic energy by compressing and
pressurizing air which on command can be released in quick burst. There are numerous
number of air compressors that can be divided either positive displacement or negative
displacement types. Compressor designed on the basis of their working and operation
principle.

Types of air compressor

i. Reciprocating compressor
ii. Rotary compressor
iii. Turbo compressor

Reciprocating air compressor

A reciprocating compressor or piston compressor is a positive-displacement compressor that

uses pistons driven by a crankshaft to deliver gases at high pressure. The intake gas enters
the suction manifold, then flows into the compression cylinder where it gets compressed by a
piston driven in a reciprocating motion via a crankshaft, and is then discharged. Applications
include oil refineries, gas pipelines, chemical plants, natural gas processing plants
and refrigeration plants. One specialty application is the blowing of plastic bottles made
of polyethylene terephthalate (PET).

Break power:
Break power is the power output of the drive shaft of an engine without the power loss
caused by gears, transmission and friction etc. It is called pure power , useful power, true
power or wheel power as well as other terms.

Indicated power:
Indicated power is the theoretical maximum output power of the engine. The indicated
power is the total power available from the expanding gases in the cylinders negating any
friction, heat loss or entropy within system.

Starting and running torque are the first parameters to consider when sizing a motor. Starting
torque requirements can vary from a small percentage of full load to a value several times
full-load torque. Starting torque varies because of a change in load conditions or the

68 | P a g e
 mechanical nature of the machine. The latter could be caused by the lubricant, wear of
moving parts, or other reasons.

Motor torque supplied to the driven machine must be more than that required from start to
full speed. The greater the reserve torque, the more rapid the acceleration.

Compressor Capacity:
Determining compressor capacity would be relatively simple if a non-compressible, non-
expandable fluid were handled. The quantity into the dis-charge line would be practically
equal to the volume swept by the piston.

However, since air or gas is elastic, compressor capacity varies widely as pressure conditions
change. For instance, with a given intake pressure, machine capacity is considerably less
when discharging at 100 psi than at 50 psi. This makes it impossible to rate a given
compressor for a given capacity. The only practicable rating is in terms of piston
displacement-volume swept by the moving piston during one minute.

Piston Displacement:
The piston displacement is the net volume actually displaced by the compressor piston at
rated machine speed, as the piston travels the length of its stroke from bottom dead center to
top dead center.

Procedure:
i. First of all setup the apparatus. Then check that the valve of storage tank is closed.
ii. After that start the compressor and set the rpm of the motor.
iii. I noted the rpm of compressor and I took five readings by changing the rpm of motor.
iv. I also noted that bore length is same for both stages which is 65mm and the diameter of
first cylinder is 80mm and the second cylinder is 65mm.
𝑉𝑠×𝑁
v. Then we find the swept volume per cycle with help of formula Vsps= .
60
vi. I calculated swept volume per cycle five times by changing of rpm of motor.

69 | P a g e
Observation and calculation:

Observation:
In this experiment I observed that the diameter of 1st cylinder is 80 mm with 65 mm length
whereas diameter and length of 2nd cylinder is 65mm and 65mm respectively. The swept
volume of 1st cylinder is 3.266×10-4 whereas the swept volume of 2nd cylinder is 2.15×10-4. I
also observed that when RPM reached 433 the Vsps=3.908×10-3.

Table of Observation:
All readings and calculation are to be tabulated as follow:

d1 d2 L Vs1 Vs2 Vs N 𝑽𝒔×𝑵

3 3 3 RPM Vsps=
mm mm Mm m m m 𝟔𝟎
m3/sex
-

Calculation:

Conclusion:
In this experiment I concluded that the swept volume of a cylinder remain same but swept
volume per second varies by rpm. As rpms increases swept volume per decreases.

70 | P a g e
 Experiment No. 11
Objective:
To find the isothermal power in two stage reciprocating air compressor.

Apparatus:
i. Two stage air compressor

Introduction:
The purpose of compressors is to move air and other gases from place to place. Gases, unlike
liquids, are compressible and require compression devices, which although similar to pumps,
operate on somewhat different principle's. Compressors, blowers, and fans are such
compression devices.

i. Compressors. Move air or gas in higher differential pressure ranges from 35 psi to as
high as 65,000 psi in extreme cases.
ii. Blowers. Move large volumes of air or gas at pressures up to 50 pounds per square inch.
iii. Fans. Move air or gas at a sufficient pressure to overcome static forces. Discharge
pressures range from a few inches of water to about 1 pound per square inch.

Reciprocating compressors are the best known and most widely used compressors of the
positive displacement type. They operate on the same principle as the old, familiar bicycle
pump, that is, by means of a piston in a cylinder. As the piston moves forward in the cylinder,
it compresses the air or gas into a smaller space, thus raising its pressure.

The basic reciprocating compression element is a single cylinder com-pressing on one side of
the piston (single-acting). A unit compressing on both sides of the piston (double-acting)
consists of two basic single-acting elements operating in parallel in one casting. Most of the
compressors in use are of the double-acting type,

Figure 11.1: Two Stage Air Compressor

71 | P a g e
Theory:

Air compressor:
An air compressor is a device that converts power into kinetic energy by compressing and
pressurizing air which on command can be released in quick burst. There are numerous
number of air compressors that can be divided either positive displacement or negative
displacement types. Compressor designed on the basis of their working and operation
principle.

Types of air compressor

i. Reciprocating compressor
ii. Rotary compressor
iii. Turbo compressor
Reciprocating air compressor

A reciprocating compressor or piston compressor is a positive-displacement compressor that

uses pistons driven by a crankshaft to deliver gases at high pressure. The intake gas enters
the suction manifold, then flows into the compression cylinder where it gets compressed by a
piston driven in a reciprocating motion via a crankshaft, and is then discharged. Applications
include oil refineries, gas pipelines, chemical plants, natural gas processing plants
and refrigeration plants.
Break power:
Break power is the power output of the drive shaft of an engine without the power loss
caused by gears, transmission and friction etc. It is called pure power , useful power, true
power or wheel power as well as other terms.

Indicated power:
Indicated power is the theoretical maximum output power of the engine. The indicated
power is the total power available from the expanding gases in the cylinders negating any
friction, heat loss or entropy within system.

Starting and running torque are the first parameters to consider when sizing a motor. Starting
torque requirements can vary from a small percentage of full load to a value several times
full-load torque. Starting torque varies because of a change in load conditions or the
mechanical nature of the machine. The latter could be caused by the lubricant, wear of
moving parts, or other reasons. Motor torque supplied to the driven machine must be more
than that required from start to full speed.

Compressor Capacity:
Determining compressor capacity would be relatively simple if a non-compressible, non-
expandable fluid were handled. The quantity into the dis-charge line would be practically
equal to the volume swept by the piston.
72 | P a g e
However, since air or gas is elastic, compressor capacity varies widely as pressure conditions
change. For instance, with a given intake pressure, machine capacity is considerably less
when discharging at 100 psi than at 50 psi. This makes it impossible to rate a given
compressor for a given capacity. The only practicable rating is in terms of piston
displacement-volume swept by the moving piston during one minute.

Piston Displacement:
The piston displacement is the net volume actually displaced by the compressor piston at
rated machine speed, as the piston travels the length of its stroke from bottom dead center to
top dead center.

Procedure:
i. First of all setup the apparatus and check the valve of storage tank is closed.
ii. I start the compressor and the intake gas enters the suction manifold.
iii. I noted that compressor starts compressing gas.
iv. I noted the level of water in tube.
π
v. I also noted pressure on gauge find Qm by formulaṁ = 𝜎𝜀 4 d2 √2ρ∆p.
vi. The value of work done comes in –ve sign. In Compressor, work is done on the
system, that’s why –ve sign is neglected.
vii. I repeated this experiment four times and calculated the isothermal power.

Table observation and calculation:

Observation:
In this experiment I observed that for isothermal power we have to fine v by formula mρ
where as there are two constant 𝜎 = 0.6 𝜀 = 0.9985 and d= 15mm withρ = 1.1415.

Table of observation:
All reading and calculation are to be tabulated as follows:

Sr. No P3 ∆P qm qv I.P
(pa) (pa) (kg/sec) (m3/sec) (watt)

73 | P a g e
Calculation:

Conclusion:
From this experiment I concluded that isothermal power of two stage air compressor
increases by increasing pressure, it also depend on the volume and the pressure ratio, length
and 𝜌.

74 | P a g e
 Experiment No. 12
Objective:

To find the isentropic Power of two stage reciprocating air compressor.

Apparatus:

i. Two stage reciprocating air compressor

Introduction:
The purpose of compressors is to move air and other gases from place to place. Gases, unlike
liquids, are compressible and require compression devices, which although similar to pumps,
operate on somewhat different principle's. Compressors, blowers, and fans are such
compression devices.

i. Compressors. Move air or gas in higher differential pressure ranges from 35 psi to as
high as 65,000 psi in extreme cases.
ii. Blowers. Move large volumes of air or gas at pressures up to 50 pounds per square inch.
iii. Fans. Move air or gas at a sufficient pressure to overcome static forces. Discharge
pressures range from a few inches of water to about 1 pound per square inch.

Reciprocating compressors are the best known and most widely used compressors of the
positive displacement type. They operate on the same principle as the old, familiar bicycle
pump, that is, by means of a piston in a cylinder. As the piston moves forward in the cylinder,
it compresses the air or gas into a smaller space, thus raising its pressure.

The basic reciprocating compression element is a single cylinder com-pressing on one side of
the piston (single-acting). A unit compressing on both sides of the piston (double-acting)
consists of two basic single-acting elements operating in parallel in one casting. Most of the
compressors in use are of the double-acting type

Figure 12.1: Two Stage Air Compressor

75 | P a g e
Theory:

Compressor:
A compressor is a mechanical device that increases the pressure of a gas by reducing
its volume. An air compressor is a specific type of gas compressor. Compressors are similar
to pumps.

Isentropic Efficiency of a Compressor:

Normally, efficiencies express the ratio of a real value based on measurements to an ideal
reference. Usually, an ideal or maximum achievable value is chosen as a base, which is
sometimes calculated with a model of an ideal reference process. To keep it simple, this
section deals with compressors that are not capacity controlled (constant speed, constant
displacement and no internal bypass) even if the defined efficiencies apply for capacity
controlled compressors as well. Therefore, the operating conditions are defined as soon as
three parameters are known. Usually, the three variables suction pressure, suction
temperature and discharge pressure are considered to be known. In this case, the relevant
dependent variables are power consumption, mass-flow and discharge gas temperature. Less
important dependent variables such as sound level, oil circulation rate, housing temperature,
electrical power factor, working frequency and torque course are not considered at this stage.
Also ignored are other environmental conditions such as ambient temperature and grid
voltage; they are considered to be constant.

It is common to express the three relevant parameters, power consumption, mass-flow and
discharge gas temperature by the three characteristic numbers isentropic efficiency,
volumetric efficiency and isentropic discharge efficiency. Those dimensionless characteristic
numbers base the dependent variables, or a value derived from the de-pendent variables, on a
reference value. This value results from a reference process calculation with the independent
variables.

The operating conditions of an admission compressor with a fixed admission port position are
defined by five variables. Usually, suction pressure, suction temperature, admission pressure,
admission temperature and discharge pressure are expected to be known. Even in the case of
a compressor with a variable admission port position, the dependency on five variables does
not change provided that the position of the admission port is coupled to one of the
parameters. This, for instance, applies if the positioning of the admission port is controlled
depending on the admission pressure. Four dependent variables can be considered to be of
interest: power consumption, suction gas mass-flow, admission gas mass-flow and discharge
gas temperature. Reference processes must be defined to describe these four variables as
efficiencies as described for common compressors with their three relevant dependent
variables above.

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 Volumetric power:

Power density (or volume power density or volume specific power) is the amount
of power (time rate of energy transfer) per unit volume.In energy
transformers including batteries, fuel cells, motors, etc., and also power supply units or
similar, power density refers to a volume. It is then also called volume power density, which
is expressed as W/m3.

Isothermal versus Isentropic:

If air compression/expansion were isothermal (constant temperature ), then, according to

the ideal gas law , the pressure would simply be proportional to

density It turns out, however, that heat diffusion is much slower than audio
acoustic vibrations. As a result, air compression/expansion is much closer
to isentropic (constant entropy ) in normal acoustic situations. (An isentropic process is
also called a reversible adiabatic process.) This means that when air is compressed by
shrinking its volume , for example, not only does the pressure increase (§B.7.3), but
the temperature increases as well (as quantified in the next section). In a constant-entropy
compression/expansion, temperature changes are not given time to diffuse away to thermal
equilibrium. Instead, they remain largely frozen in place. Compressing air heats it up, and
relaxing the compression cools it back down

Procedure:
i. First of all, I noted the atmospheric pressure as P1.
ii. Then I turn on compressor motor at moderate frequency and noted the value of
pressure of second stage outlet as P3 and first stage outlet as P2.
iii. Then I calculated the value of ΔP by using following formula:
𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
ΔP = Water height∆𝑝 = ratio
iv. I find the value of water height by inclined manometer installed on our apparatus.
v. Then find the value of mass flow rate qm by using following formula:
𝜋
𝑞𝑚 = 𝛼𝜀( )𝑑 2 √2𝜌∆𝑝
4
vi. In this formula α = 0.6, ε = 0.9985 and ρ = 1.1415 kg/m3.
vii. Then I noted atmospheric temperature as T1 and first stage outlet temperature as T2.
viii. Then I find the value of Isentropic power by using following formula:
𝑘−1 𝑘−1
𝑝 𝑝
Isentropic power = 𝑞𝑚 𝑐𝑝 𝑇1 [(𝑝3) 𝑘 -1]+ 𝑞𝑚 𝑐𝑝 𝑇2 [(𝑝3 ) 𝑘 -1]
1 2

iv. Similarly I noted three more readings and find the isentropic power.

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Observation and calculation:

Observation:
In this experiment I observed that when the outlet pressure is 100736.7 pa and pressure at the
outlet of stage 2 is 130735 where as partial pressure is 980 and mass flow is 0.0055 kg/s and
temperature is 302 k so isentropic power is 215 watt.

Table of Observation:
All readings and calculation are to be tabulated as follow:

Out let Out let Partial Mass flow Outlet Isentropic

Sr. pressure of pressure of Pressure ∆P rate m Temp. of Power
No stage 1 P2 stage 2 P3 Stage 2 T2 watt
(Pa) (Kg/s)
(Pa) (Pa) (K)

Calculations:

Conclusion:
It is concluded that when the compression ratio increases, then the swept volume decreases.
This shows that the compression ratio and swept volume have inverse relation.

As the pressure ratio increases, the clearance volume also increases. This shows that the
pressure ratio and clearance volume are directly proportional to each other.

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 Experiment No. 13
Objective:

To calculate the overall efficiencies of the system in two stage reciprocating air compressor.

Apparatus:

i. Two stage reciprocating air compressor

Introduction:
The purpose of compressors is to move air and other gases from place to place. Gases, unlike
liquids, are compressible and require compression devices, which although similar to pumps,
operate on somewhat different principle's. Compressors, blowers, and fans are such
compression devices.

i. Compressors. Move air or gas in higher differential pressure ranges from 35 psi to as high
as 65,000 psi in extreme cases.
ii. Blowers. Move large volumes of air or gas at pressures up to 50 pounds per square inch.
iii. Fans. Move air or gas at a sufficient pressure to overcome static forces. Discharge
pressures range from a few inches of water to about 1 pound per square inch.

Reciprocating compressors are the best known and most widely used compressors of the
positive displacement type. They operate on the same principle as the old, familiar bicycle
pump, that is, by means of a piston in a cylinder. As the piston moves forward in the cylinder,
it compresses the air or gas into a smaller space, thus raising its pressure.

The basic reciprocating compression element is a single cylinder com-pressing on one side of
the piston (single-acting). A unit compressing on both sides of the piston (double-acting)
consists of two basic single-acting elements operating in parallel in one casting. Most of the
compressors in use are of the double-acting type

Figure 13.1: Two Stage Air Compressor

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Theory:

Compressor:
A compressor is a mechanical device that increases the pressure of a gas by reducing
its volume. An air compressor is a specific type of gas compressor. Compressors are similar
to pumps.

Isentropic Efficiency of a Compressor:

Normally, efficiencies express the ratio of a real value based on measurements to an ideal
reference. Usually, an ideal or maximum achievable value is chosen as a base, which is
sometimes calculated with a model of an ideal reference process. To keep it simple, this
section deals with compressors that are not capacity controlled (constant speed, constant
displacement and no internal bypass) even if the defined efficiencies apply for capacity
controlled compressors as well. Therefore, the operating conditions are defined as soon as
three parameters are known. Usually, the three variables suction pressure, suction
temperature and discharge pressure are considered to be known. In this case, the relevant
dependent variables are power consumption, mass-flow and discharge gas temperature. Less
important dependent variables such as sound level, oil circulation rate, housing temperature,
electrical power factor, working frequency and torque course are not considered at this stage.
Also ignored are other environmental conditions such as ambient temperature and grid
voltage; they are considered to be constant.

It is common to express the three relevant parameters, power consumption, mass-flow and
discharge gas temperature by the three characteristic numbers isentropic efficiency,
volumetric efficiency and isentropic discharge efficiency. Those dimensionless characteristic
numbers base the dependent variables, or a value derived from the de-pendent variables, on a
reference value. This value results from a reference process calculation with the independent
variables.

The operating conditions of an admission compressor with a fixed admission port position are
defined by five variables. Usually, suction pressure, suction temperature, admission pressure,
admission temperature and discharge pressure are expected to be known. Even in the case of
a compressor with a variable admission port position, the dependency on five variables does
not change provided that the position of the admission port is coupled to one of the
parameters. This, for instance, applies if the positioning of the admission port is controlled
depending on the admission pressure. Four dependent variables can be considered to be of
interest: power consumption, suction gas mass-flow, admission gas mass-flow and discharge
gas temperature. Reference processes must be defined to describe these four variables as
efficiencies as described for common compressors with their three relevant dependent
variables above.

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Volumetric power:

Power density (or volume power density or volume specific power) is the amount
of power (time rate of energy transfer) per unit volume.In energy
transformers including batteries, fuel cells, motors, etc., and also power supply units or
similar, power density refers to a volume. It is then also called volume power density, which
is expressed as W/m3.

Isothermal versus Isentropic:

If air compression/expansion were isothermal (constant temperature ), then, according to

the ideal gas law , the pressure would simply be proportional to

density It turns out, however, that heat diffusion is much slower than audio
acoustic vibrations. As a result, air compression/expansion is much closer
to isentropic (constant entropy ) in normal acoustic situations. (An isentropic process is
also called a reversible adiabatic process.) This means that when air is compressed by
shrinking its volume , for example, not only does the pressure increase (§B.7.3), but
the temperature increases as well (as quantified in the next section). In a constant-entropy
compression/expansion, temperature changes are not given time to diffuse away to thermal
equilibrium. Instead, they remain largely frozen in place. Compressing air heats it up, and
relaxing the compression cools it back down

Procedure:
i. First of all I run the compressor at moderate frequency of motor.
ii. Then calculate the motor speed N1 and compressor speed N2.
iii. Then calculate the stage outlet temperature T2 and stage 2 inlet temperature T3.
iv. Further calculate the stage 1 outlet pressure P2 and stage 2 inlet pressure P3.
v. Calculate the volumetric efficiency by given formula.
vi. Then calculate the isentropic efficiency by given formula.
vii. Similarly calculate the isothermal efficiency by applying given formula.
viii. By applying given formulas we can easily find the efficiencies of our system.

Observation and calculation:

Observation:
In this experiment I observed that volumetric efficiency is 59.8% and isentropic efficiency is
67.58% whereas N1 is 1488 and N2 717 at force 4 Nand temperature T1,2,3,4 is 36,74,52,68
respectively.

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Table of Observation:
All readings and calculation are to be tabulated as follow:

Sr N1 N2 F T1 T2 T3 T4 ΔP P2 P3 Volumetric Isothermal Isentropic

No. efficiency Efficiency efficiency

rpm rpm N Co Co Co Co Pa Pa Pa % % %

Calculation:

Conclusion:
In this experiment I observed that volumetric efficiency is 59.8% and isentropic efficiency is
67.58% whereas N1 is 1488 and N2 717 at force 4 N and temperature T1,2,3,4 is 36,74,52,68
respectively.

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