buildings

Article
Mechanical Properties and Seismic Loss Assessment of
Improved Isolation Bearing with Variable Stiffness
Jie Huang 1 , Peng Wang 1,2, *, Qingxuan Shi 1,2 , Chong Rong 1,2 and Bin Wang 1,2

1 School of Civil Engineering, Xi’an University of Architecture & Technology, Xi’an 710055, China;
[email protected] (J.H.); [email protected] (Q.S.); [email protected] (C.R.);
[email protected] (B.W.)
2 Key Laboratory of Structural Engineering and Earthquake Resistance, Ministry of Education (XAUAT),
Xi’an 710055, China
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: For improving the seismic isolation effect, traditional rubber isolation bearing provides a
smaller horizontal stiffness. However, it is unfavorable for the displacement control of the seismic
isolation layer under rare earthquakes. In this paper, an improved lead-core rubber isolation bearing
is proposed. The improved isolation bearing can provide a small horizontal stiffness to enhance the
seismic isolation effect under small earthquakes. Under large earthquakes, it can provide a large
horizontal stiffness to prevent over-limit failure due to excessive displacement. The mechanical
properties of the improved isolation bearing were investigated using the finite element method
(FEM), and the restoring force model of the improved isolation bearing was established. Based on
the FEMA P-58 theory, the earthquake loss assessment in terms of repair cost and casualty indexes
was carried out for normal frame structures, normal isolation structures, and improved isolation
structures. The results show that the improved isolation bearing maintains a smaller horizontal
stiffness before the displacement is limited, giving full play to the isolation performance. After that,
the horizontal stiffness of the bearing is enhanced, which can effectively control the displacement of
the seismic isolation layer. The lead-core can give full play to the energy dissipation characteristics.
Under the four performance levels, the improved isolation structure has the highest safety reserve
and the best collapse resistance. The use of improved isolation bearings can reduce the repair cost of
Citation: Huang, J.; Wang, P.; Shi, Q.;
the structure and casualties.
Rong, C.; Wang, B. Mechanical
Properties and Seismic Loss Keywords: improved isolation bearings; mechanical property; numerical simulation; FEMA P-58
Assessment of Improved Isolation theory; earthquake loss assessment
Bearing with Variable Stiffness.
Buildings 2023, 13, 1134. https://
doi.org/10.3390/buildings13051134
1. Introduction
Academic Editor: Hiroshi Tagawa
As a new type of structural vibration control technology, seismic isolation technology
Received: 21 March 2023 is widely used in practical engineering. Different from the traditional seismic design
Revised: 9 April 2023
method, seismic isolation technology extends the natural vibration period of the structure
Accepted: 21 April 2023
by establishing the seismic isolation layer, which can reduce the seismic energy input to the
Published: 24 April 2023
superstructure. The seismic isolation systems proposed by researchers mainly include the
laminated friction-slip isolation system [1], the rubber isolation system [2], and the rolling
isolation system [3]. The laminated rubber isolation system has become a safe, economical,
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
and effective vibration control method due to its advantages, such as convenience of
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. construction and good control effect. However, in terms of performance-based seismic
This article is an open access article isolation design, the traditional rubber isolation system still has shortcomings. The seismic
distributed under the terms and isolation system provides only a single horizontal stiffness. The smaller the horizontal
conditions of the Creative Commons stiffness of the seismic isolation layer, the more prominent the corresponding seismic
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// isolation effect. But under strong earthquakes, the seismic isolation layer will produce large
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ displacement, which might lead to the destruction of the isolation device and even the
4.0/). structure [4–7].

Buildings 2023, 13, 1134. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13051134 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/buildings

Buildings 2023, 13, 1134 2 of 26

In order to solve the shortcomings of the traditional isolation system and make the
isolation system achieve better isolation effect, researchers have made improvements on the
basis of the traditional isolation system. Wilde et al. [8] first proposed a variable isolation
system composed of laminated rubber bearings and shape memory alloy (SMA) bars. It
was found that the SMA bar cannot only improve the energy dissipation capacity of the
seismic isolation system, but also control the displacement. Xue and Li [9] introduced three
types of SMA-based dampers and one NiTi-SMA laminated rubber bearing. The results
showed that the SMA rubber bearing can effectively alleviate the seismic response in terms
of acceleration and displacement. Hosseini et al. [10] evaluated the performance of SMA
wire’s configurations using straight, cross, and double-cross arrangements in the seismic
retrofitting of bridges by nonlinear dynamic analysis. The results showed that the maximum
mid-span displacement and residual displacement of SMA-LRBs with double-cross wires
were the smallest. Behrooz et al. [11] proposed a magnetorheological elastomer (MRE)
isolation system with variable stiffness and conducted an experimental study. The results
showed that the MRE isolation system significantly reduced the acceleration and relative
displacement of floors. After that, Yang et al. [12] developed a self-powering MRE isolation
system. The test and simulation results showed that this new type of isolation system can
generate enough electricity to maintain the operation of isolation bearings when subjected
to ground motions and significantly reduce the acceleration and relative displacement
of floors. Yuan et al. [13] proposed an active control isolation system combining a linear
electromagnetic spring in parallel with a conventional linear isolation system. The dynamic
response of the isolator was analyzed by using the dynamic model and then validated by
experiments. The research demonstrated that the stiffness of the isolation system can be
adjusted by controlling the current excited to the coils. Rahnavard [14,15] proposed two
innovative steel-rubber isolators with rubber cores and found that the use of rubber cores in
the isolator reduced the horizontal stiffness and significantly increased the damping ratio,
resulting in a reduction in the input force to the structure. Isakovic and Fischinger [16]
proposed the high damping rubber bearing with variable stiffness based on the magnetically
controlled elastomer, which can provide uniform stiffness over the entire range of possible
displacement. Li et al. [17] conducted aging and seawater erosion cycle tests on lead rubber
isolation bearings (LRBs) and found that the horizontal stiffness and vertical stiffness of
LRBs increased with alternating of aging time and seawater erosion time. Huang et al. [18]
investigated the seismic response characteristics of the BIS system (only a lead-rubber-
bearing (LRB) base-isolated structure) under rare and very rare earthquakes. The study
indicated that the shear strain of LRB under very rare earthquakes may exceed the ultimate
shear strain, thus causing damage to the base-isolated structure. Gao et al. [19] conducted
an experimental study on the isolation system with variable stiffness formed by the series
connection of different types of isolation bearings. The results showed that the combined
isolation system reduced the overall acceleration of the structure and had a significant effect
on reducing the displacement of the top of the structure. Peng et al. [20] proposed a two-
stage friction pendulum bearing (TSFPB) with variable stiffness based on the traditional
friction pendulum bearing. It was found that the two-stage seismic isolation method has
better seismic performance compared with the traditional isolation method.
For the performance-based isolation design of structures, the Federal Emergency
Management Agency (FEMA) issued the FEMA P-58 report [21]. The report proposes a
new generation assessment method for the seismic performance of buildings. Based on
the structural response and the vulnerability of the members, the repair cost of buildings
and casualties are taken as the performance indicators of structures to quantify the loss
of structures under earthquakes. Most of the research on seismic isolation systems only
analyzes the structural response, ignoring the potential earthquake losses caused by
non-structural members. There is little research on the economic performance of the
isolation structure. The analysis of large amounts of data will also consume a great
deal of the researchers’ energy. With the development of artificial intelligence, it will be
promising to analyze data with artificial intelligence techniques [22–27].
Buildings 2023, 13, 1134 3 of 26

Currently, the research of base seismic isolation technology on the isolation bearing
with variable stiffness is still relatively scarce. Therefore, based on the shortcomings of
the normal rubber isolation system, an improved lead-core rubber isolation bearing with
variable stiffness is proposed in this paper. The isolation bearing provides smaller horizontal
stiffness under small earthquakes, which extends the structural period to improve the isolation
effect and provides damping and larger horizontal stiffness under large earthquakes to
prevent the isolation bearing from over-limit failure due to excessive displacement. The
vertical mechanical properties and compression-shear properties of the improved isolation
bearing were investigated by numerical simulation, and the restoring force model of the
improved isolation bearing was established. The improved isolation bearing was applied to
the isolation structure, and the seismic responses of the normal frame structure, the frame
structure with normal rubber isolation bearing as the seismic isolation layer, and the frame
structure with improved rubber isolation bearing as the seismic isolation layer were analyzed
through dynamic time-history analysis. Based on the FEMA P-58 theory, the earthquake
loss assessment in terms of repair cost and casualty indexes was carried out for normal
frame structures, normal isolation structures, and improved isolation structures. The seismic
isolation performance of the three structural systems was comparatively analyzed.

2. Mechanical Properties of Improved Isolation Bearings

2.1. Theoretical Analysis and Design of Improved Isolation Bearing
The principle of seismic isolation of building structures is to extend the period of the
structure by establishing a seismic isolation layer, thereby reducing the effect of earthquakes
on the superstructure. Within a reasonable range, reducing the horizontal stiffness of the
isolation bearing can improve the isolation effect. In the seismic isolation design, it is necessary
to prevent the over-limit failure of the seismic isolation layer. The horizontal stiffness of rubber
isolation bearing is positively correlated with the shear modulus of rubber, so the horizontal
stiffness of rubber bearing can be reduced by reducing the shear modulus of rubber.
In this paper, an improved lead-core rubber isolation bearing is proposed, as shown
in Figure 1. The horizontal stiffness of the isolation bearing is changed by using rubber
with different shear modulus. The upper rubber layer of the isolation bearing is made of
high-modulus rubber, and a lead core is added to the middle hole. The steel baffle is arranged
on the lower connecting plate of the isolation bearing. The design specification and structure
of the improved isolation bearing comply with the relevant provisions of the current codes
in China [28–31]. There are two working conditions for the isolation bearing. The condition
that the horizontal displacement δ of the middle steel plate of the isolation bearing is less
than the reserved distance d of the limiting device is taken as the first working condition.
Further, the condition that δ is greater than d is taken as the second working condition. The
isolated bearing provides smaller horizontal stiffness in the first working condition, which
improves the seismic isolation effect. In the second working condition, only the upper rubber
layer and the lead core undergo shear deformation, which provides larger horizontal
Buildings 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW
stiffness
4 of 28
and damping to prevent excessive displacement of the isolation bearing and thus meets the
deformation requirement.

Figure 1.
Figure 1. Improved
Improvedlead-core
lead-corerubber
rubberbearing
bearingwith
withvariable stiffness.
variable stiffness.

2.2. Finite Element Analysis of Improved Isolation Bearing

The nonlinear finite element software ABAQUS (6.14) was used to establish the
model of the improved rubber isolation bearing. The vertical mechanical properties and
compression-shear properties of the improved rubber isolation bearing were analyzed,
and the restoring force model of this isolation bearing was established.
Buildings 2023, 13, 1134 4 of 26

2.2. Finite Element Analysis of Improved Isolation Bearing

The nonlinear finite element software ABAQUS (6.14) was used to establish the
model of the improved rubber isolation bearing. The vertical mechanical properties and
compression-shear properties of the improved rubber isolation bearing were analyzed, and
the restoring force model of this isolation bearing was established.

2.2.1. Material Constitutive Model

(1) Constitutive model of rubber
Rubber is a typical hyperelastic material, which can produce large displacement
and strain under external force, showing complex material nonlinearity and geometric
nonlinearity. The constitutive models of rubber are mainly divided into two categories:
(1) Constitutive models based on thermodynamic statistics, such as the Van der Waals
model [32] and the Arruda–Boyce model [33]. (2) The phenomenological constitutive
model, such as the Mooney–Rivlin model [34], the Neo–Hookean model [35], and the
Yeoh model [36]. In this simulation, the Mooney–Rivlin model was used to define the
rubber material. The expression of the Mooney–Rivlin model is shown in Equation (1).
The parameters of Mooney–Rivlin model can be determined according to Equation (2),
in which C01 /C10 are obtained by the nonlinear finite element analysis method in related
literature [37–39]. The specific parameters are shown in Table 1.

1
U = C10 ( I1 − 3) + C01 ( I2 − 3) + ( J − 1)2 , (1)
D1

C01
E0 = 6C10 (1 + ) (2)
C10
where U is the strain energy; C10 , C01 , D1 are the positive-definite constants of the material;
I1 , I2 are the first and second invariants of the main elongation ratio, respectively; J is the
elastic volume ratio; E0 is the elastic modulus of the rubber material.

Table 1. Material parameters used in the Mooney–Rivlin model.

Shear Modulus of Rubber (MPa) C10 C01 D1 J E0 /GPa

0.55 0.22 0.055 0.001 1 1.65
0.35 0.14 0.035 0.001 1 1.05

(2) Constitutive model of lead core

The ideal elastic-plastic model was adopted for the model of lead core. The elastic
modulus is 16 GPa, the Poisson’s ratio is 0.44, and the yield strength is 13 MPa.
(3) Constitutive model of steel
The deformation in the lead-core rubber bearing is mainly borne by the rubber layer.
The steel plate is always in an elastic stage, thus it can be regarded as an ideal linear elastic
material. The elastic modulus of steel is 206 GPa and the Poisson’s ratio of steel is 0.3.

2.2.2. Finite Element Model of Isolation Bearing

The specific parameters of the finite element model are shown in Table 2. A device to
limit the displacement was set in the model and it took effect when the shear deformation
of the isolation bearing reaches 50%. The first shape coefficients S1 and S2 of the isolation
bearing model are 21 and 5, respectively. For the convenience of calculation, the rubber
protective layer was not considered. The finite element model is shown in Figure 2.
 limit The
the displacement was setofinthe
specific parameters thefinite
model and itmodel
element took effect when the
are shown shear2.deformation
in Table A device to
of the isolation bearing reaches 50%. The first shape coefficients S1 and S2 of
limit the displacement was set in the model and it took effect when the shear deformationthe isolation
bearing model are
of the isolation 21 and
bearing 5, respectively.
reaches 50%. The firstForshape
the convenience
coefficientsof S1calculation,
and S2 of thetheisolation
rubber
protective layer was not considered. The finite element model is shown in Figure
bearing model are 21 and 5, respectively. For the convenience of calculation, the rubber 2.
Buildings 2023, 13, 1134 5 of 26
protective layer was not considered. The finite element model is shown in Figure 2.
Table 2. Parameters of the improved isolation bearing.

Effective Table 2. Parameters

Central of theLayer
Rubber improved Steel
isolation bearing.
Plate Sealing Plate Number of Number of S
Type Table 2. Parameters of the improved isolation bearing.
Diameter (mm)
Effective Aperture
Central (mm) Thickness
Rubber Layer(mm) Thickness (mm)
Steel Plate Thickness (mm)
Sealing Plate Rubber
NumberLayers
of Number Plate Layer
of S
Type
Improved
Type
Effective Central Rubber Layer Steel Plate Sealing Plate Number of Number of Steel
Diameter
Diameter (mm)
500 (mm) Aperture
Aperture (mm)
80 (mm) Thickness (mm)
Thickness5(mm) Thickness
Thickness (mm)
2.5 (mm) Thickness (mm) Rubber
Thickness (mm) 20 Rubber Layers Layers
20 Plate Layers Plate Layer
19
rubber bearing
Improved
Improved
500
500 80
80 55 2.5 2.5 20 20 20 20 19 19
rubber bearing
rubber bearing

Figure 2. Finite element model of isolation bearing.

Figure 2. Finite
Figure 2. Finiteelement
element model
model of isolation
of isolation bearing.
bearing.
2.2.3. Element Selection and Meshing
2.2.3. Element Selection and Meshing
2.2.3.Rubber
Element Selection
can and Meshing
be regarded as an incompressible material, so the 8-node reduced integral
Rubber can be regarded as an incompressible material, so the 8-node reduced integral
solidRubber
hybrid can
element (C3D8RH)
be (C3D8RH)
regarded as was
an adopted for the
incompressible rubber.
material, soIn order
the 8-node to accurately
reduced simu-
solid hybrid element was adopted for the rubber. In order to accurately simulateintegral
late
solid the mechanical
hybrid element properties
(C3D8RH) of
wasisolation
adoptedbearings and improve the computational effi-
the mechanical properties of isolation bearings andfor the rubber.
improve In order to accurately
the computational efficiency simu-
ciency
late the
of the ofmechanical
the
finite finitemethod,
element element method,
properties
the the
of isolation
sandwich sandwich
steel plate andsteel
bearings and plate
improve
the sealing and the
platethe sealing plate were
computational
were simulated effi-
simulated
ciency by the
of the solid
by the C3D8R C3D8R solid
finiteelement.
elementThe element.
method,
meshing theThe meshing
of sandwich
the model is of
steelthe model
plate
shown is
and the
in Figure shown in Figure 3.
3. sealing plate were
simulated by the C3D8R solid element. The meshing of the model is shown in Figure 3.

3. Meshing
Figure 3.
Figure Meshingofofthe model.
the model.
Figure 3. Meshing
2.2.4. Boundary of the model.
Conditions and Loading Scheme
2.2.4. Boundary Conditions and Loading Scheme
In the manufacturing process of the laminated rubber bearing, the rubber and sand-
2.2.4.
wich In Boundary
theplate
steel Conditions
manufacturing
are and Loading
generallyprocess
bonded of Scheme
the laminated
together rubber bearing,
through vulcanization and the rubber and sand-
pressurization
wich steel
at high plate are
temperature. generally
The bonded
sandwich steeltogether
plate andthrough
the vulcanization
rubber
In the manufacturing process of the laminated rubber bearing, the rubber are not easy and
to pressurization
peel off.
and sand-
Therefore,
at
wichhigh in the process
temperature.
steel of numerical
The sandwich
plate are generally analysis,
bondedsteel the tie constraint
platethrough
together was
and thevulcanization adopted
rubber are not as
and the
easy con-
to peel off.
pressurization
straint forminbetween
Therefore, the rubber
the process layer andanalysis,
the sandwichtie steel plate. The fixed constraint
at high temperature. Theofsandwich
numerical steel plate the and the constraint
rubber are was adopted
not easy to as peel
the con-
off.
was adopted
straint at the
forminbetween bottom of
the of the
rubber rubber bearing
layer analysis, to limit
and the sandwich the translation
steel plate. and
Therotation
fixed asof
constraint
Therefore, the process numerical the tie constraint was
the bottom of the rubber bearing. The “hard” contact between the limiting device and the
adopted the con-
was adoptedbetween
straint at the bottom of thelayer
rubberandbearing to limitsteel
the translation and rotation of
middle form
layer steel platethe
wasrubber
adopted to achieve thethesandwich
purpose of plate.displacement.
limiting The fixed constraint
the
wasbottom
adopted of at
In order to
thestudy
rubber
the bottombearing. The “hard”
of thecompressive
the vertical rubber contact
bearing between
to limit
mechanical the the limiting
translation
properties
device
and
and horizontal
and the
rotation of
middle
the layer steel plate
bottom of the rubber
compression-shear was adopted
bearing.
mechanical to achieve
The “hard”
properties the purpose
contact between
of the improved of limiting
the limiting
isolation bearing, displacement.
device
vertical com-and the
middle
pressivelayer steel
stresses of plate
5 MPa,was
10 adopted to achieve
MPa, 12 MPa, and 15the purpose
MPa of limiting
were applied displacement.
to the isolation
bearing, respectively, according to the relevant regulations in the “Code for Seismic Design
of Buildings” [40]. Through displacement control, the isolation bearing is subjected to
cyclic loading with horizontal shear deformation of 50%, 75%, 100%, 125%, 150%, 175%,
and 200%.
 In order to study the vertical compressive mechanical properties and horizontal com-
pression-shear mechanical properties of the improved isolation bearing, vertical compres-
sive stresses of 5 MPa, 10 MPa, 12 MPa, and 15 MPa were applied to the isolation bearing,
respectively, according to the relevant regulations in the “Code for Seismic Design of
Buildings” [40]. Through displacement control, the isolation bearing is subjected to cyclic
Buildings 2023, 13, 1134 loading with horizontal shear deformation of 50%, 75%, 100%, 125%, 150%, 175%, 6and of 26
200%.

2.3. Results
2.3. Results and
and Analysis
Analysis
2.3.1. Compressive Mechanical
2.3.1. Mechanical Properties
Properties of
of Isolation
IsolationBearings
Bearings
For common
For commonisolated
isolatedstructures,
structures,rubber isolation
rubber bearings
isolation are generally
bearings arranged
are generally un-
arranged
der structural
under structuralcolumns
columns or shear walls,
or shear which
walls, need
which to bear
need the vertical
to bear loadload
the vertical transmitted by
transmitted
thethe
by superstructure
superstructure for for
a long time.
a long Therefore,
time. the vertical
Therefore, compression
the vertical performance
compression of theof
performance
isolation
the bearing
isolation is anis
bearing important index index
an important to ensure the safety
to ensure theof the structure
safety and the normal
of the structure and the
operation of the isolation bearing. The vertical (Z-direction) stress cloud diagram
normal operation of the isolation bearing. The vertical (Z-direction) stress cloud diagram and de-
formation cloud diagram of the isolation bearing under different
and deformation cloud diagram of the isolation bearing under different compressivecompressive stresses
were extracted,
stresses respectively.
were extracted, The stressThe
respectively. cloud diagram
stress cloud and deformation
diagram cloud diagram
and deformation cloud
are shown
diagram areinshown
Figurein4. Figure 4.

(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e) (f)

(g) (h)

Figure 4. Vertical (Z-direction) stress and deformation cloud diagram. (a) Stress cloud diagram
(5 MPa); (b) Deformation cloud diagram (5 MPa); (c) Stress cloud diagram (10 MPa); (d) Deformation
cloud diagram (10 MPa); (e) Stress cloud diagram (12 MPa); (f) Deformation cloud diagram (12 MPa);
(g) Stress cloud diagram (15 MPa); (h) Deformation cloud diagram (15 MPa).

As shown in Figure 4, the vertical stress and compressive deformation of the isolation
bearing increase linearly with the increase of the vertical compressive stress. When the
vertical compressive stress of the isolation bearing increases from 5 MPa to 15 MPa, the peak
Buildings 2023, 13, 1134 7 of 26

stress on the top surface of the isolation bearing increases from 6.20 MPa to 18.61 MPa, and
the maximum deformation of the isolation bearing increases from 0.271 mm to 0.814 mm.
According to the stress distribution, the stress of the isolation bearing is large in the
middle annular area and small in the edge and center area of the isolation bearing. This is
because under the vertical load, the rubber will produce lateral deformation in the direction
of less restraint and the rubber in the middle annular area is in a three-way stress state
due to the restraint of the sandwich steel plate, thus improving the bearing capacity and
vertical compression stiffness of the rubber in the middle annular area. According to
the deformation distribution, the vertical deformation of the upper part of the isolation
bearing is larger than that of the lower part due to the accumulation of vertical compression
deformation of the rubber layer. The elastic modulus of the steel plate is much larger
than that of rubber. Therefore, the contribution of the steel plate layer to the vertical
displacement is negligible, and the vertical displacement of the isolation bearing is caused
by the compression deformation of the rubber layer.
The vertical compressive stiffness of the isolation bearing under different compressive
stress is shown in Table 3. The vertical stiffness increases slightly with the increase of the
compressive stress, because the vertical stiffness of the isolation bearing depends on the
stiffness of the rubber. With the increase of the compressive stress, the constraint effect of
the sandwich steel plate on the rubber layer increases, so the vertical compression stiffness
of the isolation bearing increases accordingly.

Table 3. Vertical stiffness of the isolation bearing.

Compressive Stress (MPa) Vertical Displacement (mm) Vertical Load (kN) Vertical Compression Stiffness
5 0.27095 981.748 3623.35
10 0.54177 1963.50 3624.23
12 0.65006 2356.19 3624.57
15 0.81246 2945.24 3625.09

2.3.2. Horizontal Compression-Shear Mechanical Properties of Isolation Bearings

The horizontal mechanical performance of the isolation bearing determines its isolation
performance and thus determines the isolation effect of the overall structure. The stress
cloud diagram and deformation cloud diagram of the improved isolation bearing model
with shear deformation of 50%, 75%, 125%, and 175% under the compressive stress of
5 MPa and 15 MPa are listed, respectively. Shear deformation is represented by shear strain
γ in subsequent analysis. To better display the stress distribution of the model, the stress
distribution of the middle steel plate is ignored in the cloud diagram. The stress cloud
diagram and deformation cloud diagram are shown in Figures 5 and 6, respectively.
As shown in Figures 5 and 6, the stress concentration area of isolation bearing decreases
with the increase of horizontal shear deformation. This is because the area of the core
compression area of the isolation bearing decreases when the horizontal deformation of the
isolation bearing occurs. According to the horizontal deformation, when the shear strain
γ is less than 50%, the horizontal deformation is mainly borne by the lower rubber layer.
Because of the setting of the limiting device, when the shear strain γ is greater than 50%, the
lower rubber layer no longer undergoes shear deformation, and the horizontal deformation
of the isolation bearing is borne by the upper rubber layer. The stress cloud diagram of
isolation bearing in Z-direction is shown in Figure 7. According to Figure 7a,b, when the
shear strain increases to 125%, the isolation bearing generates a tensile stress of 12.93 MPa.
The area of tensile stress that appears is the area where the isolation bearing is easily
damaged. As shown in Figure 7c, when the compressive stress on the isolation bearing
increases from 5 MPa to 15 MPa, the tensile stress area of the isolation bearing expands,
but the maximum tensile stress decreases to 12.90 MPa. This indicates that the increase of
the vertical compressive stress on the isolation bearing is beneficial to the reduction of the
tensile stress.
Buildings 2023, 13, 1134 8 of 26
Buildings 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 28

(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e) (f)

(g) (h)
Figure 5. Stress cloud diagram and Z-direction deformation cloud diagram (5 MPa). (a) Stress dis-
Figure 5. Stress cloud diagram and Z-direction deformation cloud diagram (5 MPa). (a) Stress
tribution (γ = 50%); (b) Z-direction deformation (γ = 50%); (c) Stress distribution (γ = 75%); (d) Z-
distribution
direction (γ = 50%);
deformation (γ (b) Z-direction
= 75%); deformation
(e) Stress distribution(γ(γ== 50%);
125%);(c)
(f)Stress distribution
Z-direction (γ = 75%);
deformation (γ =
(d) Z-direction
125%); (g) Stressdeformation
distribution(γ(γ==75%);
175%);(e)(h)
Stress distribution
Z-direction (γ = 125%);
deformation (γ =(f) Z-direction deformation
175%).
(γ = 125%); (g) Stress distribution (γ = 175%); (h) Z-direction deformation (γ = 175%).

The horizontal cyclic loading under the compressive stress of 5 MPa was carried out
on the improved isolation bearing and the hysteresis curves under various shear strains
were obtained, as shown in Figure 8.
As shown in Figures 8 and 9, when γ is less than 25%, the slope of the hysteresis curve
is almost unchanged. At this time, the lead core in the isolation bearing is not yielded and
the isolation bearing has almost no energy dissipation capacity. When γ is greater than
25% and less than 50%, the slope of the hysteresis curve decreases. The rubber layers of
the upper and lower parts of the isolation bearing work synergistically, and the stiffness
decreases. When γ is greater than 50%, only the upper rubber layer and lead core undergo
shear deformation. The slope of the hysteresis curve increases and the energy dissipation
capacity is continuously increasing. This shows that the limiting device divides the working
conditions of the improved isolation bearing into two types: (1) The first working condition
is when the horizontal shear strain γ of the isolation bearing is less than 50%, as shown
in Figure 10a. At this time, the rubber with low shear modulus at the lower part of the
isolation bearing first undergoes shear deformation, which provides less horizontal stiffness
and better seismic isolation effect. (2) The second working condition is when the horizontal
shear strain γ of the isolation bearing is greater than 50%, as shown in Figure 10b. The
Buildings 2023, 13, 1134 9 of 26

Buildings 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW

limiting device limits the deformation of the rubber with the low shear model at the9 lowerof 28

part of the isolation bearing, while the rubber with the high shear modulus at the upper part
of the isolation bearing undergoes shear deformation to provide greater horizontal stiffness.
At this time, the lead core starts to give full play to the function of energy dissipation.

(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e) (f)

(g) (h)
Figure 6. Stress cloud diagram and Z-direction deformation cloud diagram (15 MPa). (a) Stress dis-
Figure 6. Stress cloud diagram and Z-direction deformation cloud diagram (15 MPa). (a) Stress
tribution (γ = 50%); (b) Z-direction deformation (γ = 50%); (c) Stress distribution (γ = 75%); (d) Z-
distribution (γ = 50%); (b) Z-direction deformation (γ = 50%); (c) Stress distribution (γ = 75%);
direction deformation (γ = 75%); (e) Stress distribution (γ = 125%); (f) Z-direction deformation (γ =
Buildings 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW
(d) Z-direction 10 of 28
125%); (g) Stressdeformation
distribution(γ
(γ== 75%);
175%);(e)(h)
Stress distribution
Z-direction (γ = 125%);
deformation (γ =(f) Z-direction deformation
175%).
(γ = 125%); (g) Stress distribution (γ = 175%); (h) Z-direction deformation (γ = 175%).
As shown in Figures 5 and 6, the stress concentration area of isolation bearing de-
creases with the increase of horizontal shear deformation. This is because the area of the
core compression area of the isolation bearing decreases when the horizontal deformation
of the isolation bearing occurs. According to the horizontal deformation, when the shear
strain γ is less than 50%, the horizontal deformation is mainly borne by the lower rubber
layer. Because of the setting of the limiting device, when the shear strain γ is greater than
50%, the lower rubber layer no longer undergoes shear deformation, and the horizontal
deformation of the isolation bearing is borne by the upper rubber layer. The stress cloud
diagram of isolation bearing in Z-direction is shown in Figure 7. According to Figure 7a,b,
when the shear strain increases to 125%, the isolation bearing generates a tensile stress of
12.93 MPa. The area of tensile stress that appears is the area where the isolation bearing is
(a) (b) (c)
easily damaged. As shown in Figure 7c, when the compressive stress on the isolation bear-
ing increases
Figure from 5 MPa
7. Z-direction stressto 15 MPa,
cloud the tensile
diagram. stress area
(a) Z-direction of the
stress (γ =isolation bearing
50%, 5 MPa); expands,
(b) Z-direction
Figure 7. Z-direction stress cloud diagram. (a) Z-direction stress (γ = 50%, 5 MPa); (b) Z-direction
stress
but the(γmaximum
= 125%, 5 MPa); (c) stress
tensile Z-direction stress to
decreases (γ 12.90
= 125%, 15 MPa).
MPa. This indicates that the increase of
stress (γ = 125%, 5 MPa); (c) Z-direction stress (γ = 125%, 15 MPa).
the vertical compressive stress on the isolation bearing is beneficial to the reduction of the
tensileThe horizontal cyclic loading under the compressive stress of 5 MPa was carried out
stress.
on the improved isolation bearing and the hysteresis curves under various shear strains
were obtained, as shown in Figure 8.
 Figure 7. Z-direction stress cloud diagram. (a) Z-direction stress (γ = 50%, 5 MPa); (b) Z-direction
stress (γ = 125%, 5 MPa); (c) Z-direction stress (γ = 125%, 15 MPa).

The horizontal cyclic loading under the compressive stress of 5 MPa was carried out
Buildings 2023, 13, 1134 on the improved isolation bearing and the hysteresis curves under various10shear
of 26 strains
were obtained, as shown in Figure 8.

Buildings 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 2

Buildings 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 28
Figure 8.8.Hysteresis
Figure Hysteresis curve.
curve.

As shown in Figures 8 and 9, when γ is less than 25%, the slope of the hysteresis
curve is almost unchanged. At this time, the lead core in the isolation bearing is not yielded
and the isolation bearing has almost no energy dissipation capacity. When γ is greater
than 25% and less than 50%, the slope of the hysteresis curve decreases. The rubber layers
of the upper and lower parts of the isolation bearing work synergistically, and the stiffness
decreases. When γ is greater than 50%, only the upper rubber layer and lead core undergo
shear deformation. The slope of the hysteresis curve increases and the energy dissipation
capacity is continuously increasing. This shows that the limiting device divides the work-
ing conditions of the improved isolation bearing into two types: (1) The first working con-
dition is when the horizontal shear strain γ of the isolation bearing is less than 50%, as
shown in Figure 10a. At this time, the rubber with low shear modulus at the lower part of
the isolation
Figure bearing
9. Equivalent firststiffness.
horizontal undergoes shear deformation, which provides less horizontal
Figure9.9.Equivalent
Figure Equivalent horizontal
horizontal stiffness.
stiffness.
stiffness and better seismic isolation effect. (2) The second working condition is when the
horizontal shear strain γ of the isolation bearing is greater than 50%, as shown in Figure
10b. The limiting device limits the deformation of the rubber with the low shear model at
the lower part of the isolation bearing, while the rubber with the high shear modulus at
the upper part of the isolation bearing undergoes shear deformation to provide greater
horizontal stiffness. At this time, the lead core starts to give full play to the function of
energy dissipation.
(a) (b)
Figure
Figure10.
10.Shear (a)ofofthe
Sheardeformation
deformation theimproved
improvedrubber
rubberisolation
isolationbearing:
bearing:(a) (b)(b)
(a)γγ<<50%;
50%; (b)γγ> >50%.
50%.
Figure
2.4. 10. Shear
Restoring Force deformation of the improved
ModelofofImproved
Improved rubber isolation bearing: (a) γ < 50%; (b) γ > 50%.
IsolationBearing
Bearing
2.4. Restoring Force Model Isolation
Accordingtotothe
According theresults
resultsofoffinite
finiteelement
elementanalysis,
analysis,aasimplified
simplifiedrestoring
restoringforceforcemodel
model
2.4.
of theRestoring
improved Force Model
isolation of Improved
bearing is Isolation
obtained, as Bearing
shown in Figure 11. When the isolation
of the improved isolation bearing is obtained, as shown in Figure 11. When the isolation
bearing
bearing According
isisininthe
thefirstto the
first results
working
working of finite(δelement
condition
condition (δisisless analysis,
lessthan
thand),d),thea simplified
the restoring
restoringforce
restoring force model
model force
isis mode
simplified
of the improved
simplified to a two-fold
to a two-fold isolationline model.
bearing
line model. ∆
Δ isistheis the
obtained, horizontal
horizontal displacement
as displacement
shown in Figure of
of the11. the bearing.
WhenDthe
bearing. is isolation
D
the is the horizontal
bearing
horizontalis in the critical
critical first displacement
working
displacement of the (δ
ofcondition
the bearing bearing
is less
when when
the than the
d),limiting
limiting devicetostarts
the restoring
device starts forcetomodel i
work.
Inwork. In thek1
simplified
the figure, tofigure, thek1
ais two-fold is the stiffness
lineofmodel.
stiffness of the isolation
Δ is the
the isolation bearing
horizontal
bearing before before yielding,
displacement
yielding, k2 is the k2 is the
of stiffness
the bearing. D i
stiffness
ofthe of
thehorizontal the isolation
isolation bearing bearing
after after yielding,
yielding, xyof is the xy
the yield is the yield
displacement,displacement, and
and x1 isdevice x1 is the
the ultimate
critical displacement bearing when the limiting starts to work
ultimate displacement.
displacement.
In the figure, k1 is the stiffness of the isolation bearing before yielding, k2 is the stiffnes
(1)
of theThe OA section
isolation is the positive
bearing elastic stage,
after yielding, xy isand the the initial
yield stiffness k1 is and
displacement, the stiffness
x1 is the of ultimat
the rubber
displacement. layer at the lower part of the isolation bearing: k 1 = G 1 A/T r .
(2) The AB section is the plastic yielding stage, and the yield stiffness k2 is the parallel
stiffness of the rubber layers at the upper and lower parts of the isolation bearing:
k2 = (G G+ 1 G2 A
G )T
.
1 2 r
 bearing is in the first working condition (δ is less than d), the restoring force model is
simplified to a two-fold line model. Δ is the horizontal displacement of the bearing. D is
the horizontal critical displacement of the bearing when the limiting device starts to work.
In the figure, k1 is the stiffness of the isolation bearing before yielding, k2 is the stiffness
Buildings 2023, 13, 1134 11 of
of the isolation bearing after yielding, xy is the yield displacement, and x1 is the 26
ultimate
displacement.

(a) (b)
Figure 11.11.
Figure Restoring
Restoringforce
forcemodel of improved
model of improvedisolation
isolation bearing:
bearing: (a) (a)
δ isδless
is less
thanthan
d; (b)d;δ (b) δ is greater
is greater
than d. d.
than

(1) The When

OAthe isolation
section bearing
is the is in the
positive second
elastic working
stage, condition
and the initial(δstiffness
is greaterk1than d), the
is the stiffness
restoring force model is simplified to a three-fold line model. In the figure, k1 is the stiffness
of the rubber layer at the lower part of the isolation bearing: k = G1 A /bearing
of the isolation bearing before yielding, k and k are the stiffness of the1 isolation
Tr .
2 3
after yielding, xy is the yield displacement, x1 is the installation distance of the limiting
device, and x2 is the ultimate displacement.

(1) The OA section is the positive elastic stage, and the initial stiffness k1 is the stiffness of
the rubber layer at the lower part of the isolation bearing: k1 = G1 A/Tr .
(2) The AB section is the plastic yielding stage, and the yield stiffness k2 is the parallel
stiffness of the rubber layers at the upper and lower parts of the isolation bearing:
k2 = (G G+1 G2 A
G )T
.
1 2 r
(3) The BC section is the plastic hardening stage, and the yield stiffness k3 is the stiffness
of the rubber layer at the upper part of the isolation bearing: k3 = G2 A/Tr . where
G1 is the shear modulus of of the rubber layer at the lower part of the isolation bearing;
G2 is the shear modulus of of the rubber layer at the upper part of the isolation bearing;
A is the plane area of the rubber layer; Tr is the total thickness of the rubber layer.

In addition to the control group U55B35, the hysteretic analysis of the horizontal shear
deformation to 175% under 10 MPa compressive stress was carried out on the six groups
of models with different shear modulus of the rubber layer on the upper and lower parts
of the isolation bearings to obtain the horizontal stiffness in each stage. The horizontal
stiffness of the models is calculated using the above stiffness calculation formula. The
obtained results are shown in Table 4. According to U55B20, U55B25, U55B30, and U55B35,
the initial stiffness k1 and yield stiffness k2 increase with the increase of the shear modulus
of the rubber layer at the lower part of the isolation bearing but have no effect on the
horizontal stiffness k3. When the isolation bearing enters the second working condition,
the horizontal stiffness k3 is completely provided by the rubber layer at the upper part
of the isolation bearing. According to U60B35, U65B35, U70B35, and U55B35, the change
of the shear modulus of the upper rubber layer of the isolation bearing does not affect
the initial stiffness k1, and the horizontal stiffness k2 and k3 increases with the increase
of the shear modulus of the upper rubber layer of the isolation bearing. According to the
ratio of the simulated value and the calculated value of stiffness in Table 4, the statistics
of each simulation group are obtained, as shown in Table 5. The average value of k/kc
of each model is between 0.9922 and 0.9982, and the standard deviation and coefficient
of variation are both within 0.03. This indicates that the theoretical calculation value of
the horizontal stiffness of the isolation bearing is in good agreement with the simulation
value of the finite element analysis, and the theoretical calculation result can well predict
the simulation result.
 Buildings 2023, 13, 1134 12 of 26

Table 4. Horizontal stiffness.

Buildings 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW
Theoretical Theoretical Theoretical
Initial Stiffness k1 Yield Stiffness k2 Yield Stiffness k3
Model Calculation k1c Calculation k2c Calculation k3c
(kN/mm) (kN/mm) (kN/mm)
(kN/mm) (kN/mm) (kN/mm)
U55B20 0.7438 0.7653 0.5553 0.5612 2.1368 2.1046
U55B25 0.9360 0.9566
U55B30 1.1171
Table 5.
1.1479
Statistical 0.6514
analysis
0.7372
of 0.6577
horizontal
0.7428
stiffness. 2.1367
2.1425
2.1046
2.1046
U55B35 1.2991 1.3393 0.8222 0.8184 2.1464 2.1046
U60B35 1.3069 1.3393 0.8375 0.8458 Model 2.3368 2.2959
U65B35 Statistics 1.3073 1.3393 0.8612 0.8705 2.5273 2.4872
U70B35 1.3076 U55B20
1.3393 U55B25
0.8858 U55B30
0.8928 U55B35 2.7097 U60B35 2.6785 U65B35
Note: “U55B20” means that the shear modulus of the rubber layer at the upper part of the isolation bearing is
Average value 0.9922
0.55 MPa 0.9947
and the shear modulus 0.9946
of the rubber layer at the lower part0.9982 0.9946
of the isolation bearing is 0.20 MPa. 0.9939
Standard deviation 0.0218 0.0188 0.0225 0.0256 0.0214 0.0204
Table 5. Statistical analysis of horizontal stiffness.
Coefficient of variation 0.0220 0.0189 0.0226 0.0256 0.0215 0.0205
Model
Statistics
3. Earthquake
U55B20 U55B25Loss U55B30
Assessment of Isolation
U55B35 U60B35Structures
U65B35 U70B35
Average value 0.9922 0.9947 0.9946 0.9982 0.9946 0.9939 0.9934
Standard deviation 3.1. Establishment
0.0218 0.0188 of Isolation
0.0225 Structure
0.0256 Models
0.0214 0.0204 0.0177
Coefficient of variation 0.0220 0.0189 0.0226 0.0256 0.0215 0.0205 0.0178
Based on the site conditions in Xi’an, China, a reinforced concrete fr
was designed according to the relevant codes for architectural and structu
3. Earthquake Loss Assessment of Isolation Structures
43].Establishment
3.1. There areof six floors
Isolation above
Structure ground. The height of the ground floor is
Models
other layers
Based on theare 3.3 m. The
site conditions height
in Xi’an, China, ofa the structure
reinforced concrete isframe
20.4structure
m. Thewas arrangem
and columns
designed according onto the standard
the relevant codesfloor of the frame
for architectural is showndesign
and structural in Figure
[40–43].12. Th
There
periodare of
six the
floorsfirst
above ground. The
vibration modeheight ofofthe
the structure
ground floorisis0.635
3.9 m, and
s. Thethe other
elastic stor
layers are 3.3 m. The height of the structure is 20.4 m. The arrangement of beams and
1/583. on
columns Thethesuperstructure
standard floor of the offrame
the other
is shown two isolation
in Figure 12. Thestructures
fundamentalis the same,
period
ofthe
of the bearings
first of the
vibration mode of isolation
the structurelayeris 0.635iss.shown in story
The elastic Figure drift13.
angleThe site catego
is 1/583.
The superstructure of the other two isolation structures is the
II area. The constant load of floor and roof is taken as 4.0. The standard same, and the layout of the val
bearings of the isolation layer is shown in Figure 13. The site category is the Class II area.
is 2.0.
The Theload
constant standard value
of floor and roof of loadasfor
is taken 4.0.infill walls and
The standard value partition
of live load walls
is 2.0. is 8.0
strength
The standardgrade
value ofisload
C30.for The thickness
infill walls of thewalls
and partition plate is The
is 8.0. 120concrete
mm. Longitudinal
strength
grade is C30. The thickness of the
stirrups are uniformly adopted HRB400. plate is 120 mm. Longitudinal steel bars and stirrups are
uniformly adopted HRB400.

Figure
Figure 12. 12. Structure
Structure diagram
diagram oflayer.
of standard standard layer.
Buildings 2023, 13, 1134 13 of 26
Figure 12. Structure diagram of standard layer.

(a) (b)
Figure Figure
13. Layout of the
13. Layout of thebearings ofthe
bearings of theseismic
seismic isolation
isolation layer. layer. (a) isolation
(a) Normal Normalbearing;
isolation bea
(b) Normal isolation
Normal isolation bearing. bearing.

In this paper, the ground motion records were preliminarily selected in the PEER NGA
Inwest-2
this database.
paper, Thethedesign
ground motion
response records
spectrum requiredwere
in thepreliminarily
“Code for Seismicselected
Design in th
of Buildings” [40] was used as the target spectrum, and the target
NGA west-2 database. The design response spectrum required in the “Code response spectrum was for
matched in the 0.635 s section of the fundamental period of the structure. The selection
Designprinciples
of Buildings” [40] (1)
are as follows: wasTheused
range as theepicentral
of the target spectrum, andkm;
distance is 10–60 the(2)target
The siterespon
trum was matched
type is the Class IIin the
site, 0.635
and s section ofVS30
the corresponding theis fundamental period
greater than 250 m/s of than
and less the structu
500 m/s.
Using the single-point amplitude modulation method, as shown in Equation (3), the
matched 120 ground motion records were amplitude-modulated to three intensity levels.
Finally, five natural ground motion records and two artificial waves were selected for
subsequent analysis. The amplitude modulation coefficients of ground motions are shown
in Table 6. The mean value of the acceleration response spectrum of the seven selected
waves that are amplitude modulated to the intensity of the rare earthquake is shown in
Figure 14. The mean value curve of the response spectrum after amplitude modulation is
similar to the curve of the design response spectrum. The error of spectral acceleration near
the fundamental period of the structure (0.635 s) is small. This indicates that the selected
ground motion records are reasonable.

SF = SaTarget ( T1 )/SaRecord ( T1 ), (3)

where SF is the amplitude modulation coefficient; SaTarget ( T1 ) is the spectral acceleration

value of the design response spectrum at the fundamental period point of the structure;
SaRecord ( T1 ) is the spectral acceleration value of the ground motion recorded at the funda-
mental period point of the structure.

Table 6. Amplitude modulation coefficients of ground motions.

Number Frequent Earthquakes Fortification Earthquakes Rare Earthquakes

RSN40 5.55 15.61 35.21
RSN55 7.61 21.39 48.26
RSN68 4.08 11.48 25.90
RSN97 0.28 0.78 1.77
RSN339 0.12 0.33 0.75
A04 0.48 1.35 3.04
A05 0.21 0.58 1.30
 RSN55 7.61 21.39 48.26
RSN68 4.08 11.48 25.90
RSN97 0.28 0.78 1.77
RSN339 0.12 0.33 0.75
A04
Buildings 2023, 13, 1134 0.48 1.35 3.04
14 of 26
A05 0.21 0.58 1.30

Figure 14.Acceleration
Figure 14. Accelerationresponse spectrum.
response spectrum.

Structural response analysis was carried out using SAP2000 (V21) finite element
Structural response analysis was carried out using SAP2000 (V21) finite element soft-
software. The plastic hinge element was used to define the elastoplasticity of beam and
ware. The plastic hinge element was used to define the elastoplasticity of beam and col-
column elements and the membrane element was used to simulate the floor plate. The
umn elements
concrete damageand the membrane
plasticity model was element was used
used to simulate to simulate
concrete. the floorrelations
The constitutive plate. The con-
crete damage plasticity model was used to simulate concrete. The constitutive
in the “Code for Design of Concrete Structures” [42] were adopted for the constitutive relations in
the “Code
relation forconcrete
of the Design and
of Concrete
steel bar. Structures” [42] were adopted for the constitutive rela-
Thethe
tion of uniaxial tensile
concrete andstress–strain
steel bar. relationship for concrete can be expressed as follows:
The uniaxial tensile stress–strain relationship for concrete can be expressed as fol-
σ = (1 − dt ) Ec ε (4)
lows:
(
1 − ρt 1.2 − 0.2x5 x ≤ 1
 
dt = 1−
ρt
x>1 (5)
1.7
α t ( x −1) +x

f t,r
ρt = (6)
Ec ε t,r
ε
x= (7)
ε t,r
where f t,r is the representative value of the uniaxial tensile strength of concrete; ε t,r is
the peak tensile strain corresponding to f t,r ; αt is the parameter value of the descending
segment of the uniaxial tensile stress–strain curve of concrete; Ec is the elastic modulus.
The uniaxial compressive stress–strain relationship for concrete can be expressed
as follows:
σ = (1 − dc ) Ec ε (8)

( ρc n
1− n −1+ x n x ≤ 1
dc = 1−
ρc
x>1 (9)
α c ( x −1)2 + x

f c,r
ρc = (10)
Ec ε c,r
Ec ε c,r
n= (11)
Ec ε c,r − f c,r
ε
x= (12)
ε c,r
where f c,r is the representative value of the uniaxial compressive strength of concrete;
ε c,r is the peak compressive strain corresponding to f c,r ; αc is the parameter value of the
descending segment of the uniaxial compressive stress–strain curve of concrete; Ec is the
elastic modulus.
Buildings 2023, 13, 1134 15 of 26

The constitutive relation of the steel bar can be expressed as follows:


Eε ε ≤ εy
σ=
(13)
f y + Et ε − ε y ε > εy

where E is the elastic modulus of the steel bar; ε is the strain of the steel bar; εy is the yield
strain of the steel bar; fy is the yield strength of the steel bar; Et is the elastic modulus in the
strengthening stage.
The built-in Rubber Isolator connection element in SAP2000 was used to simulate
normal rubber isolation bearings and the equivalent stiffness and vertical stiffness of the
element need to be determined. The LNR500 rubber bearing was adopted in this paper.
The equivalent stiffness is 810 kN/m and the vertical stiffness is 2200 kN/mm. The built-in
Multilinear Plastic element in SAP2000 was used to simulate improved lead-core rubber
bearings. The restoring force model of the improved isolation bearing can be simplified
into a three-fold line model, as shown in Figure 11.
The normal RC frame structure model, the RC frame structure model with normal
lead-core rubber isolation bearing as the seismic isolation layer, and the RC frame struc-
ture model with improved lead-core rubber isolation bearing as the seismic isolation
layer were established. Through elastoplastic time-history analysis, the responses of
three structures under frequent earthquakes, fortification earthquakes, and rare earth-
quakes were obtained.

3.2. Vulnerability Analysis

3.2.1. Structural Performance Level
According to the relevant regulations in the “Code for Seismic Design of Build-
ings” [40], for general RC frame structures, the elastic and plastic story drift angle limits are
1/550 and 1/50, respectively. For the isolation structure, if the horizontal displacement of
the isolation bearing exceeds the allowable displacement, the isolation bearing is regarded
as occurring over-limit failure. Because of the failure of the isolation bearing, the axial force
of the structural column connected to the upper part of the isolation bearing could change
abruptly, which could lead to the collapse of the overall structure. Therefore, when the hor-
izontal displacement of seismic isolation bearing exceeds the allowable limit displacement,
it is considered that the structure has failed.
In the paper, the structural performance levels are classified with reference to the drift
angle limits and the failure conditions of the seismic isolation layer, as shown in Table 7.

Table 7. Maximum story drift angle limit of the normal frame structure.

Performance Index Intact Condition Slight Failure Moderate Failure Serious Failure
Story drift angle 1/550 1/250 1/120 1/50

3.2.2. Analysis of IDA

The incremental dynamic analysis (IDA) was used for the three structures to obtain
the variation law of the maximum story drift angle of the structure under different spectral
acceleration levels, so as to carry out the subsequent seismic vulnerability analysis of the
structure. After it was equal to 0.9 g, the amplitude of each seismic wave was modulated
to 1.2 g, 1.5 g, 1.8 g, and 2.1 g in increments of 0.3 g. The ground motions with different
amplitudes were input into SAP2000, and the elastoplastic time-history analysis was carried
out for the three structures. The IDA curves corresponding to the seven ground motions
were drawn respectively, as shown in Figure 15.
Buildings 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 18 of 28

Buildings 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 18 of 28

Buildings 2023, 13, 1134 16 of 26

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 15. IDA curve of the structure. (a) Normal frame structure; (b) Normal isolation structure;
(c) Improved isolation structure.
(a) (b) (c)
As shown in Figure 14, the normal frame structure begins to collapse when 𝑆 (𝑇 ) is
Figure 15.15.
IDA curve of the structure. (a)Normal
Normalframeframe structure;
(b) (b) Normal isolation structure;
Figure
greater than IDA0.9 gcurve
andof thethan
less structure.
1.2 g,(a)and the normal structure;
isolation Normal
structure isolation
and the structure;
improved
(c) (c)
Improved
Improved isolation
isolation structure.
structure.
isolation structure begin to collapse when 𝑆 (𝑇 ) is greater than 1.2 g and less than 1.8 g.
The maximum showninter-story drift angle of the structure
two types of isolation structures Sa ( Tis1𝑆)always
AsAsshown ininFigure
Figure14, 14, the normal
the normalframe frame structure begins to collapse
begins to collapse when when (𝑇 ) is
is
lower than
greater that
than 0.9ofg the
and normal
less than frame
1.2 g, structure,
and the normal and the ground
isolation structure motion
and theintensity
improved of the
greater than 0.9 g and less than 1.2 g, and the normal isolation structure and the improved
isolation structures isbegin
generally greater than that of the normal frame structure when the
isolation
isolation structurebegin
structure to collapse
to collapse whenS𝑆a ( T(𝑇1 ) )isisgreater
when greaterthan
than1.2 g and
1.2 less less
g and thanthan1.8 g.1.8 g.
structures
The maximum collapse. inter-story drift angle of the two types of isolation structures is always
The maximum inter-story drift angle of the two types of isolation structures is always
lower than that of the normal frame structure, and the ground motion intensity of the
lower than structures
isolation that of the normal frame
is generally greaterstructure,
than that ofand the the ground
normal framemotion
structure intensity
when theof the
3.2.3. Seismic Vulnerability Curve
isolation
structuresstructures
collapse.is generally greater than that of the normal frame structure when the
The seismic
structures collapse. vulnerability of the structure reflects the probability relationship be-
tween the
3.2.3. structure
Seismic reachingCurve
Vulnerability a certain performance level and the corresponding earth-
quake intensity.
3.2.3. Seismic
The seismic Through
Vulnerability
vulnerability theCurve
related researchreflects
of the structure of FEMA P-58 theory,
the probability the seismic
relationship betweenvulnera-
bility
thecurve
structureof the structure
reaching conforms
a certain to the log-normal
performance level and the distribution
corresponding [21].earthquake
Therefore, the
The seismic vulnerability of the structure reflects the probability relationship be-
fitting Excel table
intensity. Throughof collapse
the related vulnerability
research ofprovided
FEMA P-58 bytheory,
FEMAthe p-58 was used
seismic in this paper
vulnerability
tween the structure reaching a certain performance level and the corresponding earth-
curve
to fit of thedata.
the IDA structure
The conforms to the log-normal
seismic vulnerability curves distribution [21].structures
of the three Therefore,were the fitting
obtained
quake intensity. Through the relatedprovided
research ofFEMA
FEMA P-58 theory, the seismic vulnera-
based on the four structural performance levels, as shown in Figure 16. The curvefitin the
Excel table of collapse vulnerability by p-58 was used in this paper to
bility
the IDA data. The seismic vulnerability curves of the three structures were obtained based the
curve of the structure conforms to the log-normal distribution [21]. Therefore,
figure represents the relationship between the probability of reaching a certain perfor-
fitting
on theExcel
fourtable of collapse
structural performancevulnerability
levels, asprovided
shown inby FEMA
Figure 16.p-58 was used
The curve in theinfigure
this paper
mance level andrelationship
the spectral acceleration. The corresponding parameters of each fitting
to fit the IDAthe
represents data. The seismic vulnerability
between the probabilitycurves of the three
of reaching structures
a certain performancewerelevel obtained
vulnerability
and onthethe curve
spectral are shown in Table 8.
based four acceleration. The corresponding
structural performance levels,parameters
as shown of ineach
Figurefitting
16.vulnerability
The curve in the
curve are shown in Table 8.
figure represents the relationship between the probability of reaching a certain perfor-
mance level and the spectral acceleration. The corresponding parameters of each fitting
vulnerability curve are shown in Table 8.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 16. 16.
Figure Seismic
Seismicvulnerability
vulnerabilitycurve.
curve. (a) Normalframe
(a) Normal framestructure;
structure;
(b)(b) Normal
Normal isolation
isolation structure;
structure;
(c) Improved
(c) Improved isolation
isolationstructure.
structure.
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 16. Seismic vulnerability curve. (a) Normal frame structure; (b) Normal isolation structure;
(c) Improved isolation structure.
Buildings 2023, 13, 1134 17 of 26

Table 8. Fitting parameters of normal distribution of vulnerability curve.

Intact Condition Slight Failure Moderate Failure Serious Failure

Structure Category
Sa (T1 )median Sa (T1 )median Sa (T1 )median Sa (T1 )median
Normal frame structure 0.07 0.37 0.45 0.85
Normal isolation structure 0.2 0.42 0.91 1.15
Improved isolation structure 0.21 0.45 0.92 1.35

According to Figure 16 and Table 8, the safety reserve of the improved isolation
structure and the normal isolation structure is higher than that of the ordinary frame
structure at each performance level. The Sa ( T 1 ) required for the improved isolation
structure is the maximum at all four performance levels. According to the results of the
vulnerability analysis, the probability of serious failure of the three structures is 64.84%,
16.34%, and 12.14%, respectively, under rare earthquakes ( Sa ( T 1 ) equal to 0.9 g). The
collapse probability of the two isolation structures is much lower than that of normal
frame structures. In addition, the improved isolation structure has the strongest collapse
resistance, and the isolation bearing can control the displacement of the seismic isolation
layer under rare earthquakes.

3.3. Performance Assessment Theory for FEMA P-58

The FEMA P-58 theory puts forward a new generation of assessment methods for
seismic performance of buildings. This method is based on probabilistic calculation and
takes the repair costs of buildings and casualties as the performance indicators of structures
to quantify the seismic losses of buildings. According to the type and distribution of
structural and non-structural members in the building, combined with the seismic response
results, the loss of specific members in the structure can be obtained [21]. According
to the FEMA P-58 assessment theory, this paper adopted the assessment method based
on earthquake intensity to evaluate the loss of casualties and repair costs for the three
structures. According to the assessment results, the comparative analysis of the seismic
performance of the normal frame structure, normal isolation structure, and improved
isolation structure was carried out. The assessment method based on earthquake intensity
can be used to evaluate whether the seismic performance of the building meets the standard
and the seismic performance requirements at the beginning of the design under the design
earthquake intensity in the code. Alternatively, it can be used to assess the degree of
damage to buildings under rare earthquakes, as well as the time and cost of repair or
reconstruction required.

3.4. PACT Performance Calculation Software

PACT (3.1.2) is an assessment tool for the seismic performance of structures developed
and designed based on FEMA P-58 theory. PACT provides users with three main func-
tions: (1) The performance model of the building structure is established by inputting the
corresponding construction cost, human mobility distribution, and member performance
group. (2) By inputting the structural response and vulnerability curve into the model for
calculation and analysis, the corresponding performance indexes are obtained. (3) The
distribution and probability of structural performance loss are displayed through data and
charts. In addition to its main functions, PACT software provides a member vulnerability
editor and the editing tool for population distribution models based on the content of the
FEMA P-58 annex.

3.5. Basic Information of the Building

The basic information of the building is determined according to the calculation
example designed in Section 3.1. The designed building is a six-story scientific research
office building on the ground. By querying the urban construction and installation project
cost index database in the China Construction Engineering Cost Information Network, it
 was 2546 yuan/m2. Therefore, the construction cost was estimated based on the building
area of the designed building, excluding the cost of non-structural members in the build-
ing. The reconstruction cost of the building can be considered as the construction cost
according to the FEMA P-58 Volume 2 guide [44].
Buildings 2023, 13, 1134 18 of 26
According to the requirements for the number of workers per unit area of a single
floor in the “Standard for seismic resilience assessment of buildings” [45], the maximum
number of workers per square meter of the building was determined to be 0.02. The basic
was obtained that the construction cost of the multi-story frame structure in Xi’an in 2021
information of the2 building entered into the PACT software is shown in Table 9.
was 2546 yuan/m . Therefore, the construction cost was estimated based on the building
area of the designed building, excluding the cost of non-structural members in the building.
Table 9. Basic information of the building.
The reconstruction cost of the building can be considered as the construction cost according
to the FEMA P-58 Volume Name2 guide [44]. Parameter
According to the requirements for the number of workers per unit area of a single
Building name Scientific research office building
floor in the “Standard for seismic resilience assessment of buildings” [45], the maximum
number of workersStructure
per squaretype Cast-in-place
meter of the building was determined to beconcrete
0.02. Thestructure
basic
Number of layers
information of the building entered into the PACT software is shown in Table 6 9.
Floor height/m 3.6/3.3
Table 9. Basic information
Floorofarea/m
the building.
2 539.4
Building reconstruction
Name cost/Million dollars Parameter1.3035
BuildingBuilding
reconstruction
name time/day 375
Scientific research office building
Maximum number of workers
Structure type per square meter Cast-in-place concrete0.02
structure
Number
Note: the exchange rate ofofUSD
layers
is the exchange rate in March 2022 (1 $6 = 6.32 ¥).
Floor height/m 3.6/3.3
Floor area/m2 539.4
3.6. Model of Personnel Flow
Building reconstruction cost/Million dollars 1.3035
Building reconstruction
The human mobility model time/day
in PACT defines the peak of375
personnel density and the
Maximum number of workers per square meter 0.02
flow of personnel with time, week, and month in the building. According to the recom-
Note: the exchange rate of USD is the exchange rate in March 2022 (1 $ = 6.32 ¥).
mended values for the indoor personnel density of various building rooms in the “Stand-
ard
3.6.for seismic
Model resilience
of Personnel Flowassessment of buildings” [45], the indoor personnel density ζk of
the k-thThefloor
human canmobility
be calculated
model inaccording
PACT defines to the actual
the peak of personnel density
personnel density ofthe
and theflow
evaluated
building
of personnel with time, week, and month in the building. According to the recommended can be
or the function of the house on the floor. The indoor personnel density
determined
values for the according to Equation
indoor personnel (14).
density of According to therooms
various building actualinfunctional
the “Standard layout
for of the
seismic resilience
building, the indoorassessment
personnelof buildings”
density is[45], the indoor
calculated aspersonnel
0.5 persons/mdensity ζk of theisk-th
2, which converted
floorimperial
into can be calculated
units asaccording to the actual
46 persons/1000 sf. personnel
The change density of the evaluated
of personnel building
density at different
or the function of the house on the floor. The indoor personnel density
times of the day is shown in Figure 17. The change of personnel flow in different months can be determined
according to Equation (14). According to the actual functional layout of the building, the
of the year is shown in Figure 18. 2
indoor personnel density is calculated as 0.5 persons/m , which is converted into imperial
units as 46 persons/1000 sf. The change of personnel

ζ density
Am ,k at different times of the day is
ζ k =flow in mdifferent
shown in Figure 17. The change of personnel months of the year is shown (14)
in Figure 18. Ag , k
∑ ζ m Am,k
ζ = (14)
where ζ m is the personnel density kof the roomsA g,k with class m function; Am,k is the build-
ing areaζ mofisthe
where the rooms with
personnel classofmthe
density function in the
rooms with k-th
class m floor; Ag ,A
function; is is
k m,k
thethebuilding
building area of
area of the rooms with class m function in the k-th floor; A g,k is the building area of the
the rooms in the k-th floor.
rooms in the k-th floor.

Figure 17. Model of peak population density.

Buildings 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 21 of 28

Buildings 2023, 13, 1134 19 of 26

Figure 17. Model of peak population density.

Figure
Figure 18.18. Model
Model of of personnel
personnel flow.
flow.

3.7. Vulnerability Grouping and Performance Grouping of Members

3.7. Vulnerability Grouping and Performance Grouping of Members
The FEMA P-58 seismic performance assessment method specifies that the members
The FEMA P-58 seismic performance assessment method specifies that the members
in the building are in groups, so all members are divided into vulnerability groups and
in the building are in groups, so all members are divided into vulnerability groups and
performance groups. The database of 764 vulnerability groups is provided in the PACT
performance groups. The database of 764 vulnerability groups is provided in the PACT
software and the specification number for each vulnerability group is given. The user can
software and the specification number for each vulnerability group is given. The user can
directly select the correct group through the vulnerability group database and call it directly
directly select thethrough
in the program correct the
group through the
specification vulnerability
number. group database
The vulnerability curve andandconsequence
call it di-
rectly in the program through the specification number. The vulnerability
function are provided in the database for each vulnerability group. The vulnerability curve and con-
group
sequence
defines function
the stateare
andprovided in the
probability of database
damage for each vulnerability
through group.
the vulnerability The vulner-
curve, and then
ability group defines
corresponds the state
the damage and
state to probability of damage
the earthquake through
loss through thethe vulnerability
consequence curve,
function.
and then corresponds the damage state to the earthquake loss through
According to the types of members in the designed calculation example and the the consequence
function.
information from the vulnerability group database in PACT, the vulnerability groups
and According
performanceto the typesof
groups ofthe
members
buildingin were
the designed calculation
classified. example
The research and
in this the in-
paper only
formation
evaluated from the vulnerability
the seismic performancegroup database
in the in PACT,
X direction, the the
so only vulnerability
performance groups
groupanddata
performance groupswas
in the X direction of the building were
considered. classified. The
The vulnerability research
groups andinperformance
this paper only eval-are
groups
uated the seismic
summarized performance
in Table 10. in the X direction, so only the performance group data in
the X direction was considered. The vulnerability groups and performance groups are
Table 10. Classification
summarized in Table 10.of vulnerability groups and performance groups of the building.
Vulnerability Groups
Table 10. Classification
Number of of vulnerability
Unit groups and performanceQuantity
groups of the building.
Type Member Vulnerable Groups 1st Floor 2nd Floor 3rd Floor 4th Floor 5th Floor 6th Floor
Vulnerability
structural Groups
Beam-column joint (a) Number1 of
B1041.032a EA 8 8 8 Quantity8 8 8
Beam-column joint (b) B1041.032b 1 EA 16 16 16
member Vulnerable Unit 1st 2nd 3rd 16 4th 16
5th 6th16
Type ExteriorMember
wall B2011.201a 30 LF 7.61 7.61 7.61 7.61 7.61 7.61
Partition wall C1011.001a Groups 100 LF 2.05 Floor
2.28 Floor2.28 Floor 2.28 Floor Floor2.28 Floor
2.28
structural Wall decoration
Beam-column joint C3011.002c
(a) B1041.032a100 LF 1 4.33
EA 4.56
8 8 4.56 8 4.56 8 4.568 4.56
8
Ceiling C3032.001a 250 SF 20.90 20.90 20.90 20.90 20.90 20.90
member
non-structural Beam-column
Hot water pipe joint (b)
D2022.011aB1041.032b
1000 LF 1 0.26
EA 16
0.26 16 0.26 16 0.26 16 16
0.26 16
0.26
member Sewage pipe D2031.011b 1000 LF 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10
Exterior
Ventilation tube wall D3041.011a B2011.201a
1000 LF 300.17
LF 7.61
0.17 7.610.17 7.61 0.177.61 7.61
0.17 7.61
0.17
Firehose pipeline
Partition wall D4011.021a
Precast stair C2011.001b
1000 LF
C1011.001a 1 EA
1000.351
LF 0.35
2.05 1
2.280.35
1
2.28 0.35 1
2.28 0.35
2.28
1
0.35
2.281
Wall
Traction decoration D1014.011C3011.002c
elevator 1 EA 1001LF 4.33- 4.56 - 4.56 - 4.56 4.56
- 4.56-
SuspendedCeiling
lamp C3034.001C3032.001a 1 EA 28
250 SF 28 28 28
20.90 20.90 20.90 20.90 20.90 20.90 28 28
Air-conditioning unit D3052.011a 4000 CF 17 15 15 15 15 15
Item inside the
non-structural
building
Hot
Diesel water
generator pipe D2022.011a
D5092.031a 250 KV 1000 2 LF 0.262 0.26 2 0.26 2 0.26 0.26
2 0.262
Computer E2022.022 1 EA 25 27 27 27 27 27
member Sewage
Table and chair pipe D2031.011b
E2022.020 1 EA 1000 40 LF 0.1044 0.10 44 0.10 44 0.10 0.10
44 0.10
44
Ventilation tube
Note: Beam-columnD3041.011a 1000the
joint (a) represents LFside-span
0.17beam-column
0.17 joint;
0.17Beam-column
0.17 joint0.17 0.17 the
(b) represents
Firehose pipeline D4011.021a
mid-span beam-column 1000 quantity
joint; The specific LF 0.35 0.35 the building
of items inside 0.35 shall 0.35 0.35and summarized
be counted 0.35
according to the actual functional zoning of the design.
Precast stair C2011.001b 1 EA 1 1 1 1 1 1
Traction elevator D1014.011 1 EA 1 - - - - -
3.8. Results and Analysis
Suspended lamp C3034.001 1 EA 28 28 28 ◦ 28 28 28
Item inside the The assessment results of the three structures under the 8 frequent earthquake, the
Air-conditioning unit D3052.011a 4000 CF 17 15 15 15 15 15
building fortification earthquake, and the rare earthquake were obtained from the PACT software.
Diesel generator D5092.031a 250 KV 2 2 2 2 2 2
Then, the assessment results are fitted by PACT software, and the probability distribution
curve of each performance index was finally obtained. The loss results of the performance
 The assessment results of the three structures under the 8° frequent earthquake, the
fortification earthquake, and the rare earthquake were obtained from the PACT software
Then, the assessment results are fitted by PACT software, and the probability distribution
curve of each performance index was finally obtained. The loss results of the performance
Buildings 2023, 13, 1134 20 of 26
groups at the median value (P equal to 50%) of each performance index were extracted for
comparative analysis.
groups at the median value (P equal to 50%) of each performance index were extracted for
3.8.1. Analysis of
comparative the Assessment Results of Repair Costs
analysis.
The assessment results of the repair costs of the normal frame structure under fre
3.8.1. Analysis of the Assessment Results of Repair Costs
quent earthquakes, fortification earthquakes, and rare earthquakes are shown in Figure
19. The The assessment results of the repair costs of the normal frame structure under frequent
median repair costs were CNY 184,737, CNY 1,091,429, and CNY 1,303,500, re
earthquakes, fortification earthquakes, and rare earthquakes are shown in Figure 19. The
spectively. According to the pie chart of the distribution of performance group losses, the
median repair costs were CNY 184,737, CNY 1,091,429, and CNY 1,303,500, respectively.
repair costs of
According to the normal
the pie frame
chart of structureofunder
the distribution frequent
performance earthquakes
group and costs
losses, the repair fortification
earthquakes areframe
of the normal derived fromunder
structure non-structural members.
frequent earthquakes Among
and them,
fortification wall decoration
earthquakes are and
air-conditioning units are the
derived from non-structural main sources
members. Among of repair
them, wallcosts. In addition,
decoration as the seismic in
and air-conditioning
unitsincreases,
tensity are the mainthe
sources of repair of
proportion costs. In addition,
repair as the
costs for seismic intensity increases,
air-conditioning the
units gradually in
proportion of repair costs for air-conditioning units gradually increases, from 36.69% to
creases, from 36.69% to 55.31%. When the structure is seriously damaged, it is deemed to
55.31%. When the structure is seriously damaged, it is deemed to have collapsed, and the
haverepair
collapsed, and
cost is the the repair cost
reconstruction cost is
of the reconstruction cost of the building.
the building.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 19. 19.
Figure Repair costs
Repair costsand
andloss distributionofof
loss distribution performance
performance group
group of theofnormal
the normal frame structure
frame structure.
(a) Frequent
(a) Frequentearthquakes;
earthquakes;(b)
(b) Fortification earthquakes;
Fortification earthquakes; (c) Rare
(c) Rare earthquakes.
earthquakes.

TheThe assessment
assessment resultsofofthe
results therepair
repair costs
costsofofthe
thenormal
normal isolation structure
isolation under
structure under fre
frequent earthquakes, fortification earthquakes, and rare earthquakes are shown in
quent earthquakes, fortification earthquakes, and rare earthquakes are shown in Figure
Figure 20. The normal isolation structure has no damage of structural members under
20. The normal
the three isolation
earthquake structureUnder
intensities. has no damage
frequent of structural
earthquakes, the members under the three
damaged members
earthquake
are only intensities. UnderUnder
wall decoration. frequent earthquakes,
fortification the damaged
earthquakes, members
the precast are only wal
stairs begin
decoration. Under fortification
to be damaged. The damagedearthquakes,
members are the precast stairs begin to
all displacement-sensitive be damaged.
members, of The
which the repair cost of the wall decoration accounts for 95.9%. Under the
damaged members are all displacement-sensitive members, of which the repair cost of theintensity of
rare earthquakes, the types of damaged members increase, and acceleration-sensitive
members such as suspended lamps and air-conditioning units begin to be damaged.
Buildings 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 23 of 28

wall decoration accounts for 95.9%. Under the intensity of rare earthquakes, the types of
Buildings 2023, 13, 1134 damaged members increase, and acceleration-sensitive members such as suspended 21 of 26

lamps and air-conditioning units begin to be damaged.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure
Figure20.20.
Repair
Repaircosts
costsand
andloss
loss distribution ofperformance
distribution of performance group
group of of
thethe normal
normal isolation
isolation structure.
structure.
(a)(a)
Frequent
Frequentearthquakes;
earthquakes; (b) Fortificationearthquakes;
(b) Fortification earthquakes;
(c)(c) Rare
Rare earthquakes.
earthquakes.

Theassessment
The assessment results
results ofofthe
therepair costs
repair of the
costs of improved isolation
the improved structure
isolation under fre-
structure under
quent earthquakes, fortification earthquakes, and rare earthquakes are shown
frequent earthquakes, fortification earthquakes, and rare earthquakes are shown in Figure in Figure 21. It
can be found that the repair cost of the improved isolation structure under the
21. It can be found that the repair cost of the improved isolation structure under the three three earth-
quake intensities all come from non-structural components. Among them, under the frequent
earthquake
Buildings 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW intensities all come from non-structural components. Among them, under 24 of the
28
earthquakes, the repair cost of the building comes from wall decoration. Under fortification
frequent earthquakes, the repair cost of the building comes from wall decoration. Under
earthquakes, the precast stairs and air-conditioning units begin to be damaged. The repair cost
fortification earthquakes,
of wall decoration accountsthefor precast stairsisand
81.13%, which still air-conditioning
the main source of units begin to be dam-
repair costs.
aged. The repair cost of wall decoration accounts for 81.13%, which is still the main source
of repair costs.
According to the assessment results, the repair costs of the three kinds of frame struc-
tures under the three earthquake intensities are shown in Table 11. Comparing the repair
costs of the three structures, it can be seen that the repair costs of the normal isolation
structure and the improved isolation structure under the three earthquake intensities are
far lower than that of the normal frame structure without isolation bearings. This is due
to the addition of isolation bearings, which prolongs the structural period. The seismic
isolation layer bears the main structural displacement during an earthquake, which sig-
nificantly reduces the displacement and acceleration of the superstructure, thereby pro-
tecting the members in the building and greatly reducing the repair cost of the members.
Comparing the two isolation structures, it can be found that the repair cost of the im-
proved isolation structure is 23.9% lower than that of the normal isolation structure under
frequent earthquakes. Under fortification earthquakes and rare earthquakes, the repair
cost of the improved isolation structure is 1.6% and 0.6% lower than that of the normal
isolation structure, respectively. The repair cost of the two isolation structures is not much
different. This is due to the fact that the improved isolation bearing is in the first working
condition under frequent earthquakes, and the bearing provides less horizontal stiffness,
which enhances the seismic isolation effect and reduces the loss of members. Under forti-
(a) (b) (c)
fication earthquakes and rare earthquakes, the improved isolation bearing enters the sec-
Figure
ond 21.21.
Figure Repair
working Repaircosts
costsand
condition loss
anddue distribution
loss to ofof
the setting
distribution performance
of the limiter,
performance group
group of theof
and the the improved
horizontal
improved isolation
stiffness
isolation struc-
of the
structure.
ture. (a)
seismic Frequent
isolation
(a) Frequent earthquakes;
layer is(b)
earthquakes; (b) Fortification
improved, earthquakes;
soearthquakes;
Fortification that the excessive (c) Rare earthquakes.
deformation of the seismic isola-
(c) Rare earthquakes.
tion layer can be suppressed. Therefore, the repair cost of the building is slightly increased.
Table 11. Repair costs of buildings.

Type of Structures
Earthquake Intensity Normal Frame Structure Normal Isolation Structure Improved Isolation Structure
Buildings 2023, 13, 1134 22 of 26

According to the assessment results, the repair costs of the three kinds of frame struc-
tures under the three earthquake intensities are shown in Table 11. Comparing the repair
costs of the three structures, it can be seen that the repair costs of the normal isolation
structure and the improved isolation structure under the three earthquake intensities are far
lower than that of the normal frame structure without isolation bearings. This is due to the
addition of isolation bearings, which prolongs the structural period. The seismic isolation
layer bears the main structural displacement during an earthquake, which significantly
reduces the displacement and acceleration of the superstructure, thereby protecting the
members in the building and greatly reducing the repair cost of the members. Comparing
the two isolation structures, it can be found that the repair cost of the improved isola-
tion structure is 23.9% lower than that of the normal isolation structure under frequent
earthquakes. Under fortification earthquakes and rare earthquakes, the repair cost of the
improved isolation structure is 1.6% and 0.6% lower than that of the normal isolation
structure, respectively. The repair cost of the two isolation structures is not much different.
This is due to the fact that the improved isolation bearing is in the first working condition
under frequent earthquakes, and the bearing provides less horizontal stiffness, which
enhances the seismic isolation effect and reduces the loss of members. Under fortification
earthquakes and rare earthquakes, the improved isolation bearing enters the second work-
ing condition due to the setting of the limiter, and the horizontal stiffness of the seismic
isolation layer is improved, so that the excessive deformation of the seismic isolation layer
can be suppressed. Therefore, the repair cost of the building is slightly increased.

Table 11. Repair costs of buildings.

Type of Structures
Earthquake Intensity Normal Frame Structure Normal Isolation Structure Improved Isolation Structure
(×103 $) (×103 $) (×103 $)
Frequent earthquake 18.47 2.68 2.04
Fortification earthquake 109.14 19.31 19.00
Rare earthquake 130.15 76.25 75.77

3.8.2. Analysis of the Assessment Results of Casualties

According to the assessment results obtained through the PACT software, there are
no casualties in the normal frame structure under frequent earthquakes. Additionally, no
casualties occur in the normal isolation structure and the improved isolation structure
under the three earthquake intensities. Therefore, the corresponding assessment results are
not listed below. In order to research the casualty index of the two structures, the results
of casualties in the normal isolation structure and the improved isolation structure under
Sa ( T 1 ) equal to 1.2 g were obtained through the PACT software. The number of casualties
of the three structures under different earthquake intensities is shown in Table 12.

Table 12. Number of casualties under different earthquake intensities.

Normal Frame Structure Normal Isolation Structure Improved Isolation Structure

Earthquake Intensity Number of Number of Number of
Number of Deaths Number of Deaths Number of Deaths
Injuries Injuries Injuries
Frequent earthquake - - - - - -
Fortification earthquake 1.70 5.92 - - - -
Rare earthquake 5.57 16.29 - - - -
Sa ( T 1 ) = 1.2 g - - 0.76 2.91 0.36 1.84

The results of casualties of the normal frame structure under fortification earthquakes
and rare earthquakes are shown in Figure 22. The results of casualties of the normal
isolation structure and the improved isolation structure under Sa ( T 1 ) equal to 1.2 g are
shown in Figures 23 and 24. According to Table 12, the number of casualties of the normal
 𝑆 (𝑇 ) = 1.2 g - - 0.76 2.91 0.36 1.84

The results of casualties of the normal frame structure under fortification earthquakes
and rare earthquakes are shown in Figure 22. The results of casualties of the normal iso-
Buildings 2023, 13, 1134 lation structure and the improved isolation structure under 𝑆 (𝑇 ) equal to 1.2 23 g of
are
26
shown in Figures 23 and 24. According to Table 12, the number of casualties of the normal
frame structure is the largest, followed by the normal isolation structure, and the number
of casualties of the improved isolation structure is the least. The normal isolation structure
frame structure is the largest, followed by the normal isolation structure, and the number of
and the improved isolation structure exhibit better seismic isolation effects under fortifi-
casualties of the improved isolation structure is the least. The normal isolation structure and
cation earthquakes and rare earthquakes, which significantly reduce the casualties. When
the improved isolation structure exhibit better seismic isolation effects under fortification
𝑆 (𝑇 ) is equal to 1.2 g, the seismic isolation layer of the normal isolation structure has
earthquakes and rare earthquakes, which significantly reduce the casualties. When Sa ( T 1 )
already occurred over-limit failure under some seismic waves, and the seismic isolation
is equal to 1.2 g, the seismic isolation layer of the normal isolation structure has already
layer of the improved isolation structure suppresses the over-limit failure. Namely, the
occurred over-limit failure under some seismic waves, and the seismic isolation layer of the
performance of the improved isolation structure is much better than that of the normal
improved isolation structure suppresses the over-limit failure. Namely, the performance of
isolation structure
the improved isolation at thestructure
median is value
much (Pbetter
= 50%) of the
than thatperformance
of the normal index of casualties.
isolation structure
The number
at the median of deaths
value (P and= injuries
50%) ofinthe theperformance
improved isolation
index ofstructure decreased
casualties. by 52.6%
The number of
and 36.8%,
deaths andrespectively,
injuries in thecompared
improved with the normal
isolation isolation
structure structure.
decreased by The
52.6%reduction ra-
and 36.8%,
tio of the number
respectively, of deaths
compared with is the
higher than isolation
normal that of the number of
structure. injuries.
The Thisratio
reduction is also
of the
the
evidence that the improved isolation bearing can effectively prevent the
number of deaths is higher than that of the number of injuries. This is also the evidenceseismic isolation
layer from
that the over-limit
improved failure.bearing
isolation According to the distribution
can effectively of performance
prevent the groups,
seismic isolation layercasu-
from
alties are caused by the damaged suspended lamps, tables and chairs,
over-limit failure. According to the distribution of performance groups, casualties are and computers,
which
causedare byacceleration-sensitive
the damaged suspended members.
lamps, The damaged
tables suspended
and chairs, lamps are the
and computers, leading
which are
cause of casualties.
acceleration-sensitive members. The damaged suspended lamps are the leading cause
of casualties.

(a) (b)
Buildings
Buildings2023,
2023,13,
13,xxFOR
FORPEER
PEERREVIEW
REVIEW 26
26 of
of 28
28
Figure
Figure 22.
22. Assessment resultsofofcasualties
Assessment results casualties
of of
thethe normal
normal frame
frame structure.
structure. (a) Fortification
(a) Fortification earth-
earthquakes;
quakes; (b) Rare earthquakes.
(b) Rare earthquakes.

Figure
Figure23.
Figure 23.Assessment
23. Assessmentresults
Assessment resultsof
results ofofcasualties
casualtiesof
casualties ofofthe
thenormal
the normalisolation
normal isolationstructure
isolation structure(𝑆
structure ( S(𝑇
(𝑆 (𝑇 ))1=)= 1.2
a (T =1.2 g).
g).g).
1.2

Figure24.
Figure
Figure Assessmentresults
24.Assessment
24. Assessment resultsof
results ofofcasualties
casualtiesof
casualties ofofthe
theimproved
the improvedisolation
improved isolation structure((𝑆𝑆
isolationstructure
structure ( S(𝑇( T))1 )===1.2
a(𝑇 1.2g).
1.2 g).
g).

4.
4. Conclusions
Conclusions
In
In view
view of of the
the shortcomings
shortcomings of of the
the single
single rigidity
rigidity of
of the
the traditional
traditional rubber
rubber vibration
vibration
isolator,
isolator, an
an improved
improved lead-core
lead-core rubber
rubber isolation
isolation bearing
bearing with
with variable
variable stiffness
stiffness is
is pro-
pro-
posed
posed inin this
this paper.
paper. TheThe improved
improved isolation
isolation bearing
bearing can
can provide
provide aa small
small horizontal
horizontal stiff-
stiff-
ness
ness to
to enhance
enhance the the seismic
seismic isolation
isolation effect
effect under
under small
small earthquakes.
earthquakes. Under
Under large
large earth-
earth-
Buildings 2023, 13, 1134 24 of 26

4. Conclusions
In view of the shortcomings of the single rigidity of the traditional rubber vibration
isolator, an improved lead-core rubber isolation bearing with variable stiffness is proposed
in this paper. The improved isolation bearing can provide a small horizontal stiffness to
enhance the seismic isolation effect under small earthquakes. Under large earthquakes, it
can provide a large horizontal stiffness to prevent over-limit failure due to excessive dis-
placement. The mechanical properties of the improved isolation bearing were investigated
using the finite element method (FEM). The earthquake loss assessment was carried out for
normal frame structures, normal isolation structures, and improved isolation structures
using PACT performance calculation software. Based on the results and discussion, the
following conclusions can be drawn:

1. The proposed improved isolation bearing provides a small horizontal stiffness to ex-
tend the structural period under frequent earthquakes and fortification earthquakes by
using the low shear modulus rubber and the limiting device. Under rare earthquakes,
it provides damping and large horizontal stiffness to avoid excessive displacement of
the bearing. The numerical analysis results prove that the improved isolation bearing
can reasonably and effectively solve the defect of the traditional rubber bearing.
2. The limiting device divides the working conditions of the improved isolation bearing
into two types. In the first condition, the isolation bearing maintains a small horizontal
stiffness, which can give full play to the seismic isolation performance of the isolation
bearing, but almost no energy dissipation capacity. In the second working condition,
the horizontal stiffness of the isolation bearing is improved, and the lead core gives
full play to the energy dissipation characteristics.
3. A simplified restoring force model of the improved isolation bearing is proposed.
The restoring force model of the isolation bearing is a double-line model in the first
working condition, and a three-line model in the second working condition. The
theoretical calculation results of stiffness are in good agreement with the numerical
analysis results, which proves the reliability of the model.
4. The Sa ( T 1 ) required for the improved isolation structure is maximum at all four per-
formance levels. The probability of serious damage (collapse) for the three structures
under the rare earthquake ( Sa ( T 1 ) = 0.9 g) is 64.84%, 16.34%, and 12.14%, respectively.
It is proved that the improved isolation structure has the highest safety reserve and
the best collapse resistance.
5. Comparing the results of the earthquake loss assessment of the structures, the repair
costs and the number of casualties of the normal isolation structure and the improved
isolation structure are far lower than that of the normal frame structure. The loss of
the normal isolation structure and the improved isolation structure mostly comes
from non-structural members, which effectively reduces the damage of structural
members. The improved isolation structure requires the least repair cost under
frequent earthquakes. The application of the improved isolation bearing has effectively
reduced the number of casualties under strong earthquakes. In addition, the casualties
in the building are mainly caused by the damage of acceleration-sensitive members, so
the acceleration-sensitive members should be reasonably arranged during the design.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, P.W. and J.H.; methodology, J.H.; validation, P.W. and J.H.;
investigation, P.W. and J.H.; writing—original draft preparation, P.W., J.H. and B.W.; writing—review
and editing, C.R. and J.H.; supervision, Q.S. All authors have read and agreed to the published
version of the manuscript.
Funding: This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China [grant
numbers 52178159; 52178505; 52108171].
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Buildings 2023, 13, 1134 25 of 26

References
1. Mostaghel, N.; Tanbakuchi, J. Response of sliding structures to earthquake support motion. Earthq. Eng. Struct. D 1983, 11,
729–748. [CrossRef]
2. Derham, C.J.; Kelly, J.M.; Thomas, A.G. Nonlinear natural rubber bearings for seismic isolation. Nucl. Eng. Des. 1985, 84, 417–428.
[CrossRef]
3. Lin, T.W.; Hone, C.C. Base isolation by free rolling rods under basement. Earthq. Eng. Struct. D 1993, 22, 261–273. [CrossRef]
4. Marano, G.C.; Greco, R. Efficiency of base isolation systems in structural seismic protection and energetic assessment. Earthq. Eng.
Struct. D 2003, 32, 1505–1531. [CrossRef]
5. Matsagar, V.A.; Jangid, R.S. Seismic response of base-isolated structures during impact with adjacent structures. Eng. Struct. 2003,
25, 1311–1323. [CrossRef]
6. Zaragar, H.; Ryan, K.L.; Marshall, J.D. Feasibility study of a gap damper to control seismic isolator displacements in extreme
earthquakes. Struct. Control Health 2013, 20, 1159–1175. [CrossRef]
7. Karayel, V.; Yuksel, E.; Gokce, T.; Sahin, F. Spring tube braces for seismic isolation of buildings. Earthq. Eng. Eng. Vib. 2017, 16,
219–231. [CrossRef]
8. Wilde, K.; Gardoni, P.; Fujino, Y. Base isolation system with shape memory alloy device for elevated highway bridges. Eng. Struct.
2000, 22, 222–229. [CrossRef]
9. Xue, S.; Li, X. Control devices incorporated with shape memory alloy. Earthq. Eng. Eng. Vib. 2007, 6, 159–169. [CrossRef]
10. Hosseini, R.; Rashidi, M.; Bulajić, B.D.; Arani, K.K. Multi-Objective Optimization of Three Different SMA-LRBs for Seismic
Protection of a Benchmark Highway Bridge against Real and Synthetic Ground Motions. Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 4076. [CrossRef]
11. Behrooz, M.; Wang, X.; Gordaninejad, F. Performance of a new magnetorheological elastomer isolation system. Smart Mater.
Struct. 2014, 23, 045014. [CrossRef]
12. Yang, J.; Christie, M.D.; Sun, S.; Ning, D.H.; Nakano, M.; Li, Z.X.; Du, H.; Li, W.H. Integration of an omnidirectional self-powering
component to an MRE isolator towards a smart passive isolation system. Mech. Syst. Signal Process. 2020, 144, 106853. [CrossRef]
13. Yuan, S.J.; Sun, Y.; Zhao, J.L.; Meng, K.; Wang, M.; Pu, H.Y.; Peng, Y.; Luo, J.; Xie, S.R. A tunable quasi-zero stiffness isolator based
on a linear electromagnetic spring. J. Sound Vib. 2020, 482, 115449. [CrossRef]
14. Rahnavard, R.; Thomas, R.J. Numerical evaluation of steel-rubber isolator with single and multiple rubber cores. Eng. Struct.
2019, 198, 109532. [CrossRef]
15. Rahnavard, R.; Craveiro, H.D.; Napolitano, R. Static and dynamic stability analysis of a steel-rubber isolator with rubber cores.
Structures 2020, 26, 441–455. [CrossRef]
16. Isakovic, T.; Fischinger, M. Applicability of variable stiffness seismic isolators based on magnetically controlled elastomer. In
Improvement of Buildings’ Structural Quality by New Technologies; CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL, USA, 2005; pp. 689–694.
17. Li, Y.M.; Ma, Y.H.; Zhao, G.F.; Liu, R. Study on the Basic Performance Deterioration Law and the Application of Lead Rubber
Bearings under the Alternation of Aging and Seawater Erosion. Buildings 2023, 13, 360. [CrossRef]
18. Huang, X.; Hu, Z.X.; Liu, Y.L.; Nie, L.Q. Study on Seismic Performance of TID-LRB Hybrid Control System under Multi-Level
Earthquakes. Buildings 2022, 12, 1465. [CrossRef]
19. Gao, J.; Xue, Y.T.; Xiao, C.Z.; Zhou, X.Y.; Han, X. Experimental study on variable stiffness laminated rubber isolation bearing of
series connection type. Build. Struct. 2020, 50, 109–113.
20. Peng, T.; Guan, J.; Wu, Y. Numerical and Experimental Investigation of the Seismic Effect of a Two-Stage Seismic Isolation Method.
Sustainability 2023, 15, 4883. [CrossRef]
21. FEMA. Seismic Performance Assessment of Buildings Volume 1-Methodology; Federal Emergency Management Agency:
Washington, DC, USA, 2012.
22. Sun, Y.T.; Zhang, J.F.; Li, G.C.; Wang, Y.H.; Sun, J.B.; Jiang, C. Optimized neural network using beetle antennae search for
predicting the unconfined compressive strength of jet grouting coalcretes. Int. J. Numer. Anal. Met. 2019, 43, 801–813. [CrossRef]
23. Sun, J.B.; Wang, Y.F.; Yao, X.P.; Ren, Z.H.; Zhang, G.B.; Zhang, C.; Chen, X.G.; Ma, W.; Wang, X.Y. Machine-learning-aided
prediction of flexural strength and ASR expansion for waste glass cementitious composite. Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 6686. [CrossRef]
24. Tang, Y.C.; Feng, W.H.; Chen, Z.; Nong, Y.M.; Guan, S.H.; Sun, J.B. Fracture behavior of a sustainable material: Recycled concrete
with waste crumb rubber subjected to elevated temperatures. J. Clean. Prod. 2021, 318, 128553. [CrossRef]
25. Zhang, G.B.; Chen, C.F.; Li, K.F.; Xiao, F.; Sun, J.B.; Wang, Y.F.; Wang, X.Y. Multi-objective optimisation design for GFRP tendon
reinforced cemented soil. Constr. Build. Mater. 2022, 320, 126297. [CrossRef]
26. Sun, J.B.; Tang, Y.C.; Wang, J.Q.; Wang, X.Y.; Wang, J.Q.; Yu, Z.M.; Cheng, Q.; Wang, Y.F. A multi-objective optimisation approach
for activity excitation of waste glass mortar. J. Mater. Res. Technol. 2022, 17, 2280–2304. [CrossRef]
27. Sun, Y.T.; Bi, R.Y.; Sun, J.B.; Zhang, J.F.; Taherdangkoo, R.; Huang, J.D.; Li, G.C. Stability of roadway along hard roof goaf by stress
relief technique in deep mines: A theoretical, numerical and field study. Geomech. Geophys. Geo-Energy Geo-Resour. 2022, 8, 45.
[CrossRef]
28. CECS 126:2001; Technical Specification for Seismic-Isolation with Laminated Rubber Bearings Isolators. Standards Press of China:
Beijing, China, 2001.
29. GB/T 20688.1-2007; Rubber Bearings—Part 1: Seismic-Protection Isolators Test Methods. Standards Press of China: Beijing,
China, 2007.
Buildings 2023, 13, 1134 26 of 26

30. GB/T 20688.3-2006; Rubber Bearings—Part 3: Elastomeric Seismic-Protection Isolators for Buildings. Standards Press of China:
Beijing, China, 2006.
31. GB/T 20688.4-2007; Rubber Bearings—Part 4: Normal Rubber Bearings. Standards Press of China: Beijing, China, 2007.
32. Kilian, H.G. Equation of state of real networks. Polymers 1981, 22, 209–217. [CrossRef]
33. Arruda, E.M.; Boyce, M.C. A three-dimensional constitutive model for the large stretch behavior of rubber elastic materials.
J. Mech. Phys. Solids. 1993, 41, 389–412. [CrossRef]
34. Mooney, M. A theory of large elastic deformation. J. Appl. Phys. 1940, 11, 582–592. [CrossRef]
35. Rovlin, R.S. Large elastic deformations of isotropic materials IV. Further development of general theory. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. A
1948, 241, 379–397.
36. Yeoh, O.H. Characterization of elastic properties of carbon-black-filled rubber vulcanizates. Rubber Chem. Technol. 1990, 63,
792–805. [CrossRef]
37. Zheng, M.J.; Wang, W.J.; Chen, Z.N.; Wu, L.J. Determination for mechanical constants of rubber Mooney-Rivlin model. China
Rubber Ind. 2003, 8, 462–465.
38. Huang, J.L.; Xie, G.J.; Liu, Z.W. Finite element analysis of super-elastic rubber materials based on the Mooney-Rivlin and Yeoh
model. China Rubber/Plast. Technol. Eq. 2008, 34, 22–26.
39. Liu, M.; Wang, Q.C.; Wang, G.Q. Determination of material constants in rubber Mooney-Rivlin model. China Rubber Ind. 2011,
58, 241–245.
40. GB 50011-2010; Code for Seismic Design of Buildings. China Architecture & Building Press: Beijing, China, 2015.
41. GB 50016-2014; Code for Fire Protection Design of Building. China Architecture & Building Press: Beijing, China, 2014.
42. GB 50010-2010; Code for Design of Concrete Structures. China Architecture & Building Press: Beijing, China, 2015.
43. GB 50009-2012; Load Code for the Design of Building Structures. China Architecture & Building Press: Beijing, China, 2012.
44. FEMA. Seismic Performance Assessment of Buildings Volume 2-Implementation Guide; Federal Emergency Management Agency:
Washington, DC, USA, 2012.
45. GB/T 38591-2020; Standard for Seismic Resilience Assessment of Buildings. Standards Press of China: Beijing, China, 2020.

Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual
author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to
people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.