Speech Act

1-Definition
Speech-act theory is concerned with the ways in which words can be used not only
to present information, but also to carry out actions

Austin points out that when people use language; they are performing a kind of action. He
called these actions speech acts. Traditionally, philosophers have distinguished between
actions and speaking on the basis that speaking about something is quite dissimilar from
doing it. Austin challenged this by demonstrating that utterances can be regarded as events in
a similar way to other actions.
The below lists are samples of speech acts which Austin reckoned that this sort of list could
be extended further.

1. Statement "I live in Edinburg for five years"

2. Order "Pay this bill immediately"
3. Question "Where are you from?"
4. Prohibition "No right turn"
5. Greeting "Hello"
6. Invitation "Help yourself"
7. Felicitation "Happy new year"
8. (grudging) apology "I hereby apologize as required by the magistrate"

We can say that each utterance on the right is based on single sentence and the sentence
is the level of language. Here, the language is used to accomplish actions as Austin stated.
The above sentences are not used just to say things, that is to say describe states of affairs, but
rather actively to do things. Further, one cannot assess such utterances as true or false.

In its very beginning, speech acts were classified into performatives and constatives. Those
two divisions began to disappear as the theory was in its way to become complete and
fulfilled. In fact, Austin approves this classification as a branch of his speech act theory. He
also disapproves this classification as the distinction between them is unclear (Huang 96-101).

. A Performatives
As Austin defines it, Performatives are those sentences that denote an action. When the
interlocutor wants his listener or reader to perform an action, he just uses certain words in a
certain context that direct the other party to perform that intended action (Huang 95). In that
case, Austin uses the expression "felicity conditions". These are the set of rules under which
an utterance would be governed as performative. These conditions are:
* Those performatives should be based upon convention.
* The speaker should have the authority to perform that action.
* The intention should be understood by the hearer.
* "The procedure must be executed (i) correctly and (ii) completely."
*The utterance should reveal clearly its consequences.
He says also that if any of those conditions is not applied, then the performatives would be
infelicitous (Huang 99).

I. Explicit performatives
Performatives could be further classified into explicit and implicit. Explicit performatives
usually contain a performative verb which is apparent to the other party. It bears a clear cut
meaning. In the utterance; "I promise to study," there is a clear performative verb which is
"promise". The utterance in that case should be declarative. Its subject should be in the first
person pronoun with an active, present simple verb. Yet, this rule has some exceptions as in
"Passengers are requested to cross the railway line…." Here the subject of the utterance is
plural, and the verb is in the passive mode, in spite of the fact that this is a performative
utterance. In addition, these rules may be applied to constatives, as in "I promise to be there".
Here, the speaker is just addressing himself (Lyons 728&729).

II. Implicit performatives

Unlike the explicit performatives, implicit performativs do not contain a performative
verb. The only way to understand that this is a performative utterance is by realizing the real
intention behind that utterance. Here the context plays an important role in determining the
intention of the interlocutor because the utterance does not bear a cut clear meaning as in the
explicit performatives (Lyons 728&729).

B.Constatives
These are certain utterances which do not denote an action. The do not contain a
performative verb that would direct the other party to perform an action. As Austin says, these
constatives are used only in descriptions and assertions (HUANG 95). It is supposed that the
proposed felicity conditions could not be applied to constatives. However, Austin realized that
constatives might be performatives. For example, somebody may say that "the window is
open". The utterance here might be directive as the interlocutor wants the window to get
closed. In that case, the constative utterance is classified as implicit performative for the
performative verb is not clear. From those examples, it is found that the distinction between
constatives and performatives is not that clear. They might be overlapped. Thus, Austin shifts
to another classification, as he differentiates between locutionary, illocutionary, and
perlocutionary actions (Lyons 730).
2-Aspects of Speech Acts

The classic distinction between the difference aspects of speech acts is divided into three
parts, namely Locutionary aspect, Illocutionary aspect, and Perlocutionary aspect.

1. Locutionary aspect is simply the act that we perform in saying something or the speech
acts that have taken place.

2. Illocutionary aspect is the real actions which are performed by the utterance, where
saying equals doing, as in betting, plighting one’s troth, welcoming and warning.

3. Perlocutionary aspect is he effects of the utterance on the listener, who accepts the bet or
pledge of marriage, is welcomed or warned.

For instance, if there is the utterance “It’s cold in here”. This utterance that we utter is
called locutionary act. While, by saying this sentence, I make a statement, a declaration
(neither a question, nor a promise, nor a threat, etc). So, this particular declarative aspect of
the speech act is called illocutionary act. However, by saying this utterance, we obtain further
effects (which can range all the way from making an announcement to an attempt to have
people leave the room), we are talking about the perlocutionary act.

As stated by Levinson’s words (1983: 236) that the locutionary aspect has to do with ‘the
utterance of a sentence with determinate sense and reference’; the illocutionary aspect with
‘the naming of a statement, offer, promise, etc. in uttering a sentence, by virtue of the
conventional force associated with it’; whereas the perlocutionary aspect deals with ‘the
bringing about of effects on the audience by means of uttering the sentence, such effects being
special to the circumstances of utterance’.
3-Types of Speech Act:
There are various kinds of speech acts, yet the following, classified by John
Searle, have received particular attention:

Representatives commit a speaker to the truth of an expressed proposition.

 Paradigm cases: asserting, stating, concluding, boasting, describing, suggesting.
o I am a great singer.
o Bill was an accountant.
Commissives commit a speaker to some future action.
 Paradigm cases: promising, pledging, threatening, vowing, offering.
o I am going to leave you.
o I'll call you tonight.
Directives are used by a speaker who attempts to get the addressee to carry out an action.
 Paradigm cases: requesting, advising, commanding, challenging, inviting, daring, and
entreating.
o You'd better tidy up that mess.
o Sit down.
Declarations affect an immediate change of affairs.
 Paradigm cases: declaring, baptizing, resigning, firing from employment, hiring, arresting.
o We find the defendant guilty.
o I resign.
Expressive express some sort of psychological state.
 Paradigm cases: greeting, thanking, apologising, complaining, congratulating.
o This beer is disgusting.
o I'm sorry to hear that

Raouf Cheroura __ Group: 02 __ Master 01 __ Science of Language