• During night, there is usually low light intensity.

This lowers
The Influence of Abiotic net photosynthetic productivity as compared to the
daylight.

Components on Photoperiod or daylength is a more or less constant 12 hours at the

equator but at higher latitudes it varies seasonally. Plants and
Ecosystems animals of higher latitudes typically show photoperiodic responses
that synchronise their activities with the seasons, such as flowering
The environment in which an organism lives will be determined by and germination of plants, migration, hibernation and reproduction
a range of physical or abiotic factors such as light, heat and of animals.
moisture. However, the real details of an individual's environment
may be much more precise than this. An organism's habitat is not Light quality is important to plants. Only light at certain
just a matter of physical conditions. Its environment may be
wavelengths can be used by chlorophyll. In aquatic systems some
modified, or even mainly determined, by other living organisms
(biotic factors). seaweeds, such as red algae, have different light intercepting
pigments and can thus survive in locations where green algae would
THE ABIOTIC FACTORS find light quality limiting.

The need for light by plants has an important effect on the

structure of communities. Aquatic plants are confined to surface
Light layers of water, and in terrestrial ecosystems competition for light
favours certain strategies such as;
As the source of energy for photosynthesis light is essential for life,
but it also influences living organisms in many other ways. The • gaining height through growing tall or climbing, and
(intensity, quality (wavelength or colour), and duration
(photoperiod) of light can all have different effects. • increasing leaf surface area. In woodland this results in
stratification (formation of layers according to canopies.
Light intensity
Qn. Identify the various ways in which light affects activity of
is related to the amount of light received. This is affected by the organisms.
angle of incidence of the Sun's rays to the surface of the Earth.
This varies with latitude, season, time of day and aspect of slope. o Photosynthesis: solar radiation is used for photosynthesis
• Places near the equator receive stronger illumination than o Light is a Source of energy for rest of food chain
those far from the equator. This greater light intensity o Light is also needed for chlorophyll synthesis
stimulates high rates of photosynthetic productivity. This o Transpiration is greatly affected by changes in light
will in turn support a large stock of animals. intensity.
o About 75% of the radiation incident on plants is wasted in
• Seasons change as the position of the Earth relative to the causing water to evaporate thereby causing transpiration
sun changes. This changes light intensity. Less illumination o Important implications for water conservationmechanisms
may be available during seasons of maximum precipitation of animals and plants.
such as winter.

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A level Ecology Study Notes: By Male Rogers 0774129440
 o Photoperiodism: the onset of flowering in some plants is a However, local variations are common, particularly in microhabitats
variation in day length. which have their own microclimates.
o Important for synchrony of plant and animal behaviour
(particularly reproduction) with seasons • Aquatic environment undergo less extreme temperature
o Movement requires visual sensitivity in animals but also changes, and therefore provide more stable habitats than
plants have growth movements in response to light. terrestrial environments owing to the high heat capacity of
o Phototropism and photonasty in plants: important for water.
reaching light
o Phototaxic movements of animals and unicellular plants; • Vegetation often has some microclimatic effect on
important for locating suitable habitat temperature, as in forests, or on a smaller scale within
o Vision in animals. individual clumps of plants or the shelter of leaves and
o One of the major senses buds of individual plants.
o Synthesis of vitamin D in humans
o Prolonged exposure to ultra-violet damaging, particularly to
animals, therefore pigmentation, avoidance behaviour, etc. Moisture and Salinity
Water is essential for life and is one of the major limiting factors in
terrestrial ecosystems.
Heat
The main source of heat is the Sun's radiation. Geothermal sources It is precipitated from the atmosphere as as rain, snow, sleet, hail
are important only in a minority of habitats, such as the growth of or dew.
bacteria in hot springs.
o There is a continuous cycling of water; the hydrological
A given organism will survive only within a certain temperature cycle which governs water availability over land surfaces.
range for which it is metabolically and structurally adapted.
o Rapid drainage, low rainfall and high evaporation or a
• If the temperature of a living cell falls far below freezing, colonization of the three can result in dry soils while the
the cell is usually physically damaged and killed by the opposite extremes can lead to permanent waterlogging.
formation of ice crystals.
Plants can be classified according to their ability o tolerate water
• At the other extreme, if temperatures are too high, shortage as;
proteins become denatured, and hence metabolic activity,
double in rate with every 10°C rise.
• xerophytes (high tolerant)

Most organisms are able to exert some degree of control over their
• mesophytes (medium tolerance) and
temperature by a variety of responses and adaptations so that • hydrophytes low tolerance/water-adapted).
extremes and sudden changes of environmental temperature can
be overcome.
Similarly, terrestrial animals show adaptations for gaining and
conserving water, particularly in dry habitats. Aquatic organisms
also have problems with water regulation.
As with light intensity, temperature is broadly dependent on
Salinity
latitude, season, time of day and aspect of slope.
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A level Ecology Study Notes: By Male Rogers 0774129440
Salinity of water can be seen in the differences between o Disperse spores, seeds and so on, through the atmosphere,
freshwater and marine species. Relatively few plants and animals
can withstand large fluctuations in salinity, such as are found in o increase the spread of non-motile organisms like plants,
estuaries or salt marshes. fungi and some bacteria.

Salinity may also be important in terrestrial habitats; if evaporation o influence the dispersal or migration of flying animals.
exceeds precipitation, soils may become saline. This is a serious
problem in some irrigated areas. Air
This is an important factor in determining ecosystem structure.

Atmosphere • Oxygen is required for respiration and photosynthesis in C3

The atmosphere is a major part of the ecosphere. It contains air, plants.
humidity and pollutants. Like the oceans, it is constantly
circulating. The energy which drives these circulations comes from • Carbon dioxide is required for photosynthesis.
the Sun.
o Fewer aerobes survive in anoxic environments
Atmospheric circulation is important in the distribution of water
vapour because this can be; o Many C3 plants occur at high altitude areas where oxygen
partial pressures are lower. C4 plants occur in lower altitude
o picked up locally (by evaporation), where oxygen concentration is higher.
o carried in moving air masses and o Humans living in high altitude areas adapt by producing
o deposited in a distant location (by precipitation). hemoglobin proteins with ahigh affinity for oxygen.

The pattern of atmospheric circulation will thus affect the o Areas with low carbon dioxide concentration allow flourishing
distribution of pollutants and their eventual precipitation in rainfall of C4 plants.

Pollutant gases, such as sulphur dioxide, released into the

atmosphere at industrial locations may be deposited in solution in
Topography
rainfall many miles from the source.
The influence of topography is intimately connected with the other
abiotic factors since it can strongly influence local climate and soil
development. Topographic factors include;
Wind can interact with other environmental variables to;
o Altitude
o affect growth of vegetation, particularly trees in exposed
places, where they may become stunted and distorted on o Aspect
their windward sides.
o Slope (gradient)
o increase evaporation and transpiration under conditions of
low humidity. Altitude
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A level Ecology Study Notes: By Male Rogers 0774129440
The main topographic factor is altitude. An organism's biotic environment is made up of all the other
organisms with which it comes into regular contact. With certain of
• Higher altitudes are associated with lower average
these organisms it has a special relationship which may profoundly
temperatures and a greater diurnal temperature range,
higher precipitation (including snow), increased wind influence its distribution and abundance. Examples of biotic factors
speeds, more intense radiation, lower atmospheric include;
pressures. All of these have an influence on plant and
animal life. As a result, vertical zonations are common. • Competition
• Predation
• Mountain chains can act as climatic barriers. As air rises • Pollination and dispersal
over mountains it cools and precipitation tends to occur.
Thus a rain 'shadow' occurs on the leeward side of the • Mimicry
mountains where air is drier and precipitation is less. This
affects the ecosystems. • Human intervention
• Symbiosis (parasitism, mutualism and commensalism)

• Mountains also act as barriers to dispersal and migration

and may play important roles as geographical isolating COMPETITION
mechanisms in the process of speciation.
Organisms frequently compete with one another for such resources
Aspect as food, light, water, shelter, mates or nesting site (space).
In the northern hemisphere south-facing slopes receive more
sunlight, and therefore higher light intensities and temperatures, Competition exists both between individuals of the same species
than valley bottoms and north-facing slopes (the reverse being true (intraspecific competition) and between individuals of different
in the southern hemisphere. This has striking effects on the natural species (inter specific competition). The closer the ecological
vegetation and on land use by humans.
niches of the competing organisms, the fiercer is the competition.
Slope (Gradient)
Competition is a major limiting factor in various populations.
Steep slopes generally suffer from faster drainage and run-off, and
the soils are therefore thinner and drier, with more xeromorphic Within a species, the competition for space is called overcrowding.
vegetation. At slope angles in excess of 35° soil and vegetation are
typically unable to develop, and screes of loose material form. When overcrowding occurs,

• Copulation may fail

THE BIOTIC ENVIRONMENT • Abortions may occur
• Infertility may increase due to changing hormonal levels.

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A level Ecology Study Notes: By Male Rogers 0774129440
 • Abortions increase 60
• The parents abandon the young hence reduced parental 45

Number of
Beetles
care.
30
• The young abandon the nest at an early age hence reduced 15
chances of survival
0
• Increased aggression. 1 5 9 12 16
Time (days)
The Gaussian theory: Competitive Exclusion
Principle. Tribolium Oryzaephilus

Coexistence is impossible between two species which compete with

In the above experiment, Tribolium species shows a competitive
each other in every way. Sooner or later one will oust the other. In
advantage over Oryzaephilus. These may include;
other words;
• Faster reproductive rate
Two different species can never occupy exactly the
• More efficient feeding
same ecological niche.
• Greater resistance to toxic wastes produced by other
If two species occupy the same or strongly overlapping niches, an organisms growing in the same culture.
equilibrium situation is reached in which neither of the succeeds as
well as it would in the absence of the competitor or one of the • Allelopathy; production of a poison or growth inhibitor.
competitors declines in numbers to a point of extinction. This is • Predation
known as the competitive exclusion principle and is an important
ecological concept. Other examples where the Gaussian principle may apply include;

It is difficult to demonstrate in the wild but it is widely • A mixed culture of two species of Paramecium; P. aurelia
demonstrated in laboratory experiments. For example, when two and P. caudatum
closely related species of the flour beetle Tribolium and
Oryzaephilus are kept together in the same container, one or other • Mixed cultures of duckweed species (Lemna)
species invariably declines in numbers and becomes extinct.
How Organisms Manage Competition

Adaptation

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A level Ecology Study Notes: By Male Rogers 0774129440
The continuous struggle for existence makes certain organisms
specialized for particular modes of existence. These may involve
increased use and disuse of particular parts of the body (structures)
and patterns of behavior. This is called adaptation. Organisms tend
to perpetuate favorable adaptations in order to increase their
competitive advantage. All structural and behavioral adaptations PREDATION
are genetically programmed. This means that they can be inherited
in members of a species. Unfavorable variations are not adaptable An organism may feed on, or be fed on by, other organisms. In such
hence organisms possessing them are continuously eliminated cases the distribution of feeder and fed are related.
during the struggle for existence.
Thus herbivores are only found where there is suitable plant food,
carnivorous plants where there are suitable insects etc., predators
where there is suitable prey.
Resource Partitioning
In areas, which are rich in species, resources are partitioned An example of the effect that a feeding relationship can have on
whereby; species become specialized to make use of different distribution is provided by the Cactus moth Cactoblastis and the
resources. prickly pear cactus. The caterpillars of this moth feed on the
cactus thereby imposing strict limits on the population of Cactus.
This leads to less competition and a more stable community
structure. In Australia, in the 1920s, Cactoblastis was introduced from its
native Argentina in order to control the spread of prickly pear
Forms of resource partitioning which was overrunning vast areas of land in Queensland.
• Specialization by morphology e.g., beaks of birds modified
Within a comparatively short time the rapid spreading of the cactus
for picking up insects, drilling holes, cracking nuts and
was brought under control This is an example of the way humans
tearing flesh
can use one organism to control another: it is called biological
• Specialization by behavior; for example, territorial control.
behavior aggressive behavioral patterns keep competitors
Increase in numbers of the prey supports a subsequent increase in
away. In certain species, the formation of social hierarchies
numbers of the prey supports a subsequent increase in the number
minimizes competition since there is role specialization for
of predators.
a particular caste.
The predators then cause a crash in number of preys followed by a
• Vertical separation. In stratified ecosystems, there may be
decline in number of predators. The cycles are completed when the
canopy dwellers and forest dwellers.
decline in number of predators allows an increase in number of
• Horizontal separation such as occupation of different preys This is important in regulating natural populations.
microhabitats
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A level Ecology Study Notes: By Male Rogers 0774129440
 30000 Mimicry
In the course of evolution some animals have come to bear a
Number of prey

22500 striking and often detailed resemblance to part of a plant, thereby

affording themselves protection from attack by predators.
15000
• Certain insects furnish spectacular examples of this,
7500 resembling such objects as leaves, twigs, sticks or thorns.
In such cases the plant species concerned forms a most
0 important part of the insect's biotic environment.
0 63 125 188 250
Time in days
• Sometimes, the background consists of another organism;
this is part of the biotic environment. There are many
Take a look at the data below. cases of protective camoufage, particularly amongst
insects, amphiban, and reptiles.

Time 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 • Some animals closely resemble another species that

(weeks) happens to be unpalatable to a predator, a phenomenon
known as mimicry. The unpalatable species generally
Number of 10 20 28 30 20 10 22 32
Cactus possesses distinctive colours or markings (warning
coloration). Predators learn to recognize these signs and
Number of 5 10 15 25 28 15 11 20 avoid attacking this particular species. Armed with similar
Cactoblasti markings the mimic is also protected from attack. An
s example is provided by the African swallowtail butterfly,
Papilio dardanus. This insect mimics another butterfly,
Represent the data in a suitable graph. Amaurus albimaculata, which is distasteful to predators. In
some cases the mimic is also unpalatable. At first sight this
might appear to be pointless, but it is in fact advantageous
Pollination and dispersal to both mimic and mimicked.
Certain plants rely on insects and other small animals for
pollination and/or dispersal. Pollination sometimes involves a BIOLOGICAL ASSOCIATIONS (SYMBIOSIS)
highly elaborate reciprocal relationship between a certain plant Very often, organisms form associations with others not necessarily
and a specific insect. This means the distribution of the plant of the same species. They are therefore interspecific associations.
species is determined by the presence of the pollinator. Classification of such associations is based on whether they are
permanent or temporary. They are therefore either loose or
intimate;

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In all symbiotic associations, the body of one organism provides surviving because; nutrients are provided by the hydra.
habitat for another. When the combination is in light but deprived of organic
food, it survives longer than species lacking the chlorera.

Types of symbiotic relationships in ecology Commensalism

Three types of interspecific relationships are recognized. In such a relationship, the host must not suffer any harm but still
gains nothing due to presence of the commensal. For example;
i. Parasitism
Sea anemones and hermit crabs: the sea anemone Adamisia
ii. Commensalism palliata attaches to the shells of the hermit crab of the Pagurus
bernhardus. The anemone obtains scraps of food as well as free
iii. Mutualism transport from the hermit crab while the crab gains nothing.

Mutualism Parasitism
Mutualism is an intimate symbiotic association between two This is a biological association between organisms in which one; the
organisms of different species where none of them suffers harm but parasite, lives temporarily or permanently io or on the other; the
both derive benefits. In such a relationship, one organism may not host, deriving benefit from it while causing harm to it.
survive in absence of the other. Examples of such include;
Types of Parasites
• Lichens: a lichen is a result of a union between a fungus
Parasitic associations may be temporal or spatial.
and an alga (protist). The algal cells are surrounded by
fungal hyphae. The fungus gains carbohydrate and oxygen Spatial parasitic associations are identified by the part of the
from the protist while the protist obtains water, carbon host’s body exploited by the parasite.
dioxide and mineral salts from the fungus as well as
protection from dying out. The protist is anchored by the • Ectoparasites live on the surface of the body.
fungal hyphae.
• Endoparasites live inside live inside the host; beneath the
• Mycorrhizae: in a mycorrhiza, a fungus colonizes a host skin, in intercellular fluid, while others enter cells
plant’s root tissues. This may be intracellular or arbuscular. (intracellular parasites).
The fungus uses the root’s sugars while the root is given a
greater absorbing potential by the fungal hyphae. Temporal parasitic relationships refer to the time spent by the
time on its host.
• Chlorohydra & zoochlorera: the green hydra Chlorohydra
Viridissima harbours a large number of the green protist; • Obligate parasites never leave their hosts. They use them
Chlorella in its endodermal cells. In darkness when as permanent lodges. Gut parasites are a good example of
photosynthesis is impossible, the combination continues such.

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 • Facultative parasites only attach to the host when they • Parasitic castration; the change in sexual features of the
need to feed. They are actually occasional visitors to the host for example, Sacculina a parasitic crustacean attacks
host. Mosquitoes, ticks and tsetse flies are good examples. crabs and makes them change sexual features from male to
female.
Benefits gained by Parasites
It is mainly shelter and food gained as benefit by the parasite. The
• Death of the host due to the presence of the parasite.
parasite is assured of a stable environment from which nourishment
Evolutionary adaptations of parasites to their mode of
is derived with minimum effort.
life
Dangers of a parasitic mode of life • Causing minimum harm to the host to prevent death of the
parasite as well.
• Digestion by the host’s enzymes
• Feeding on dead hosts as well such as Pythium
• Being dislodged off the attachment by muscular movements
such as peristalsis. • A faster means of reproduction while in the host’s tissues.
Usually this is asexual reproduction which gives many
• Being killed by host’s immune programs
offspring in a short period of time.
• Living an oxygen deficient environment.
• A very high affinity for the host. This is partly attributed to
Harm suffered by the Host the ability to respond to chemicals produced by the host.
• Damage to cells for example Phytophthra infestans; the • Ability to spread from one host to another. Some parasites
cause of tomato blight, malarial parasites killing red blood have intermediate hosts.
cells and hook worms which rasp the intestinal lining.
• Degeneration or total loss of unwanted organs such as sense
• Use of the host’s nutrients such as in Taenia (tapeworms), organs like eyes, a reduced nervous system, alimentary
Fasciola hepatica (liver flukes) canal in many endoparasites.
• Blockage of important passages. For example, Ascaris • Evolution with attachment devices such as hooks, suckers
lumbricoides can block the intestines, Wuchereria and anchors enabling them to cling on surfaces of the host.
bancrofti (filaria worms) which cause elephantiasis block
lympahic passages of organs. • Possession of penetrative devices to enable them penetrate
into the host. Some use pointed tips with lytic enzymes for
• Production of pathogenic substances into host’s tissues example the miracidium of a fluke.
resulting in disease to the host. This is interference with
the host’s physiology.

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A level Ecology Study Notes: By Male Rogers 0774129440
 • Secretion of enzymes which destroy host tissues. These • Soil water (soil solution)
enzymes include cellulases for breaking plant cell walls and
aggressins for dissolving connective tissues. Mineral matter of soil
• Possessions of protective devices preventing their bodied
from being harmed by host’s protective arrangements.
These include; thick cuticles, inhibitor substances which
The mineral composition of a particular type of soil depends on the
inactivate host digestive enzymes. nature of the parent rock from which the soil weathered. The rate
of breakdown determines the texture, water retention, aeration
• Production of chemicals to protect them from the host’s and pH of the soil.
defense mechanisms. The blood fluke; Schistosoma mansoni This in turn influences drainage, nutrient retention and
produces a substance which fool the body’s immune system temperature. These properties determine the nature of clay, sand
recognizing foreign proteins as self. and loams.

• In some bacteria, a resistant capsule enables them to get Loams and silts favour plant growth because of the satisfactory
ingested by phagocytes and convey them to other parts of nutrient load of the soil. Sand on the other hand, is faster draining
the body without being destroyed. and loses nutrient through leaching. These sandy soils are however
important in development of the early plant stages.

Soil organic matter

Organic matter is a major source of nutrients such as nitrate,
SOIL
phosphate, sulphates for plants. It also increases the water holding
The complex mixture of organic and inorganic mixture which capacity of soil as well as providing nourishment for soil
provides a platform on which plants grow. A combination of microorganisms. Soil organic matter consists of; Dead organic
properties of soil therefore determines the nature and number of matter (DOM) and living organisms.
plants which grow on that particular soil. This will in turn influence
the animals which forage on such plants. The quality of soil; DOM forms humus by partial decomposition and complexion with
determined by a combination of such constituents is essential for inorganic molecules. These complexes are important in chemical
an ecological study. and biological processes. They influence aeration and affect crumb
structure.
The main soil constituents are;
Earthworms in soil feed on DOM; simultaneously ingesting large
• Mineral matter amounts of mineral particles. Their migration between upper and
lower layers of soil mixes up soil particles as it improves soil
• Organic matter aeration and drainage.
• Soil air
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A level Ecology Study Notes: By Male Rogers 0774129440
Soil air • Provision of light for navigation by animals
Air molecules occupy the spaces within soil particles. It is readily • Heat for cooking food,
displaced by water. In water logged soils, there is hardly any air.
Thus, plant roots may suffocate and die while growing between • Drying materials by roasting
such soil particles. This may result in drying up and death of plants
within water logged soils. • Warmth for habitats

Soil water • Activation of seeds of some species of plants to

germinate is done by smoke and mild heat produced by
The soil solution contains dissolved chemicals produced by
fire.
weathering of rocks. In the process of decomposition,
mineralization of soil occurs. This determines the stock of nutrients • A co factor in secondary succession.
available to plants.

FIRE Harmful effects of fire

Fire is an important ecological factor; determining the distribution • Destruction of habitats (nests) when fires break out.
of organisms as well as influencing their survival in their natural • Fires injure organisms sometimes leading to death.
habitats. We classify fires as natural and artificial depending on
origin. • Pollution due to smoke disrupts breathing and vision
• Natural fires originate from natural heat sources such as • Suffocation of animals due to over use of oxygen in
sunlight, vulcanicity, friction on plant surfaces, and supporting combustion
occasional lighting.
• Excessive heat in the environment
• Artificial fires are intentional and sometimes controlled.
• Stimulus for migration of organisms
They may be used in clearing agricultural land, garbage
pits, or sometimes they are accidental due to electricity, or • Loss of the quality of soil.
misuse of fuel.
• Destruction of seeds and spores of plants and fungi.
Ecologically, fires have beneficial and harmful effects
• Death of organisms.
Beneficial effects of fire
• Stimulus for physical weathering of rocks hence soil Reading Assignment (Biogeochemical Cycles)
• Nitrogen cycle
formation. • Carbon cycle
• Hydrological cycle
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A level Ecology Study Notes: By Male Rogers 0774129440