Received: 26 November 2017 Revised: 1 February 2018 Accepted: 6 February 2018

DOI: 10.1002/pat.4290

REVIEW

Cellulose‐based hydrogels for personal care products

Azadeh Bashari1 | Anahita Rouhani Shirvan1 | Mina Shakeri1,2

1
Textile Engineering Department, Amirkabir
University of Technology, Tehran, Iran Name of cellulose is referred to a type of natural carbohydrate with many hydroxyl groups and
2
Department of materials Engineering, Tarbiat high water absorption capacity. Cellulose is the most abundant natural polymer, found as the
Modares University, Tehran, Iran main constituent of plants (plant cellulose). Some bacteria such as Acetobacter xylinum are also
Correspondence able to synthesize bacterial cellulose. Cellulose‐based hydrogels are superabsorbent materials,
Anahita Rouhani Shirvan, Textile Engineering
which make 3D networks. Chemical bonds or other cohesive forces such as hydrogen bonding
Department, Amirkabir University of
Technology, Tehran, Iran. or ionic interactions connect the cellulose chains together. Hydrogels can swell and absorb water
Email: [email protected] and other aqueous fluids in their 3D networks, but they are insoluble in them. Nowadays, an
increasing demand emerges for biodegradable materials and products made from renewable
resources such as cellulose. The excellent biocompatibility of cellulose has prompted the large
use of cellulose‐based personal care products. Cellulose hydrogel is used for these products as
the thickener and stabilizing agents or as moisturizing agent to improve the skin feel of the prod-
uct. Hygienic cellulosic absorbent products such as diapers, panty liners, tampons, paper towels,
and tissue papers are used as personal care products. These products are available in different
absorbency ratings from junior to ultra‐absorbency. Using cellulose‐based hydrogel, superabsor-
bent products are made. In this review, applications of cellulose‐based hydrogels in personal care
products were reviewed.

KEY W ORDS

cellulose, diaper, hydrogel, personal care products, tampon

1 | I N T RO D U CT I O N The category of AHPs consists of the following 3 groups of AHPs

with benefits such as the softness, smoothness, leakage prevention,
Superabsorbent polymers (SAPs) are primarily used as an absorbent strength, and protection provided by nonwoven fabrics:
for water and aqueous solutions for diapers, adult incontinence
products, feminine hygiene products, and similar applications. • Baby diapers
Undoubtedly, in these applications, superabsorbent materials will • Feminine hygiene products
replace traditional absorbent materials such as cloth, cotton, paper
• Adult incontinence products
wadding, and cellulose fiber, which suffer from some limitations such
as low efficiency, low recyclability, and leakage.
Since in the mentioned applications good skin care has a crucially
Commercial production of SAPs began in Japan in 1978, for use in
important role, so using biocompatible and biodegradable materials
feminine napkins. This early superabsorbent was a cross‐linked starch‐
without any negative effect on human skin and environment are
g‐polyacrylate. Polyacrylic acids eventually are replaced previous
preferred.
superabsorbents, and they are the primary polymer used for SAPs
today. In 1980, European countries further developed the SAP for
use in baby diapers. This first diaper using this technology used only 2 | D I F F E RE N T T Y P E S OF P E R S O N A L CA R E
a small amount of polymer, approximately 1 to 2 g. In 1983, a PRODUCTS
thinner diaper using 4 to 5 g of polymer and less fluff was marketed
in Japan.1 Baby diapers, sanitary pads, panty lines, and adult incontinence prod-
Absorbent hygiene products (AHPs) have made an important con- ucts typically consist of a top layer (nonwoven or perforated film), an
tribution to the quality of life and skin health of millions of people. absorbent core (fluff pulp and/or superabsorbers), a back sheet (plastic

Polym Adv Technol. 2018;29:2853–2867. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/pat Copyright © 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 2853
 10991581, 2018, 12, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pat.4290 by Cambridge University Library, Wiley Online Library on [12/11/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
2854 BASHARI ET AL.

film, nonwoven), and a fastening system (tape, belt, or Velcro). A tam-

pon typically consists of a cover stock, an absorbent core, and a string.
Some types of tampons also include an applicator. Each type of these
products can include different products such as the following items in
Table 1.2
The average diaper is based on 4 primary components. The top
layer that is in direct contact with the body is made from a permeable
polypropylene nonwoven. The next component is a layer that tempo-
rarily stores the urine and distributes it onwards to the absorbent
layer. These components are both made from fluff pulp and SAP.
The outer layer has to hold the diaper together and prevent leakage.
It may contain small microholes to allow air to pass through. This layer
is made from polyethylene (PE). In addition, a diaper contains a
fastening system such as tape, plus elastic and dyes and print
(Figure 1).3 FIGURE 1 Average baby diaper composition.3 PE, polyethylene; PP,
In terms of weight, the fluff also makes up the largest proportion polypropylene
of a sanitary towel (approx. 66% of the total weight). Cotton is the larg-
est constituent material by weight in the tampons (approx. 90% if the
applicator is excluded). Cotton buds and cotton wadding are products
that use the same materials as tampons. On the other hand, fluff
(approx. 78%) and SAP (approx. 19%) are the main components of
breast pads (Figures 2 and 3).3,4
Other disposable products, such as disposable bed linen, mattress
covers and draw sheets, surgical gowns, and diaper liners, contain
many of the same materials as diapers, incontinence care products,
and sanitary towels.
Mattress covers, for example, may be made from several layers of
cellulose, nonwoven fabric, and a plastic coating. They may also con-
tain fluff pulp to increase absorption. Some products state that they
have seams that are strong enough that the patients can be lifted
and that they have edges treated with paraffin to ensure against leak-
age. The plastic film, which stops moisture from permeating through
the products, may be PE, for example, or a bio‐based plastic film. The
FIGURE 2 Average incontinence products composition.3 PE,
products may be laminated with plastic glued in place (water‐based
polyethylene; PP, polypropylene
dispersion adhesive or hot‐melt adhesive), or the plastic film may be
directly extruded onto the product. Use of nonwoven products has
risen in recent years, particularly in the health sector, in place of cot-
tampon was made of cotton fiber wrapped in a nonwoven rayon
ton/polyester products. There are various ranges of disposable bed
linen on the market that are made from nonwoven fabric with polypro- coversheet. Today, the absorbent medium used in most modern tam-

pylene fibers. 4 pons is cellulose fluff.

Another development in absorbent technology occurred in the
1960s with the advent of superabsorbents. Superabsorbent diapers
2.1 | Feminine hygiene products were introduced in Japan in 1979, but have only become widely used
Sanitary napkin was the first disposable article of commercial signifi- in the West since 1984.5
cance and introduced in 1921. The first menstrual tampon was intro- House et al claimed that 26% of the world's female population is in
duced by Tampax Corporation in 1933. The original Tampax brand their reproduction stage.6 The female hygiene products that exist

TABLE 1 Classification of absorbent hygienic products

Product Groups Products

Feminine sanitary protection Sanitary towels, sanitary napkins, pant liners, panty shields, tampons, breast pads
Baby diapers Baby diapers, pant diapers, training pants, swimming pants
Adult incontinence products All‐in‐one products: Contains both the absorbent core and the outer shell with fastening (tapes, hook
& loop, belts), insert pads (needs additional product for fastening), pants/briefs, liner pads, mesh
briefs supports, bed protection, under pads
 10991581, 2018, 12, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pat.4290 by Cambridge University Library, Wiley Online Library on [12/11/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
BASHARI ET AL. 2855

The global baby diaper market covers different types of diapers

provided by the manufacturers within the baby diapers. In fact, the dif-
ferent types of baby diapers manufactured around the globe are cloth
diapers, disposable diapers, training nappy, swim pants, and biodegrad-
able diapers. Depending on the type of absorbent materials used in
manufacturing, disposable diapers are also divided into ultra‐absorbent
disposable diapers, regular disposable diapers, superabsorbent diapers,
and biodegradable disposable diapers.
Nowadays, frequent use of diapers to maintain hygiene and pre-
vent rashes in babies' skin, increasing birth rate, rapid urbanization,
and continuously improving economic conditions in developing coun-
tries are the main factors, which drive the growth of baby diapers mar-
ket. Global baby diapers market is expected to garner $59.4 billion by
2020. It seems that increase in disposable income and rising health
care expenditures have driven the demand for baby diapers.9

FIGURE Average ultrathin sanitary pads composition.3 PE,

3
polyethylene; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; PP, polypropylene 2.3 | Adult incontinence products
Absorbent products specifically designed for adult incontinence are
today can be categorized into main groups, external and internal prod- the newest category of hygiene products. Their use in Europe began
ucts, and these are divided into smaller groups. in the late 1960s. The design is based on the technology developed
for baby diapers and feminine hygiene protection. The key perfor-
• Disposable napkins, reusable napkins, and, finally, cloths and rags mance requirements such as protection from leakage, comfort, discre-
are in the group of external hygiene products for women. tion, and skin dryness are similar in kind but differ in degree according
to the severity of incontinence.3
• The internally used methods are different types of protections that
There are different types of incontinence such as stress, urge, and
are inserted into the vagina. They either absorb the blood or hold
mixed urinary incontinence as well as fecal incontinence. The condition
the blood inside the body for the user to take out when full. The
affects people of all ages including young children and teenagers,
category is divided into 2 under groups: tampons and menstrual
7 women especially after childbirth, and men often with prostatic prob-
sponges.
lems. People with neurological disorders and older people, particularly
The feminine hygiene products market includes different products those with mobility and cognitive impairment, are vulnerable to incon-
such as sanitary pads, tampons, panty liners, and shields. Sanitary pads tinence problems.
are the most commonly used feminine hygiene products and are The factors causing skin health problems in the incontinence pad
expected to grow at notable rate owing to increasing demand from area are the same for adults with incontinence as for babies and infants
developing markets. These types of products are manufactured from and are mentioned as below:
a wide range of synthetic or natural raw materials and used by women
to maintain their personal hygiene. • Elderly skin is more fragile and vulnerable to the injury being thin-
The most important factors affecting the demand for feminine ner, less stretchable, and less resilient; as a result, it has poorer
hygiene products are the rising level of consumer education, increase healing properties.
awareness about alternative hygiene products, and modernization in • Urinary incontinence is not always accompanied by fecal inconti-
retail format. So the feminine hygiene products market is expected nence, so the mixing of fecal matter and enzymes with urine in
to garner $42.7 billion by 2022.8 adults is not commonplace as it is with babies.

Products that are highly absorbent and that reduce the effects of
2.2 | Baby diapers occlusion by the use of “breathable” materials are likely to reduce skin
Before 1936, diapers were mainly either cotton‐based ribbed toweling overhydration and will have consequent skin health benefits.10
or cotton muslin‐type material, both of which, with laundering, could be There is a driving growth in the market for adult incontinence
reused. In the late 1930s, early forms of tissue‐based disposable under products such as adult diapers, under pads, light incontinence pads,
pads and diaper inserts were introduced in Sweden. Between 1936 and absorbent underwear, and other products due to the rapid aging pop-
1942, rubber pants were used to hold the cellulose pad in place. In ulations and the rising awareness about the hygiene and the conve-
1950, the company introduced a new version of the product on the nience of these products. So the personal hygiene manufacturers are
basis of bleached cellulose wadding with a knitted mesh outer layer, continuing to deliver on unique new products to satisfy a range of con-
which could be inserted into a holding pocket in a rubber pant. Further sumers who have a range of different needs.
developments in the mid‐1980 owed much the availability of improved According to recent data, adult incontinence is the fastest growing
SAPs and better methods to add the polymer to the pulp core.4 category in retail tissue and hygiene globally, with $7.2 billion in sales
 10991581, 2018, 12, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pat.4290 by Cambridge University Library, Wiley Online Library on [12/11/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
2856 BASHARI ET AL.

in 2015. Retail volume for these products is expected to grow at a and panty liners. Polyethylene can be made breathable film at
compound annual growth rate of 7% through 2020, with the number extrusion stage by creating micropores in the substrate, and fibers
of units sold projected to hit 25.8 billion in 2020.11 in the nonwoven layer can be treated to be hydrophobic. These 2
processes allow air to pass through the film while maintaining an
effective fluid barrier.3
3 | T HE C O M P O N E N T S OF A H P s

The AHPs are designed for absorbing body fluids such as urine or men-
strual fluid and feces especially in baby diapers and some incontinence
4 | SUPERABSORBENT MATERIALS IN
products.
PERSONAL CARE PRODUCTS
The fluid must be readily accepted, distributed, and absorbed by
Superabsorbent polymers are hydrophilic materials that are able to
the structure of these hygienic products. Layered constructions and
absorb physically and retain large amounts of water or aqueous solu-
skin‐friendly materials are selected for prolonged use.
tion.12 As SAPs, superporous hydrogels (SPHs) are formed by cova-
There are 4 principal functional layers in these products, each of
lently cross‐linked hydrophilic polymers.
which is engineered to optimize overall product performance.
The first generation of SPHs was made from highly hydrophilic

• Top sheet or facing: The layer next to the user's skin must be capa- acrylamide (AM), salts of acrylic acid (AA), and sulfopropyl acrylate.

ble of allowing fluid to pass readily through to the next layer. It is Superporous hydrogel composites are the second generation of
SPHs. For making SPH composites, a matrix swelling or a composite
important that fluid is not retained within the structure of this
agent is used. A composite agent is a cross‐linked water‐absorbent
layer so that the amount of time that moisture is in contact with
the skin is kept to the minimum. The softness of feel is a critical hydrophilic polymer that can absorb the solution of monomer,
cross‐linker, initiator, and remaining components of the SPH
attribute for skin contact material.
synthesis.
• Acquisition and distribution layer (ADL): Fluid passes through the
The third generation of SPHs is presented by hybrid SPHs pro-
top sheet into the ADL where it is temporarily stored while capil-
duced by adding a hybrid agent to the SPH previously made. Hybrid
lary action causes it to spread over a larger area. This facilitates
agents are natural or synthetic water‐soluble or dispensable polymers
maximum utilization of the absorbent core structure. As most
capable of chemical or physical cross‐linking. It is possible to produce
SAPs can take a few moments to fully absorb fluid, the ADL plays
an interpenetrating polymeric network with this method (Figure 4).
an important role in managing fluid during this critical stage. Any
For example, AM‐based SPH is synthesized in the presence of
absorbent hygiene product with a high superabsorbent and low
sodium alginate and after that cross‐linking occurs between alginate
fluff pulp content, such as a baby diaper, will place high demands
chains and calcium ions forming a hybrid SPH.13
on ADL performance. Products with high fluff pulp or low SAP
Superporous hydrogels can also retain this liquid under a certain
levels can often function without a separate ADL because of the
pressure and therefore are suitable for use in sanitary products such
good capillary properties of the fluff fibers.
as diapers and sanitary towels. Today, the greatest volume of SAPs
• Absorbent core: The fluid storage layer typically relies on an comprises full synthetic or of petrochemical origin, and they are mostly
appropriate blend of fiberized fluff pulp and SAP to absorb and produced from the acrylic monomers (Figure 5), most frequently AA, its
retain urine or menstrual fluids. Total capacity can be engineered salts, and AM.12,14
to a level appropriate for any individual product application. Twin The global SAP market is expected to reach USD 7.96 billion by
cores can also be used to manage high fluid levels in heavy incon- 2020, registering a compound annual growth rate of 7.6% between
tinence products. Many modern “ultrathin” feminine hygiene prod- 2015 and 2020. This growth is fueled by the high demand from Asia‐
ucts use an engineered air‐laid substrate as an absorbent layer. Pacific, the Middle East and Africa, and Latin America and the ageing
This is generally a precombined structure of multiple layers, con- population in developed countries and the thinner diapers. The market
taining both SAP and fluff pulp and other suitable capillary fibers. for diaper is the largest application for SAPs and hence driving the
The resultant product is extremely thin and discreet in use. The demand for the polymer in the recent years.15
absorbent core in modern tampons is made of the cellulose‐based Synthetic SAP‐based products include a polyacrylamide copoly-
absorbent material, of either rayon (viscose) or cotton, or a mixture mer, sodium polyacrylate, polyvinyl alcohol copolymers, and ethylene
of both. maleic anhydride copolymer. Polyacrylamide copolymer is likely to wit-
• Back sheet or outer cover: The function of the back sheet is to ness fastest growth rate owing to properties such as high water
provide a fluid impervious barrier so that moisture is contained retaining and absorption.16
within the structure of the absorbent hygiene product. Many While most sanitary products such as diapers, sanitary towels, and
types of films are suited to this application, most commonly used incontinence care products are becoming thinner and lighter due to
is low gauge PE. Many products are subsequently enhanced by use of SAPs, there may be obstacles to use synthetic SAPs.12 Volatile
the addition of soft nonwoven covers to the PE, which can be col- AA price and supply deficit are likely to challenge industry participant
ored or printed on to suit market needs. It is also generally growth. The raw material deficit in the market is likely to increase
accepted that a breathable film or nonwoven layer is of benefit manufacturing costs and bring down profit margins. The world's deci-
in maintaining good skin condition, particularly in baby diapers sion for environmental protection potentially supports the ideas of
 10991581, 2018, 12, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pat.4290 by Cambridge University Library, Wiley Online Library on [12/11/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
BASHARI ET AL. 2857

FIGURE 4 Structure of various superporous

hydrogels (SPHs) generations

FIGURE 5 Chemical structures of the

reactants and pathways to prepare an acrylic
superabsorbent polymer network12

partially or totally replacing the synthetics by “greener” alternatives. To oil‐based absorbent materials,18 and also, these types of absorbent
offset this scenario, companies are investing in the development of materials have the benefits of reducing negative effects of synthetic
16
bio‐based market. SAP on the human body.
According to previous information from manufacturers of sanitary Making recyclable disposable diapers, napkins, hospital bed
products, bio‐based SAP has a lower absorption capacity than SAP of sheets, sanitary towels, and other similar products is one of the main
fossil origin. There is a great deal of research and development work targets for modern industries. Bio‐based SAP is manufactured using
underway in this area, and this is expected to result in a wider range renewable raw materials such as starch, cellulose, natural gums, and
of commercial products offering better quality and environmental per- chitin.16
17
formance in the near future. A novel solution to solve this problem involves the use of cellu-
The bio‐based SAP disposal products offer environmental benefits lose‐based hydrogels, which are totally biodegradable. New types of
such as increasing the use of renewable resources due to the introduc- bio‐based hydrogels containing sodium carboxymethylcellulose and
tion of highly performing bio‐based SAPs, which will reduce the use of hydroxyethyl cellulose cross‐linked with divinyl sulfone can swell like
 10991581, 2018, 12, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pat.4290 by Cambridge University Library, Wiley Online Library on [12/11/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
2858 BASHARI ET AL.

SAPs. These improvements were achieved by introducing microporous may respond to dioxins in a manner similar to experimental animals.
and nanoporous structures into the hydrogel, which increases water In fact, there is mounting evidence of the health effects of dioxins in
retention and swelling kinetics due to capillarity effects.19,20 humans.25 Evidence suggests that increased exposures to dioxins are
associated with increased incidence of endometriosis in humans.26
On the other hand, some viscose rayon tampons contain toxic
5 | ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF SAP
amounts of the chemical dioxin, because viscose rayon fibers are made
H Y G I E N I C P RO D U C T S
from wood pulp. In the regeneration process, the wood pulp is
bleached for a long time. The bleaching agents are a potential source
Most of the personal care products are made from the superabsorbent
of trace amounts of dioxin in tampons. Therefore, although the
material, which is mainly composed of sodium polyacrylate, because of
methods used for manufacturing tampons are considered to be
those diapers have a high water absorbing quality and can absorb 200
dioxin‐free processes, traces of dioxin may still be present in the wood
to 300 times its weight. Unlike natural polymers that are broken down
pulp raw materials used to make viscose tampons.27
by microorganisms to get smaller molecules, the C―C single bond of
Another dangerous compound of conventional disposable diapers
polymers found in diapers cannot be easily degraded by most
is sodium polyacrylate. This is the chemical added to the inner pad of a
microorganisms.
disposable that makes it superabsorbent. This material has some bad
Most of the diapers are not easily biodegradable and have an esti-
effects on human body. For example, it causes severe skin irritation,
mated period of up to 500 years to decompose. Disposable diapers
oozing blood from perineum and scrotal tissues, fever, vomiting, and
thus have bad effects on the environmental, as they are a form of solid
staph infections in babies. Also, it can stick to baby's genitals and cause
waste. Disposable diapers are the third largest contributor to municipal
allergic reactions. In addition, some disposable diapers contain tributyl-
solid waste in the United States of America accounting for 1.5% to 4%
tin and other heavy metals. Tributyltin spreads through the skin and
of the total waste.21
has a hormone‐like effect in the tiniest concentrations. It can harm
Apart from the solid waste problem, chemicals released by
the immune system and impair the hormonal system.28
decomposing solid wastes can leak from dumping sites and landfills
Women, who are menstruating, are at risk of toxic shock syn-
to groundwater. They can contaminate water wells, soil, and nearby
drome (TSS) due to the release of poisonous substances from an over-
water streams.22 Also, they release some harmful gases, drainage clog-
growth of bacteria called Staphylococcus aureus. The toxin can be
ging, and water contamination.
absorbed through vaginal walls into bloodstream leading to TSS. The
Only disposable baby diaper requires a lot of natural resources and
body responds with a sharp drop in blood pressure that deprives
energy. It has been estimated that over 136 kg of wood, 23 kg of
organs of oxygen and can lead to death.29
petroleum, and 9 kg of chlorine are used to produce disposable diapers
The use of high absorbency tampons has been closely associated
for one baby each year.
with TTS. A saturated tampon, especially tampons with SAPs, with
Assuming that one child will use at least 6500 diapers in a lifetime,
blood is a suitable place for overgrowing of bacteria.30
this means that it takes about 1625 quarts of oil to diaper one baby for
The link between TSS and tampons was not intuitive. Tampons
30 months. It has been stated that it takes more oil to keep one baby
had become trusted products in upwards of 70% of women's hygiene
dry for two and a half years than it does to lubricate all the cars an indi-
routines. However, the problem emerged when manufacturer shifted
vidual will ever own in a lifetime.23
from cotton to synthetic materials. Companies often used cheaper
ingredients, rayon, and absorptive material in some tampons.31
6 | H E A L T H I M P A C T S O F SA P H Y G I E N I C The incidence of TSS increased in the late 1970s and early
PRODUCTS 1980s, probably as a result of using superabsorbent tampons because
of the relationship between the incidence of TSS, absorbency, and
Diapers can be classified as hazardous waste. Such waste has immedi- chemical composition of certain tampons. Rely as a manufacturer of
ate or long‐term negative health effects. It emerged from the labora- high‐absorbency tampons voluntarily removed the product from the
tory results that diapers contain harmful chemicals such as dioxins. market in September 1980. After 1985, tampons containing
According to World Health Organization report on 2014, dioxins are polyacrylate rayon, which was used to increase absorbency, were
persistent environmental pollutants that can cause an array of health no longer manufactured.32
problems including developmental delays, damaged immunity, hor-
mone interference, skin diseases, and certain types of cancer.22
Wambiu et al indicated that the inner absorbent layer of a diaper is 7 | N A T U R A L SU P E R A B S O R B E N T S :
treated with chemicals, which can trigger allergic reactions among BENEFITS AND LIMITATIONS
babies. When released into the environment, the dioxins can
accumulate in humans.24 Nowadays, using biodegradable polymers have been increased for the
Dioxins are a class of persistent polyhalogenated aromatic hydro- preparation of hydrogels because of their safety, biocompatibility, bio-
carbons that induce a wide spectrum of toxic responses in experimen- degradability, hydrophilicity, nontoxicity, low cost, and limited environ-
tal animals including reproductive, endocrine, developmental, and mental problems.33 In fact, the recognized hazards associated with the
immunologic toxicities as well as carcinogenicity. The presence of an synthetic superabsorbents have spurred many researchers to develop
active human aryl hydrocarbon (Ah) receptor suggests that humans greener alternative materials for personal care usage. Therefore, the
 10991581, 2018, 12, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pat.4290 by Cambridge University Library, Wiley Online Library on [12/11/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
BASHARI ET AL. 2859

best alternatives include natural superabsorbents such as polysaccha- organic materials that are available, renewable, and cheap. Some of
rides‐based and protein‐based superabsorbents. the most widely used polysaccharide as superabsorbents are chitosan,
An important area of textiles is the health care and hygiene sector cellulose, starch, alginate, and carrageenan (CG). In personal care prod-
among other medical applications, because a wide range of disposable ucts, these polymers are used as thickener and stabilizer or as moistur-
and nondisposable products such as surgical gown, mask, surgical izing ingredients that can also improve the skin feel of the product.36
drapes, towels, gloves, baby diapers, sanitary napkins, and others are Generally, the synthesis of polysaccharide‐based superabsorbent
used in hospitals. Since diapers come in contact with the skin, it is nec- is performed by 2 main methods:
essary to characterize the probable side effects such as skin inflamma-
tion and dermatitis. Also, parameters such as absorption capacity, a) graft copolymerization of suitable vinyl monomer on polysaccha-
absorption ability under load, and strike‐through time are important ride in the presence of a cross‐linker, and
as regards the wet comfort of diapers.34 b) direct cross‐linking of polysaccharide.
In recent years, the increasing consumer focus on sustainable
products is contributing to the growing popularity of bio‐based super- In the first method, a polysaccharide enters reaction with an initi-
absorbent polymers, which are generally based on modified cellulose, ator. Therefore, functional groups of polysaccharide and initiator inter-
chitin, alginates, and silk fibroin. These products are an eco‐friendly act to form redox pair‐based complexes. Then, by homogeneous
and sustainable alternative to various nonrenewable petroleum‐based cleavage of the saccharide C―C bonds, carbon radicals on the polysac-
materials. charide substrate are produced.
However, natural polysaccharide and protein‐based superabsor- These free radicals initiate the graft polymerization of the vinyl
bent have positive properties rather than synthetic polymers with their monomers and cross‐linking agent on the substrate.
serious limitations, and they also display some disadvantages for use as In the second method, direct cross‐linking of polysaccharides,
biomaterials in personal care products. For example, their purification polyvinylic compounds like divinyl sulphone, or polyfunctional com-
and low stability might be problematic. Also, when samples from natu- pounds like glycerol, epichlorohydrin, and glyoxal is often performed.12
ral sources are used, it is difficult to obtain identical compositions.35
Generally, an ideal superabsorbent for personal care products
must have some functional properties, which are listed in Table 2.12 7.1.1 | Chitosan‐based superabsorbent
According to the requirement features for a superabsorbent, it is Chitosan with its unique properties such as nontoxicity, biocompatibil-
clear that the bio‐based materials such as cellulose‐based superabsor- ity, biodegradability, biological activity, and low cost is considered as a
bent can simultaneously fulfill all the abovementioned required good superabsorbent.37 Chitosan is a modified biopolymer derived
features. from chitin, which has been found in a wide range of natural sources
However, it is necessary to make a balance between the properties. such as crustaceans, crabs, shrimps, and cell walls of fungi.38 It is com-
For instance, a hygienic superabsorbent used in personal care products posed of β‐(1‐4)‐linked D‐glucosamine and N‐acetyl‐D‐glucosamine
must have the highest absorption rate and the lowest rewetting.12 randomly distributed within the polymer. The term of chitosan usually
This section will cover the details on the members of polysaccha- refers to a family of polymers obtained after chitin deacetylation to
rides and proteins that are being widely investigated as a natural varying degrees.37-39
superabsorbent. Sadeghi et al synthesized a superabsorbent hydrogel on the basis
of chitosan‐g‐poly (acrylic acid‐co‐acrylonitrile) as a new natural‐based
polymer with pH‐responsiveness properties. The swelling of the
7.1 | Polysaccharide‐based superabsorbent obtained hydrogels exhibited a high sensitivity to pH in 3 and 8. This
Polysaccharide is the most attractive type for investment in the market novel superabsorbent can be used for hygienic and drug delivery sys-
due to increase in focus of manufacturers on bio‐based SAPs and tem.40 Barleany et al produced chitosan‐graft‐poly(acrylic acid) super-
growth in awareness among consumers. Polysaccharides are the least absorbent hydrogel with a notable antimicrobial activity. The
expensive and most abundant available renewable organic material. obtained product is a good candidate for baby diapers and sanitary
Therefore, the use of polysaccharides in cosmetic products is growing, pads. Because for hygiene products applications, superabsorbent
together with the increasing attention of manufacturing companies materials with antimicrobial activities are needed to prevent skin
toward green materials. Polysaccharides are the most abundant irritation.41

TABLE 2 Properties of an ideal superabsorbent for personal care products

Properties of an Ideal Superabsorbent
The highest absorption capacity Photo‐stability
The highest absorbency under load The highest durability in the swelling medium
Desired rate of absorption The lowest price
The lowest soluble content Odorlessness
The highest biodegradability Colorlessness
Nontoxicity pH‐neutrality after swelling
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2860 BASHARI ET AL.

7.1.2 | Alginate‐based superabsorbent (1 → 4) and/or a ‐D‐(1 → 6) bonds. Amylose and amylopectin are 2
Alginate is a naturally derived water‐soluble polysaccharide that is main structural components of starch, and their proportion is a func-
composed of (1 → 4)‐linked β‐D‐mannuronic acid and α‐L‐guluronic tion of the starch source like corn, potato, tapioca, and wheat. Starch
acid with a nonregular pattern along a polymer chain. 42
It is one of contains about 70% amorphous and about 30% crystalline regions.
the most available biomaterials, derived from brown and bacteria and Starch has various applications in different fields due to its unique
located in the intercellular matrix as a gel containing salts like sodium, advantages. Biodegradability, availability, renewability, low cost, high
calcium, magnesium, strontium, and barium. Alginate is widely used in swelling capacity in water, and easy processing are the most important
biomedicine and personal care because of its interesting abilities like features of starch. Regardless of the positive aspects of using starches,
gelling property, viscous nature, stabilizing properties, and high water they have some disadvantages such as low surface area and surface
absorption. 43
There are some researches about using alginate‐based modification to enhance sorption capacities.48
superabsorbent for various hygienic and medical applications. One of the most widely known starch‐based superabsorbent on
Wang et al prepared a series of sodium alginate‐g‐poly (sodium the market is Mater‐Bi. Mater‐Bi is a cornstarch‐based material,
acrylate‐co‐sodium p‐styrenesulfonate)/attapulgite superabsorbent which is marketed in 3 grades (A, Z, and V), and its application
composites by graft copolymerization using a cross‐linker and initiator. includes disposable nappies, feminine hygienic products, medical dis-
According to the results, the swelling behaviors of the superabsorbent posable, and others.49
composites were remarkably influenced by various parameters such as The earliest commercial superabsorbent was produced from
pH, salt medium, and solvents. 44
Ma et al introduced an eco‐friendly starch and AN monomer by the graft copolymerization method with-
superabsorbent composite on the basis of sodium alginate and out using a cross‐linker. The starch‐g‐PAN copolymer was then treated
organo‐loess with high swelling properties. According to the perfor- in an alkaline medium to produce a hybrid superabsorbent.12
mance of the eco‐friendly superabsorbent composite, it can be used Recently, a team of North Carolina researchers has developed a
as a promising candidate for various fields of application. 45 bio‐based SAP on the basis of cornstarch instead of petroleum‐
In addition, the combination of alginate and chitosan fibers can be based ingredients. They produced an environmentally friendly and
used in the hygienic products. In fact, they can be used as the hybrid‐ cost‐effective superabsorbent.50 In addition, Erizal et al synthesized
contact layer. Therefore, their antimicrobial properties reduce leakage a superabsorbent of poly(acrylamide‐co‐acrylic acid)‐starch by radia-
and prevent contamination and the transmission of infectious diseases. tion copolymerization reaction. Experimental results showed that the
In addition, it can provide a fresh and dry interface between the body hydrogels could absorb water very fast with a high swelling ratio at
and the absorbent. 46 3 minutes. The synthesized samples can be used in the personal
Khong et al reported a new biocompatible hydrogel on the basis of care and hygienic products such as surgical pads, hot and cold
the chitosan and alginate containing mannuronic acid (poly‐M), which herapy packs, medical waste solidification, disposable diapers, and
is used in medical and hygienic applications. Figure 6 shows a chito- sanitary napkins.33
san‐alginate gelling system.47

7.1.4 | Bamboo‐based superabsorbent

7.1.3 | Starch‐based superabsorbent Bamboo is an Asian plant, which is found in tropical or subtropical
Starch is 1 of the 3 most abundant polysaccharides in plants and exists regions. Bamboo is one of the most notable natural resources because
in the chloroplast of leaves and the amyloplast of seeds, pulses, and it is a fast‐growing plant with interesting properties. Bamboo is a highly
tubers and other parts of plants. Starches consist of a number of water absorbent and has a natural effect of sterilization, moisture
monosaccharides or glucose molecules joined together with a ‐D‐ vapor transmission property, and easy drying. In addition, it has a

FIGURE 6 A chitosan‐alginate gelling system47

 10991581, 2018, 12, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pat.4290 by Cambridge University Library, Wiley Online Library on [12/11/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
BASHARI ET AL. 2861

unique antibacterial and bacteriostatic bio‐agent named “Bamboo personal care products, regenerative medicine, and other applica-
Kun.” So bamboo fibers can be used in different hygienic applications tions.35 This part will focus on proteins derived from natural sources,
such as baby diapers, feminine sanitary protection, adult incontinence such as silk fibroin and gelatin and their application in personal care
products, sanitary towels, and absorbent pads. products.
In a research, Shanmugasundaram et al characterized the baby dia-
pers made from 4 different fibrous compositions, namely, pure bam-
boo, pure cotton, bamboo/cotton (70/30), and bamboo/cotton (50/ 7.2.1 | Collagen‐ and gelatin‐based superabsorbent
50). Antibacterial evaluation is performed on baby diapers against Most of the collagens are fibrous proteins, responsible for important
S aureus and Escherichia coli. The prepared diapers were characterized mechanical functions throughout the body. Collagens are particularly
in terms of absorption capacity, liquid strike‐through, acquisition time present in articular and bone tissues, where they provide most of
under load, and diaper rewet under load. On the basis of the results, the biochemical properties essential for proper functioning.35 Gelatin
the performance of diapers produced from a bamboo/cotton (70/30) is a heterogeneous mixture of polypeptides derived from collagen. It
34
fibers blend is superior in comparison with the other ones. is soluble at the temperature above 35°C and gels below. Easy iso-
lation and solubilization, low cost, biocompatibility, and biodegrad-
7.1.5 | CG‐based superabsorbent ability are the main properties of gelatin, which expand its
Carrageenan is a high molecular weight linear polysaccharide applications.53
consisting of repeating galactose units and 3,6‐anhydrogalactose Marandi et al produced a series of hydrogel nanocomposites by
joined by alternating α‐(1,3) and β‐(1,4) glycosidic links. Carrageenan grafting AA and AM on gelatin in the presence of Na‐montmorillonite
is soluble in water above 60°C and is considered as a thermosensitive nanoparticles. The hydrogel nanocomposites exhibited good thermal
physical hydrogel. The presence of sulfate groups in CG and its chem- strength, swelling in salt solutions, and also de‐swelling behavior in dif-
ical affinity to mammalian glycosaminoglycan are the most important ferent saline solutions that can make them useful in various fields such
factors determining properties such as antiviral, anticoagulant, antiox- as hygienic product, medical, and agriculture.54 Pourjavadi et al
idant, and anticancer activities. Carrageenan hydrogels are widely used reported an efficient synthesis of hydrolyzed collagen‐g‐poly (sodium
in drug delivery, immobilization of enzymes, and various types of phar- acrylate‐co‐2‐hydroxyethyl acrylate) hydrogel through chemical
maceuticals.43 For example, Hosseinzadeh proposed a new full‐poly- cross‐linking by graft copolymerization of these 2 monomers onto
saccharide superabsorbent hydrogel via chemical cross‐linking of CG the protein backbone in the presence of a cross‐linking agent. The
and sodium alginate (Alg) using epichlorohydrin as a cross‐linker. The hydrogel exhibited high water absorbency under load, which is consid-
swelling of obtained hydrogels in solutions with various pH exhibited ered as a good property for baby diapers and female hygiene absor-
a high sensitivity to pH. 42 bents. In addition, because of the use of protein as a natural
In addition, using CG superabsorbent for producing the hygienic backbone, it is more compatible with the human body.55
product has been increased in recent years. Salimi et al introduced a
new smart CG‐based superabsorbent hydrogel hybrid. The obtained
product exhibited high water absorption and absorbency under load, 7.2.2 | Silk fibroin–based superabsorbent
which are substantial for baby diaper and feminine personal care Silks are natural structural proteins produced by insects such as orb‐
absorbent products. 51 weaving spiders and silk worms. Silk fibroin is a fibrous protein pro-
duced by the silkworm Bombyx mori, which contains 2 protein compo-
7.1.6 | Cellulose‐based superabsorbent nents, fibroin and sericin. Fibroin consists of polypeptides that are

Cellulose‐based products are used for the absorption of water and joined by a disulfide bridge, and the sericin is hydrophilic protein sur-

other aqueous fluids. Among cellulose‐based products, paper towels rounding the fibroin.35 Recently, silk fibroin has become a popular bio-

and tissue papers are some of the most widely used absorbents. Fluff material because of its excellent biocompatibility, tunable degradation,

pulps are the most common products for disposable diapers. In fact, mechanical properties, ease of processing, and sufficient supply.56 So

baby diaper uses cellulose fluff combined with a SAP to create the the silk fibroin–based superabsorbent can be used in various personal

absorbent core, which acts as the storage structure in the product. 52 care applications.

According to the increased environmental awareness and serious Bellas et al invented a silk fibroin–based composite comprising

problems of synthetic superabsorbents, it seems that cellulosic fibers nonhydrolyzed silk fibroin and a humectant agent. The obtained silk

for producing disposable diapers such as incontinence products and fibroin–based compositions can be used for personal care products,

feminine hygiene products can be considered as a good candidate. Cel- cosmetic products, skin care products, body care products, and/or hair

lulose‐based superabsorbents are explained in Section 8 in details. products.57 Also, Pushpa et al prepared the nano silk sericin–based
hydrogels from silk industry waste. The hydrogels having sericin pro-
tein are bio‐acceptable and antimicrobial. Therefore, they can be used
7.2 | Protein‐based superabsorbent in a wide range of applications, for example, in agriculture for soil con-
The protein‐based superabsorbent is composed of isolated proteins ditioners, seed germination, water retention, plant growth, and in bio-
from a natural extracellular matrix. Controllable bioactivity, biocompat- medical fields as wound dressing membrane and as antimicrobial water
ibility, and biodegradability make these hydrogels promising candi- absorption layer in personal care products like baby diapers and
dates as smart biomaterials for drug delivery, tissue engineering, sanitary napkins.58
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2862 BASHARI ET AL.

8 | C EL L U L O S E ‐ B A S E D SU P E R A B S O R B E N T S product, can be achieved. Compared with the synthetic superabsor-

F O R H Y G I E N I C P R O DU C T S bent hydrogels, cellulose‐based superabsorbent hydrogels have high
absorbency, high strength, good salt resistance, excellent biodegrad-
With the appearance of superabsorbent hydrogels in the 1950s, con- able ability and biocompatibility, and other special functions that
siderable interest has been attracted within the scientific community promise a wide range of applications in many fields (Figure 7).19,66
as well as the industrial world. That is why rapid progress has been
made in the past few decades because of the demand for superabsor-
8.1 | Preparation methods
bent materials in the sanitary industry. As mentioned before, superab-
sorbent hydrogels are networks with a high capacity of water uptake, There are many preparation methods for production of cellulose‐based

which can absorb, swell, and retain aqueous solutions up to hundreds superabsorbent hydrogels. These methods are divided to 2 main

of times their own weight. 59,60

Even though most of the superabsor- groups, which are chemical and physical methods. Some of the

bent hydrogels are produced from synthetic polymers (essentially methods are described in the following.

acrylics) for their acceptable properties, it has been suggested to

replace synthetic polymers with the green alternatives because of their 8.1.1 | Physical methods
61 Unlike chemical synthesis methods, physical synthesis methods always
degradability and biocompatibility.
One of the green materials that can be used for the production of refer to the molecular assembly cross‐link by the hydrogen bond or the
superabsorbent hydrogels is cellulose. Cellulose, as one of the carbo- ionic bond between the polymers, or by the interaction between the
hydrate polymers, is the most abundant resource in nature. Cellulose polymers.
products are biocompatible, biodegradable, nontoxic, inexpensive,
and renewable. Cellulose, which has abundant hydroxyl groups, can 8.1.2 | Chemical methods
be used to prepare superabsorbent hydrogels easily with fascinating The stable structure and effective swelling of cellulose‐based
structures and properties.62 hydrogels often require a chemically cross‐linked network. Some di‐
Cellulose superabsorbent hydrogels can absorb and retain functional molecules are used as the cross‐linker for cellulose or its
extremely large amounts of a liquid relative to their own mass. These derivatives to covalently bind different polymer molecules in a 3‐
cellulose hydrogels absorb aqueous solutions through hydrogen bond- dimensional hydrophilic network.66 Chemical synthesis methods are
63
ing with water molecules. For example, Rouhani et al used Luffa widely used to fabricate the cellulose‐based superabsorbent hydrogels
cylindrica fibers as a cellulose‐enriched material for preparation of cel- for the formation of covalent linkage, in essence. Typical chemical syn-
lulose nanowhiskers‐based hydrogel as a surface modifying system thesis methods are stated as below.
with enhanced water absorption property. They applied the obtained
hydrogel on the polyester fabric to achieve the high water absorption.
It was found that because of the participation of hydroxyl groups of
luffa nanohydrogel, the water uptake ability of treated fabrics in com-
parison with control polyester significantly increased.64
Many factors can affect the capacity of cellulose superabsorbents.
The total absorbency and swelling capacity are controlled by the type
and degree of cross‐linkers used to make the superabsorbent product.
Low‐density superabsorbent hydrogels generally have a higher absor-
bent capacity and swell to a larger degree. On the other hand, high
cross‐link density polymers exhibit lower absorbent capacity and swell,
but the gel strength is firmer and can maintain particle shape even
under modest pressure.65
One of the largest uses of cellulose superabsorbents is found in
personal disposable hygiene products, such as baby diapers, adult pro-
tective underwear, and sanitary napkins.61
Different methods of preparation of cellulose superabsorbent
hydrogels and their usage in personal health products are explained
below.
One of the advantages of cellulose‐based superabsorbent
hydrogels is their ability to overcome the routine obstacles of synthetic
polymers. Most recently, cellulose‐based superabsorbent hydrogels
have become accessible and essential materials in many applications.
Introducing cellulose series materials into the superabsorbent
FIGURE 7 Cellulose‐based hydrogels and cross‐linking strategies.19
hydrogels can eliminate the disadvantages of synthetic‐based superab-
HEC, hydroxyethyl cellulose; NaCMC, sodium carboxymethylcellulose;
sorbent hydrogels to obtain an acceptable product.6 In this way, a EC, Ethylcellulose; HPMC, hydroxypropyl methylcellulose; MC,
product, which is a multifunctional and efficient superabsorbent Methylcellulose
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BASHARI ET AL. 2863

• Polymerization induce system,68 bi‐induce system,69 and even ternary‐induce sys-

tem.70 There are also other induce systems that are proven in different
One of the best ways for fabrication of superabsorbent hydrogels papers.
is the solution polymerization due to its better control of the heat of
polymerization, lower cost, and more convenient. Most of the cellu- • Inverse‐phase suspension polymerization
lose‐based superabsorbent hydrogels are produced in this way. Gener-
ally, the cellulose series macromolecular, monomer(s), initiator, and Inverse‐phase suspension polymerization is conducted in the dis-
cross‐linker(s) are freely soluble in water, or have good solubility in persed and continuous phases. The dispersed phase is aqueous, and
water. Once the initiator is induced by the temperature or the radia- the continuous phase is organic. The monomer is usually dissolved
tion, the polymerization process starts. After a certain time, the prod- in the dispersed phase, and a surfactant is used to help the monomer
uct of this reaction can be dried out and pulverized for various and other aqueous reagents to be effectively dispersed throughout
applications (Figure 8).67 the continuous phase. Although particles with desirable sizes can be
Several mechanisms have been suggested to explain the synthesis obtained by this technique, removal of the organic solvents, such as
of cellulose‐based superabsorbent hydrogels. One of the mechanisms n‐hexane and toluene, is a very challenging problem. This is one of
for solution polymerization synthesis of cellulose‐based superabsor- the appropriate techniques for the polymerization of highly hydro-
bent hydrogels is based on the free radical–induced polymerization. philic monomers, such as salts of AA and methacrylic acid and
The free radical polymerization is a process in which monomers are AM.71 These significant results have been achieved by inducing a
polymerized through the initiation of initiators. This kind of polymeri- microporous structure in the hydrogel, by means of a phase inversion
zation has been used so extensively because it has high polymerization desiccation technique in acetone (ie, a nonsolvent for cellulose),
rate and happens in an aqueous medium, which is safe and harmless. which increased the water absorption, as well as the swelling kinetics,
The cellulose macromolecules produce the free radical initiated by due to capillarity effects.19
the initiator, then interact with the monomers forming the graft copol-
ymer. The main induce approach is chemical induce, containing mono‐ • Microwave irradiation polymerization

FIGURE 8 Mechanism for synthesis of cellulose superabsorbent hydrogel.67 MMT, montmorillonite; MBA, methylenebisacrylamide
 10991581, 2018, 12, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pat.4290 by Cambridge University Library, Wiley Online Library on [12/11/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
2864 BASHARI ET AL.

Microwave irradiation technology as an emerging polymerization Superabsorbent hydrogels are widely used in the hygienic field like
skill, compared with the tradition approaches, displays stronger pene- disposable diapers and female napkins for their ability to absorb and
trating ability, faster heating, cleaner, and higher efficiency. retain a large amount of secreted fluids, such as urine and blood. It
One of the promising methods for the cleaner production of cellu- was reported that the first generation commercial superabsorbent
lose‐based superabsorbent hydrogels is using microwave irradiation hydrogels were produced in Japan in 1978 as a component of female
polymerization. Giachi reported that the microwave‐synthesized prod- napkins. Then it was rapidly extended its market all over the world
uct possessed faster swelling and shrinking kinetics in comparison with for the ability to retain the secreted liquids under pressure. In a word,
the superabsorbent hydrogels prepared by conventional methods.72 superabsorbent hydrogels have caused a huge revolution in the per-
sonal health care industry. At present, superabsorbent hydrogels that
contained in sanitary napkin are also primarily polymerized by AA or
8.2 | Applications of cellulose‐based hydrogels AM, which are costly, poorly degradable, and environmentally
Applications of superabsorbent hydrogels can be divided to several unfriendly. Liu et al provided novel tactics by incorporation of flax yarn
groups including agriculture and horticulture, water treatment, bio- waste into superabsorbent hydrogels for sanitary napkin applica-
medical, drug delivery systems, and personal health care. Since the tions.73 Their results showed that the product exhibit excellent biode-
focus of the review is on personal health care products, it will be gradability, superabsorbent, and retention ability of artificial blood
discussed extensively. solution compared with those of the currently marketed sanitary
A number of superabsorbent hydrogel products with cellulose napkin products.
based have been either available commercially or in the process of Although more convenient, suitable, and comfortable disposable
development. In addition, many patents about cellulose‐based super- health care products have extensively been applied in modern time,
absorbent hydrogels have been granted for various possible applica- biodegradable health care products have not either been industrialized
69
tions. In cases where biodegradability of a hydrogel is required or or been commercially available. In view of the foregoing, the key tech-
recommended, cellulosics are appealing hydrogel precursor materials, nique of converting the cellulose‐based superabsorbent hydrogels into
due to their low cost, the large availability and biocompatibility of cel- the core layer of health care products needs to be broken through.74,75
lulose, and the responsiveness of some cellulosics to variations of Most of the cellulose‐based hydrogels, which are used in health
62
external stimuli. Most of these used for agricultural and horticulture, care products, have the same structure: an envelope of nonwoven tis-
personal health care field, water treatments, biomedical fields, and the sue, a plastic cover material, and an absorbent fluff of wood pulp cellu-
stimuli‐response smart behavior applications (Figure 9).67 Additionally, lose, mixed in most cases with one of the superabsorbent products.
many promising applications as protective barriers for volatile organic The basic idea of diaper recycling is to recover separately the cellulose,
compounds spilled in the environment and as absorbents for waste which is biodegradable and recyclable. The plastic cover material can
oil had also been explored. also be recycled for some other applications.19

FIGURE 9 Applications and developments of cellulose‐based hydrogels66

 10991581, 2018, 12, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pat.4290 by Cambridge University Library, Wiley Online Library on [12/11/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
BASHARI ET AL. 2865

On the basis of the high water absorption properties of cellulose‐ benefits compared with the conventional polyacrylate superabsorbent,
based products, they have been used for the absorption of water and and they do not have any negative health and environmental effects.
other aqueous fluids throughout recent history. Among such products, Because in the personal care articles such as baby diapers, feminine
the paper towels, tissue papers, and diapers are some of the most hygiene, and adults incontinence products, skin care has a special
widely used absorbents. For example, fluff pulps, which are generally importance; using materials with no skin allergy symptoms such as
based on kraft pulps, are commonly used for disposable diapers. rashes and inflammation is preferred.
Obtaining recyclable disposable diapers, napkins, hospital bed sheets, Cellulose‐based hydrogels are biocompatible and biodegradable
sanitary towels, and other products is one of the vital targets for the materials, which show promising future for a number of industrial uses
modern industry. Recently has been proposed an innovative solution such as hygienic products, especially in cases where environmental
to this problem, which involves the use of cellulose‐based superabsor- issues are concerned. Several water‐soluble cellulose derivatives can
bent that are totally biodegradable.76 be used, singularly or in combination, to form hydrogel networks
possessing specific properties in terms of swelling capability and sensi-
tivity to external stimuli, which can be used in various health care
9 | F U T U R E T R E ND S A ND C H A LL E N GE S
products.
In this review, basic information about superabsorbent hygiene
A guide published by the Environmental Health Association of Nova
products was reviewed, and new superabsorbent materials based on
Scotia cites a study reported in the “Archives of Environmental Health”
the natural polymers, their properties, and applications in the personal
that found that diapers release volatile organic chemicals. Toxic
care articles were introduced.
chemicals such as toluene, ethylbenzene, xylene, and dipentene have
been linked to adverse health effects in humans with long‐term expo-
ORCID
sure. The inner absorbent layer of a common disposable diaper (acry-
late‐based hydrogels) is also treated with chemicals, which can Anahita Rouhani Shirvan http://orcid.org/0000-0002-1097-7865

trigger allergic reactions.

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10 | CO NCLUSIO N
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