MATH1042A

Calculus

Study Guide for MATH1042A

First Year Semester 1 Course: Engineering Mathematics
2021

School of Mathematics
University of the Witwatersrand
Contents

Course Guide and Information 2

1 FUNCTIONS (Thomas’ Calculus Ch1) 7

1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

1.2 Piecewise-defined Functions (TC 1.1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

1.3 Composite Functions (TC 1.2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

1.4 Even and Odd Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

1.5 Trigonometric Functions (TC 1.3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

1.6 Inverse Functions (TC 1.6) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

1.7 Tutorial answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

2 INTRODUCTION TO DIFFERENTIATION (TC Ch2, Ch3 & Ch4) 25

2.1 Slopes of Curves (TC 2.1 & 3.1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

2.2 Limits and Working with Limits (TC 2.2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

2.3 Differentiation from First Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

2.4 Simple Rules for Differentiation (TC 3.3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

2.5 Differentiation of Sine and Cosine (TC 3.5) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

2.6 Tangents and Normals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

2.7 Maxima and Minima (Turning Points) (TC 4.1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

2.8 Higher Derivatives and the 2nd Derivative Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

2.9 Tutorial answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

3 DIFFERENTIATION COMPLETED: TC Ch3 45

3.1 The Product Rule (TC 3.3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

1
 3.2 The Quotient Rule (TC 3.3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

3.3 The Chain Rule (TC 3.6) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

3.4 Derivatives of Other Basic Functions (TC 3.3 & 3.8) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

3.5 First Approximations (TC 3.11) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

3.6 Tutorial answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

4 INTEGRATION: TC Ch4.8 & Ch5 63

4.1 The Indefinite integral or antiderivative (TC 4.8) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

4.2 Area as the Limit of a Sum (TC 5.1 & 5.2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

4.3 The Definite Integral (TC 5.3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

4.4 Area and Integration (TC5.6) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

4.5 Volume and Integration TC 6.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

4.6 Area and Polar Curves TC 11.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

4.7 Tutorial answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

5 FURTHER APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION 82

5.1 Maxima and Minima problems: (Revision) (TC 4.6) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

5.2 Curve Sketching (TC 4.4) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

5.3 Related rates of change (TC 3.10) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

5.4 Tutorial answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

1
 Course Guide and Information
2021

Course name MATH1042A – Engineering Mathematics IA

Course credits 18
Pre- and corequisites MATH1042A is a 12 week first semester course and forms the
basis of knowledge and skills recquired in MATH1043A
MATH1042A is a prerequisite for MATH1043A – Engineering
Mathematics IB

Course aims

The main purpose of this course is to provide students with a basic foundation in differentiation
and integration techniques with simple applications, the binomial theorem, simple series and
the conic sections in preparation for further study in Engineering Mathematics IB.
Topics in Calculus include: Functions; Domain and range of functions; composite functions;
Limits and continuity; Differentiation; Applications of differentiation (curve sketching, maxima
and minima and rates of change); Antiderivatives, definite and indefinite integrals; Riemann
sums; Applications of integration to areas and volumes; the natural logarithmic and exponential
functions (transcendental functions).
Topics in Algebra include: Radian measure; trigonometric functions; trigonometric equations;
polar coordinates and curves; the principle of mathematical induction; Binomial Theorem;
conic sections.
This course aims to help you to:

• recognise the relevance of mathematics in engineering

• develop the ability to analyse and understand applied questions, and to use appropriate
mathematical techniques to solve the problem

• correctly use and interpret mathematical notation,

• establish a foundation for further studies in engineering mathematics,

• develop the ability to work independently and take responsibility for your learning,

• develop numerical skills.

Welcome to First Year Engineering Mathematics

2
Some admin matters

MATH1042A consists of two modules, Calculus and Algebra, that are taught over six lectures
per week. Calculus makes up 60% of the course and Algebra 40%. During Block 1 the split is
three lectures each, while during Block 2, Calculus will take 4 lectures and Algebra 2. In 2021
the lectures will be by means of online videos on the Ulwazi platform. Each 45 minute lecture
will be split into shorter 10 to 20 minute segments.

Coordinators Mr C Kriel Ms A Naudé

Office MSB342 ADU 4
e-mail [email protected] [email protected]

• NOTICE BOARDS: There are no physical notice boards for MATH1042A. All notices
will be posted on Ulwazi. Check these regularly for lecture updates, test and tutorial quiz
information and test and quiz results. Also please READ your Wits e-mails.

• PROGRESS REPORTS: Should your bursary require a progress report, these are avail-
able from the Engineering Faculty.

• TUTORIALS: In 2021 tutorials will consist of required tutorial questions to be done for
homework as well as a weekly tutorial quiz. As the term progresses additional discussion
forums or online conferences may be arranged to supplement these tutorial activities. To
begin with, students should contact their lecturers if they need help. Tutorial quizzes will
start at the end of the first week of term.

• ADMISSION TO FINAL EXAMINATION: Admission is not automatic. You must satisfy

the requirements for Satisfactory Participation (SP). You need to earn SP in order to write
the final examination. Please take this seriously. This requires:

– a minimum of 35% for each of the calculus and algebra course semester marks
– satisfactory completion of tutorial quizzes and participation in any tutorial related
activities
– writing of all scheduled tests – submit any relevant medical note or documentation
to the coordinator within three days of any missed test
– submission of any additional required tutorial work or follow-up tests

• NON-USE OF CALCULATING DEVICES: In order to help you to develop your numer-

ical skills, you will not be allowed to use calculators, cell phones etc. in tests or exams.
You will be expected to do (reasonable) calculations manually, so make sure that you use
all opportunities in lectures and tutorials to develop your calculation skills.

Textbooks, Course Material

• Prescribed textbooks: As part of the fees, the following textbooks will be distributed
to students. Do NOT buy these:

– Thomas et al: Thomas’ Calculus, Early Transcendentals, 14/e, Pearson.

– Custom Supplement: Differential Equations and Linear Algebra, Pearson.

3
 • Prescribed study guide: The prescribed study guide, “First year engineering mathe-
matics”, will be made available electronically on Ulwazi. This contains lecture notes on
all the theory for the course, as well as tutorial questions and must be used in conjunction
with all mathematics lectures and tutorials. During lectures the theory will be explained,
and typical problems will be worked through in detail. It is important to retain the study
guide as well as your first year notes to use as a reference when you are in second year.

• Past tests and exams booklet: This is good practice for tests and will be made
available electronically during the first or second week of the semester.
You should allocate between 6 and 12 hours a week
to work through the lecture notes and textbook, ex-
amples, tutorial questions and past test questions.
This is YOUR responsibility, so set up a study
timetable soon.
• Additional material: You may find these useful for extra reading and examples. Most
of them may be found in the Mathematics library, i.e. the Geo-Math library in Solomon
Mahlangu House East Wing Basement, or the Engineering Library in the Chamber of
Mines Building.

– James, G.: Modern Engineering Mathematics, Pearson Prentice Hall

– Stroud, K.: Engineering Mathematics, Palgrave Macmillan
– Huntley and Love: Elementary Tertiary Mathematics with Geometry: An online
approach
– Sullivan: Algebra and Trigonometry, 8/e, Pearson
– Jordan D. and Smith P.: Mathematical Techniques, Oxford
– Croft A. and Davison R.: Mathematics for Engineers, A modern Interactive Ap-
proach, Pearson Prentice Hall
– Croft A., Davison R and Hargreaves M.: Engineering Mathematics, A Foundation
for Electronic, Electrical, Communications and Systems Engineers, Pearson Prentice
Hall
– Singh K.: Engineering Mathematics through Applications, Palgrave Macmillan
– X-kit undergraduate, Maths for Scientists and Engineers, Pearson

Where can you get help?

Use all the support that we offer you, on a daily basis. Use markers/post-its to mark work that
you don’t understand, and get help with it as soon as you can.

• Staff consultation: To start with, email your lecturer with any questions. Lecturers’
contact details will be made available per diagonal. Once other methods of communication
modes come onstream these will be communicated.

4
 • Academic Development Unit (ADU): The ADU provides additional weekly tutorial
videos and quizzes. These tutorials focus on identifying key concepts that may be missing
from school or that may not have been understood in the regular lectures, as well as
covering concepts that will be needed in future lectures. ADU tutorials and quizzes are
not compulsory.

• Video lectures and tutorials: All lectures are recorded and made available online.
Use these to work through your Study Guide and supplement the lecture notes. Work
through the recorded the lecture, then do the tutorial questions. Do NOT try to just
memorise sample questions. This does not work at university level.

Assessment and Syllabus

Assesment methods Composition of final course mark

Tutorial quizzes (Block 1) 10%
Block test 30%
Tutorial quizzes (Block 2) 10%
Final examination 50%
Total 100%

• Minimum and subminimum rules: A minimum final mark of 50% must be obtained
for the course, with a subminimum of 50% in each of the topics Algebra and Calculus.

• Satisfactory participation: Failure to complete at least two thirds of the tutorial

quizzes or additional tutorial activities, or to write a test, will in the absence of a sat-
isfactory written explanation, result in a published warning and a possible withdrawal
of permission to write the final examination. Furthermore, a minimum semester mark
(tutorial quizzes and block test) of 35% in each topic is required for admission to the final
exam.

• Test dates: Block test dates will be published by the Engineering Faculty. All test
results will appear on Ulwazi after each test, and it is YOUR responsibility to check that
your mark has been entered correctly.

LEARNING OUTCOMES OF THE ASSESSMENT CRITERIA FOR THE

COURSE/UNIT LEARNING OUTCOMES
determine the domain and the range of a use algebraic and graphical methods to find
function the domain and the range of a function
determine the limit of a function at a point solve limits of functions numerically, graphi-
cally and algebraically
use appropriate limit laws use appropriate limit laws to determine
whether a limit exists and to find it
establish whether a given function is contin- test whether a function is continuous from
uous on its domain the left and from the right and to identify
any discontinuities

5
LEARNING OUTCOMES OF THE ASSESSMENT CRITERIA FOR THE
COURSE/UNIT LEARNING OUTCOMES
find the derivative of a function find derivatives of functions using the defini-
tion (by first principles) and by differentia-
tion rules and formulae
apply the concepts of limits, continuity and sketch curves by using the information about
differentiation to sketch graphs of functions the interval(s) on which the function is in-
creasing/decreasing, concave up/down to-
gether with the asymptotes of the function
solve optimization problems solve maxima/minima problems
write down the antiderivatives of a function find a function if the derivative of the function
is given
determine the area under a curve using Rie- calculate the area of a region that lies under
mann Sums the graph of a continuous function using the
areas of approximating rectangles
determine the area of a region using the def- Evaluate definite integrals using the proper-
inite integral ties of the definite integral and the Funda-
mental Theorem of Integral Calculus
compute areas of regions between curves and apply the definite integral to calculate vol-
volumes of solids umes of solids with known cross-sections and
solids of revolutions (disk and washer meth-
ods)
recognize the inverse properties of the natu- use the properties of the natural exponential
ral logarithmic and exponential functions and function and its inverse (the natural logarith-
other transcendental functions mic function) to sketch their graphs and com-
pute their derivatives and integrals
express angles in radian measure find the angle in radian measure algebraically
or geometrically
use trigonometric identities apply trigonometric identities to simplify
trigonometric expressions
solve trigonometric equations find all solutions (in a given domain) of
trigonometric equations
write points in the plane in polar coordinates convert Cartesian co-ordinates into polar co-
ordinates and vice versa
understand and apply the principle of math- apply mathematical induction to prove that
ematical induction a given statement A(n) is true for all natural
numbers n
classify conic sections and write them in stan- transform a given quadratic form into stan-
dard form dard form and decide whether it is a parabola,
ellipse or hyperbola

6
Chapter 1

FUNCTIONS (Thomas’ Calculus Ch1)

1.1 Introduction

Definition 1.1.1. A function, denoted by f from a set D to a set Y is a rule that assigns a
UNIQUE (single) element f (x) ∈ Y to each element x ∈ D. The set D of all possible input
values is called the domain of the function. The set of all values of f (x) as x varies throughout
D is called the range of the function.

x f y
Input(Domain) Output(Range)

a f (a)
b f (b) = f (c)
c
f (d)
d
Domain Range

If the domain is not stated, we assume it is the largest set of real x-values for which the function
gives real y values.
Example 1.1.2.
DOM AIN RAN GE
y = x2
y = x1
√
y= 1 − x2

7
 1
Example 1.1.3. Let f (x) = x + x
find f (2) and f (a)
2x + 1
Example 1.1.4. Let g(x) = . Find the domain of g and find g(−1).
x−2
√
x2 −4
Example 1.1.5. Let h(x) = x−4
. Find the domain of h(x).

The vertical line test Not every curve represents the graph of a function. A function f can
only have ONE VALUE for f (x) for each x in its domain. So NO VERTICAL LINE can
intersect the graph of a function more than ONCE.

y = x2 x2 + y 2 = 1

√
y=± x

y = x3
1−1
Y ES M any − 1
Y ES

M any − M any 1 − M any

NO NO

1.1.1 Tutorial questions — Functions

D1. (a) If f (x) = x2 − x + 1, find f (−1), f (a), f (x + ∆x). Show that f (1 − x) = f (x).
x+2
(b) If g(x) = , find g(y), g(3), g(a + b), g(x + ∆x). Show that g(g(x)) = x.
3x − 1
x−1 1 1 1
(c) If h(x) = , find h( ), , h(−x). Show that h(−x) = and that
x+1 x h(x) h(x)
1
h( ) = −h(x).
x
(d) If x = g(y) (from part (b)), express y in terms of x. (This gives the inverse function
of g.) Similarly find the inverse function of h (from (c)) by writing x = h(y) and
solving for y.

D2. Suppose a = (t, t2 ) and b = (t−1 , t−2 ). Show that a and b lie on the parabola y = x2 .
Express the midpoint between a and b in terms of t, and show that it lies on the parabola
y = 2x2 − 1.

8
1.2 Piecewise-defined Functions (TC 1.1)

Definition 1.2.1. Functions where the formula changes on different parts of the domain are
called piecewise-defined functions.
Example 1.2.2. 
 −2 , x<0
f (x) = x2 , 0≤x≤3
x−1 , x>3


y
9

3 x

−2

Domain = R, Range = {−2} ∪ [0, ∞).

To graph the function, we apply different formulas to different parts of its domain.
Definition 1.2.3. The absolute value function, f (x) = |x|, is defined as


x , x≥0
|x| =
−x , x < 0

The absolute value function has domain (−∞, ∞) and range [0, ∞).
Example 1.2.4. Solve for x where
|2x − 7| = 2

9
Example 1.2.5. Solve the following inequality.

|x − 1| < 2

1.2.1 Tutorial questions — Absolute values

The absolute
√ value or modulus of a real number x is denoted |x| and is best defined by
|x| = x2 . It can never be negative, because it represents the scalar distance on the number
line between the point x and zero. Thus |x| = x if x ≥ 0, and |x| = −x if x < 0. Also note
that |x| < a means the same as −a < x < a.

T3. Use the definition of |x| to prove that |xy| = |x||y| and that | − x| = |x|.

T4. Convince yourself that |a − b| represents the scalar distance between the points a and b
on the number line.

D5. Use the idea of absolute value as a distance (and a sketch of the number line, if necessary)
to find all solutions of the equations:
(a) |x| = 5 (b) |x−1| = 3 (c) |x+1| = 4 (d) |1−2x| = 4 (e) |x−3| = |x+1|.

D6. Solve the inequalities obtained by replacing the = signs in the previous question by <
signs.

1.3 Composite Functions (TC 1.2)

Definition 1.3.1. Let f and g be functions, the composite function f ◦ g

(“f composed with g”) is defined by


(f ◦ g)(x) or f g(x) .

The domain of f ◦ g consists of the values of x in the domain of g such that g(x) are in the
domain of f .

i.e. First find g(x) then apply f on g(x), see Figure 1.1.
1
Example 1.3.2. Let f (x) = 2x + 1, and g(x) = .




x−3

Find f g(1) , g f (2) , f g(x) , g f (x) , and f f (x) .

10
 x g f f (g(x))
g(x)

g f
g(a) f (g(a))
a g
f
b
g
c g(b) = g(c) f (g(b)) = f (g(c))
g f (g(d))
d f
g(d)

Figure 1.1

1.4 Even and Odd Functions

In this section, all functions are real-valued functions defined on a symmetric subset D of R,
where D is called symmetric if x ∈ D ⇒ −x ∈ D. For example,

(−2, 2) and [−2, 2] are symmetric, whereas (−2, 2] and (−2, 3) are not symmetric.

A function f is called an even function if f (−x) = f (x) for all x ∈ D.

Note. The function f is even if and only if the graph of f is symmetric about the y-axis,
i.e., (x, y) belongs to the graph of f if and only if (−x, y) belongs to the graph f .

A function f is called an odd function if f (−x) = −f (x) for all x ∈ D.

Note. The function f is odd if and only if the graph of f is symmetric about the origin,
i.e., (x, y) belongs to the graph of f if and only if (−x, −y) belongs to the graph f .

Example 1.4.1. The functions f (x) = x2 and g(x) = x3 are respectively even and odd.

Homework: Confirm this for yourself by sketching the graphs of the two functions.

11
1.4.1 Tutorial questions — Even and odd functions
D7. Classify each of the following functions as even, odd, or neither.

x2 , x3 , x4 , x − x2 ,
x − 2x3 , x + x1 , cos x, sin x,
cos3 x, sin2 x, sin3 x, 2x ,
|x|, x − |x|, x − x1 , x2 − |x|.

Revision: Work through sections 1.1 and 1.2 of the textbook and pay special attention to:

1. Increasing and decreasing functions.

2. Common functions.

3. Shifting, scaling and reflecting a graph of a function.

12
1.5 Trigonometric Functions (TC 1.3)

1.5.1 Angles and Radian measure

Angles are measured in degrees or radians. In engineering and advanced mathematics, angles
are measured in radians. Since radians are real numbers, we can do calculus with them.
Definition 1.5.1. We define the radian measure of the central angle θ of a circle to be the
ratio of the arc subtended by the angle, s, to the radius of the circle, r. That is
s
θ= .
r

Hence, one radian is the measure of the angle that subtends a length of arc equal to the
radius.

We find the relation between degree measure and radian measure by observing that a semi-
circle of radius r, which we know has length πr, subtends an angle of 180◦ , and, by definition,
an angle of π radians. Therefore,
180◦ = π radians.

Hence we have

π απ
1 degree = radians =⇒ α◦ = radians
180 180

and

180 θ · 180
1 radian = degrees =⇒ θ radians = degrees.
π π
π
To convert from degrees to radians, multiply by 180
. To convert from radians to degrees,
multiply by 180
π
.
Example 1.5.2. Convert the following angles from degrees to radians:

(a) 30◦ =

13
 (b) 45◦ =

(c) 120◦ =

(d) 73◦ =

Know the radian values for the special angles:

30◦ = π6 ; 45◦ = π4 ; 60◦ = π3 ; 90◦ = π2 ; 180◦ = π; 360◦ = 2π.

How big is 1 radian?

r s=r r r

1 rad 60◦
r r
Figure 1.2: Comparing the sector and the equilateral triangle.

πα◦ 180
θ=1= ◦
=⇒ α = ≈ 57, 2957795◦ .
180 π

1.5.2 Arclength and area of a sector

s
From the defining equation of radian measure, r
= θ, we get that

arclength s = rθ, θ in radians.

Also for area:

A
A α A
α α

If we double α, we double the area, A. Therefore, the ratio area: angle is constant, which
implies that Aα is constant. So, if we compare this ratio for a full circle and for a sector, we get:

14
 area A πr2
= = .
angle α 2π

πr2 α r2 α
Therefore, A = 2π
= 2
= 12 r2 α, where α must be in radians.

1
area A = r2 θ, θ in radians.
2
Example 1.5.3. Calculate the length of arc and the area of the sector with:

π
(a) central angle 6
and radius 3 cm.

Example 1.5.4. If the perimeter of a sector is 4 and its area is 1, find r and θ.

r s = rθ

θ
r

Note: From now on we will not put the word radian or rad. θ = 2 will automatically mean
2 radians. sin x will mean x is in radians. If the angle α is in degrees we will use the degree
symbol, that is, α◦ .

Example 1.5.5. Express r and θ in terms of A and s.

15
Example 1.5.6. A belt connects pulleys of radius r = 5cm and R = 20cm with centres
x = 30cm apart. Find the length of the belt and the area enclosed by it.

s2
l

s1 l
θ1 θ θ2

O1 x = 30 O2

1.5.3 Tutorial questions — Radian measure

D8. (a) Express in radians: 45◦ , 60◦ , 70◦ , 30◦ , 90◦ , 162◦ .
5π 7π π π
(b) Express in degrees: 4
, 3 , 10 , 18 , 2, 4, 5.

D9. Find the arc lengths and areas of the sectors with (a) angle 20◦ and radius 2 (b) angle
1
2
radian and radius 4.

D10. The total perimeter of a sector is 2. Find an expression for its area in terms of (a) its
radius (b) its angle.

D11. A belt connects pulleys of diameter 2r and 2R with √ centres x apart, as illustrated in
Figure 1.3. If r = 20 mm, R = 120 mm, and x = 100 2 mm, find the length L of the belt
and the area of the region it encloses. Find a general expression for L in terms of r, R,
x, and θ, and note that cos θ = R−r
x
.

r R-r
Θ
x

Figure 1.3: Pulleys and belt

16
T12. A cone with base radius r, vertical height h and slant height l has its curved surface slit
and flattened out into a sector with radius l and angle θ. By comparing the arc length
of this sector with the circumference of the base of the cone, show that lθ = 2πr, and
deduce, by calculating the area of the sector, that the curved surface area of the cone is
πrl.

Figure 1.4: Cone

D13. A goat is tied by a rope of length r metres to the corner of a square field with sides of
length 100 m, as shown in Figure 1.5. Find r if the goat is able to reach exactly half the
grass in the field.

100

100 Θ
100

Figure 1.5: Goats in square and circular fields

E14. Another goat is tied by a rope of length r metres to a fence post of a circular field of radius
100 m. Express r in terms of θ (see Figure 1.5), and hence find an equation involving θ
only, if the goat can also reach exactly half the grass in the field. (Hint: the upper half
of the grazed region is made up of two sectors less a triangle.) Later you will be shown
how to find an approximate solution to this equation.

17
1.5.4 Trigonometric Functions

In school you encountered three trigonometric functions of angles. Defined in terms of the
ratios of the hypotenuse, adjacent and opposite sides to the angle in a right angled triangle
these were:
opp adj opp
Definition 1.5.7. sin θ = hyp
, cos θ = hyp
and tan θ = adj
.

By placing our angle θ at the origin in a circle with radius r, we can now generalise the
trigonometric definitions to be

Definition 1.5.8.
y x y
sin θ = , cos θ = and tan θ = ,
r r x

where θ is the angle made with the positive x-axis. This is valid for all values of θ, i.e. for
all four quadrants and θ < 0 and θ > 2π.

Note: We measure positive angles in an anticlockwise and negative angles in a clockwise

direction.

Similarly we define the three reciprocal trigonometric functions.

Definition 1.5.9.
r r x
cosec θ = , sec θ = and cot θ = .
y x y

Whenever the quotients are defined we also have

1 1 1 sin θ
cosec θ = , sec θ = , cot θ = , and tan θ = .
sin θ cos θ tan θ cos θ

18
 Make sure you are able to sketch these functions as well as the transformations of the sine
and cosine functions (see Section 1.3 of Thomas’ Calculus).

Special Angles (TC pp.23–24): Since we do not use calculators in Math1042 we will gen-
erally use angles of which we can calculate the trigonometric ratios. Following is a table with
some of these special angles. A more extensive list and the method for calculating the ratios
can be found in Thomas’ Calculus, Section 1.3.

π π π π
θ 0 6 4 √3 2
1 √1 3
sin θ 0 1
√2 2 2
3 √1 1
cos θ 1 0
2 2 √2
tan θ 0 √1 1 3 undef
3

1.6 Inverse Functions (TC 1.6)

The inverse of f , denoted by f −1 undoes the effect of f .

It reverses the process.

The domain of f −1 is the range of f .

The range of f −1 is the domain of f .
1
Note : f −1 does NOT mean .
f

19
Thus for f −1 to exist, f has to be ONE-TO-ONE.

Since f −1 cancels f

(f −1 ◦ f )(x) = f −1 f (x) = x for all x ∈ Domain of f

(f ◦ f −1 )(y) = f f −1 (y) = y for all y ∈ Range of f.

Also
f −1 (a) = b if f (b) = a.

1.6.1 How to find an inverse function

Given y = f (x), find f −1 (x). Here are the steps:

• Solve the equation y = f (x) for x

i.e. Make x the subject of the formula, where x is a function of y.

x = f −1 (y).

• Interchange x and y, thus obtaining y = f −1 (x) where y depends on x.

x+2 x+2
Example 1.6.1. Let f (x) = , or y = find f −1 (x).
1 − 2x 1 − 2x

Homework: Check that f −1 f (x) = x.

Graphically f and f −1 are mirror images about the line y = x.

y = 2x − 2
5.

4.

3.

2.

1.
x
y= 2
+1

−4. −3. −2. −1. 0 1. 2. 3. 4.

−1.

−2.
y=x
−3.
x
e.g.: Let f (x) = y = + 1, then f −1 (x) = 2x − 2 (check this).
2

20
 3.
y=x
2.
y = x2
√
1. y= x

−2. −1. 0 1. 2. 3.
−1.

−2.
√
e.g.: f (x) = x2 , and f −1 (x) = x for x ∈ [0, ∞).

1.6.2 Inverse of Exponential functions are Logarithms (TC 1.5 –

1.6)

Definition 1.6.2. The logarithm function with base a, y = loga x is the inverse of the base a
exponential function y = ax .

Let y = ax , then solving for x gives:

x = loga y and hence y = loga x is the inverse of y = ax .

e.g. y = log2 x is the inverse of y = 2x

The exponential function y = ax has domain x ∈ (−∞, ∞) and range y ∈ (0, ∞), so its
inverse y = loga x has domain x ∈ (0, ∞) and range x ∈ (−∞, ∞).

x = loga y is equivalent to y = ax . So, if we write x = log2 8, we mean “what is the power

to which we should raise 2 to get 8?”, i.e. 8 = 2x .

It is very important that you are able to switch between exponential and log form easily.

21
Example 1.6.3. Let M = br and N = bs . Use the definition of log and your knowledge of the
laws of exponents to find logb (M N ) in terms of logb M and logb N .

This is an example of a log law. It basically is the equivalent of the exponential law that
says “when multiplying equal bases, we can add the exponents.”

1.6.3 Tutorial questions — Exponents and logarithms

In the expression ax the variable x is called the index or exponent, and the variable a is called
the base. If the exponent is not an integer, then the base must be positive. If y = ax then
x = loga y. Thus an index equation can be turned into a logarithm equation (by making the
index the subject of the formula), and vice versa. It follows that the laws of exponents and of
logs are different views of the same results, viz

am an = am+n ⇐⇒ loga (pq) = loga p + loga q (1.1)

(am )n = amn ⇐⇒ loga (pn ) = n loga p. (1.2)

T15. Prove the above equivalence between the laws of indices and the laws of logs. (Put p = am
and q = an . Note that a must be positive.)

D16. Rewrite without logs and hence solve for x:

1
(a) log5 ( 25 )=x (b) logx 81 = 2 (c) log2 x = − 23 .

D17. Simplify and hence solve for x:

(a) log log x − log log 3 = log 2 (b) log2 (log2 (x2 )) + log2 (log2 x) = 5.

1.6.4 Inverses of the trigonometric functions (TC 1.6)

The six basic trigonometric functions are not one-to-one. However we can restrict their domains
to intervals on which they are one-to-one.

Function Domain Range

sin x
cos x
tan x

22
Since the restricted functions are one-to-one, they have inverses which we graph and denote as
follows:

Function Domain Range

arcsin x
arccos x
arctan x

Note: We use the notation arcsin, arccos and arctan for the inverse functions of sin, cos and
tan. The textbook uses sin−1 , cos−1 and tan−1 as does your calculator, but this notation is too
easily confused with the reciprocal functions.

So, y = arcsin x is the number in [− π2 , π2 ] for which sin y = x. e.g. π

6
= arcsin 12 , since
sin π6 = 12 .
2π
Similarly, y = arccos x is the number in [0, π] for which cos y = x. e.g. 3
= arccos(− 12 )
since cos 2π
3
= − 12 .

1.7 Tutorial answers

1. (a) f (−1) = 3, f (a) = a2 − a + 1, f (x + ∆x) = x2 − x + 1 + ∆x(2x + ∆x − 1).
y+2
(b) g(y) = 3y−1
, g(3) = 85 , g(a + b) = a+b+2
3a+3b−1
, g(x + ∆x) = x+∆x+2
3(x+∆x)−1
.
(c) h( x1 ) = 1−x
, 1
1+x h(x)
= x+1
x−1
, h(−x) = x+1
x−1
.
x+2 1+x
(d) 3x−1
(same as g(x)) and 1−x
.

23
 2. 1
2
(t + t−1 , 12 (t2 + t−2 ).

3. Omitted.

4. Omitted.

5. (a) ±5 (b) −2, 4 (c) −5, 3 (d) − 23 , 5

2
(e) 1.

6. (a) −5 < x < 5 (b) −2 < x < 4 (c) −5 < x < 3 (d) − 32 < x < 5
2
(e) x > 1.

7. Even: x2 , x4 , cos x, cos3 x, sin2 x, |x|, x2 − |x|.

Odd: x3 , x − 2x3 , x + x1 , sin x, sin3 x, x − x1 .
Neither: x − x2 , 2x , x − |x|.
π π 7π π π 9π
8. (a) , , , , , .
4 3 18 6 2 10
360 ◦ 720 ◦ 900 ◦
(b) 225◦ , 420◦ , 18◦ , 10◦ , π
, π , π .
2π 2π
9. (a) s = 9
, A= 9
. (b) s = 2, A = 4.
2θ
10. (a) r(1 − r). (b) (θ+2)2
.

11. L = 10(19π + 20), A = 100(109π + 140). L = 2[rθ + x sin θ + R(π − θ)].

12. Omitted.
q
13. r = 100 π2 .

14. r = 200 cos θ. A = r2 θ + 1002 (π − 2θ) − 100r sin θ. If goat grazes half the field, then
sin 2θ − 2θ cos 2θ = π2 .

(x, y)

r
y

θ
O x

Figure 1.6: Cartesian and polar co-ordinates

15. Omitted.
1
16. (a) −2 (b) 9 (c) √
2 2
.

17. (a) 9 (b) 16.

24
Chapter 2

INTRODUCTION TO
DIFFERENTIATION (TC Ch2, Ch3 &
Ch4)

2.1 Slopes of Curves (TC 2.1 & 3.1)

Let y = mx+c be the equation of a straight line passing through the points (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ),
then the gradient of the line is m where
y2 − y1 ∆y
m= = .
x2 − x 1 ∆x

25
 b

For a curve, we define the slope at a point to be the gradient of the tangent at that point. For
this to be defined the curve must be continuous and smooth (i.e. no kink) at that point.

We need a method to find the gradient of the tangent without having to draw the curve and
the tangent.

Let P (x1 , y1 ) be a point on the curve y = f (x). We want to find the gradient at P , i.e. gradient
of the tangent to the curve at P .

Q
f (x1 + ∆x) = f (x2 )

∆y
f (x1 )
P ∆x
a

y = f (x)

x1 x2 = x1 + ∆x

dy
or f 0 (x). It is called the derivative of y or f with


We denote the gradient at x, f (x) by
dx
respect to x.

dy f (x + ∆x) − f (x)
= lim
dx ∆x→0 ∆x
where ∆x 6= 0.

This formula is called “differentiation from first principles”.

2.2 Limits and Working with Limits (TC 2.2)

Definition 2.2.1. (informal) Suppose f (x) is defined on an open interval about x0 , except
possibly at x0 itself. If f (x) is arbitrarily close to L (as close to L as we like) for all x sufficiently
close to x0 , we say that f approaches the limit L as x approaches x0 and we write:

lim f (x) = L,
x→x0

which is read “the limit of f (x) as x approaches x0 is L.”

Essentially we mean that the values of f (x) are close to the number L whenever x is close
to x0 (on either side of x0 ). Note: We don’t need to deal with the formal or precise definition
of a limit, so leave out TC 2.3.

26
Example 2.2.2. Consider the piecewise defined function:


 −2 x < 0
f (x) = x2 − 2 0 < x ≤ 2
 1
4
x+2 x>2

Note: the function is not defined at 0.

y
D

x
A

Figure 2.1

27
We can calculate limits by the following rules.

2.2.1 Limit laws

If L, M , c and k are real numbers and

lim f (x) = L and lim g(x) = M, then

x→c x→c

1. Sum and Difference Rule: lim(f (x) ± g(x)) = L ± M

x→c

2. Constant multiple rule: lim (k · f (x)) = k · L

x→c

3. Product Rule: lim(f (x) · g(x)) = L · M

x→c

4. Quotient Rule: lim f (x) = L

, M 6= 0
x→c g(x) M

5. Power Rule: lim[f (x)]n = Ln , n a positive integer

x→c
p √
6. Root Rule: lim n
f (x) = n L = L1/n , n a positive integer. If n is even we assume
x→c
lim f (x) = L > 0.
x→c

2.2.2 Limits of polynomials

If P (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a0 , then

lim P (x) = P (c) = an cn + an−1 cn−1 + · · · + a0 .

x→c

2.2.3 Limits of Rational Functions

If P (x) and Q(x) are polynomials and Q(c) 6= 0, then

P (x) P (c)
lim = .
x→c Q(x) Q(c)

Essentially what this means is that we can substitute the value that x approaches into our
expression after manipulating it, if necessary, so that we don’t end up with an expression that
is undefined.
x2 −1
Example 2.2.3. Find the limit of x−1
as x → 1. Note at x = 1 the function is undefined
since we are dividing by 0.

28
2.2.4 Limits and Continuity (TC 2.4 & 2.5)

The limit L of the function f (x) as x approaches c from the left, (where x < c), is called the
left-hand limit L at c. Similarly, the limit M of the function f (x) as x approaches c from the
right, (where x > c), is called the right-hand limit M at c. We write

lim f (x) = L and lim+ f (x) = M respectively.

x→c− x→c

Theorem 2.2.4. A function f (x) has a limit as x approaches c if and only if it has left-hand
and right-hand limits there and these are equal:

lim f (x) = L ⇐⇒ lim− f (x) = L and lim+ f (x) = L.

x→c x→c x→c

A function f is continuous if there are no “breaks” in its graph. We look at the piece-wise
defined function in Figure 2.1. We see that the function has breaks at B and at x = 2 where the
function jumps from C to D. There is no break at A. The function is said to be discontinuous
at x = 0 and x = 2 and continuous everywhere else. The following test for continuity at a point
should capture the idea of breaks in the graph intuitively.

Continuity test: A function f (x) is continuous at a point x = c if it meets the following

three conditions:

1. f (c) exists, i.e, c lies in the domain of f .

2. limx→c f (x) exists, i.e. limx→c− f (x) = limx→c+ f (x).

3. limx→c f (x) = f (c), i.e. the limit equals the function value.

If the limit at c exists but does not equal the function value, as at B in Figure 2.1, then the
discontinuity is removable, since we can remove the discontinuity by setting f (c) equal to the
limit. If limx→c− f (x) 6= limx→c+ f (x), as at x = 2 in the figure, then the limit does not exist
and this is called a jump discontinuity.

2.3 Differentiation from First Principles

dy
Example 2.3.1. Let y = 1 + 5x − x2 . Find from first principles and hence find the gradient
dx
at the point (2,7).
dy √
Example 2.3.2. Find from first principles if y = 1 − 2x .
dx

dy 1
Extra Homework : Find for y = .
dx 3 + 2x

29
2.3.1 Tutorial questions — Slopes of curves
D1. From first principles (i.e. from the definition of the derivative) find:
dy 1 √
(a) if y = x2 + x + 1 (b) y 0 if y = (c) f 0 (x) if f (x) = x2 + 1
dx x
df (t) 1
(d) if f (t) = √ .
dt 2+ t

30
2.4 Simple Rules for Differentiation (TC 3.3)

Unless we are told to differentiate from first principles, we can use shortcuts:

• The derivative of a constant c is 0 (think about the gradient of a horizontal line, which is
the graph of y = k, k ∈ R).

d df (x) dg(x)
• [f (x) + g(x)] = + .
dx dx dx
The derivative of a sum is the sum of the derivatives.

d
d 
• cf (x) = c f (x) .
dx dx

d n
• (x ) = nxn−1 , n ∈ R. (proof not asked)
dx
Example 2.4.1. Apply the simple rules to find the following derivatives:

dy
• y = x5 , =.
dx
dy
• y = 3x5 , =.
dx
dy
• y = 2x6 + 7x2 , =.
dx
√ dy
Example 2.4.2. Let y = 3 x + 7x3/2 − 4
x
= 3x1/2 + 7x3/2 − 4x−1 , find dx
.
(3x+2)2 dy
Example 2.4.3. If y = 5x
find dx
.

Example 2.4.4. A physical application.

A stone is thrown vertically upwards, t seconds later its height h in meters is given by

h = 2 + 20t − 5t2

dh dh
(a) Find , what is the physical meaning of ?
dt dt
(b) When is the stone stationary?

(c) What is the maximum height?

2.4.1 Tutorial questions — Simple rules for differentiation

D2. Use the rules for differentiation to write down the derivatives of:

(a) x4 + 2x3 − 5x + 2 with respect to x (b) y log10 2 + log10 3 with respect to y

31
 (c) 22 + 33 − 44 with respect to x 2 1 3
(e) − 2
+ + 3 with respect to x
x x x
(d) t3 − t2 + 5 with respect to t √ 1
(f) x x − √ with respect to x.
x

2.5 Differentiation of Sine and Cosine (TC 3.5)

d d
(sin x) = cos x, (cos x) = − sin x
dx dx
where x is in RADIANS.

First we need the following 2 Theorems and 2 trig. identities.

Theorem 2.5.1 (The Sandwich Theorem). Suppose that g(x) ≤ f (x) ≤ h(x) for all x on some
open interval containing c, except possibly at c itself. Suppose also that

lim g(x) = lim h(x) = L.

x→c x→c

Then limx→c f (x) = L.

Example 2.5.2. Consider the graphs of y = ±|θ|, θ = 0, y = sin θ, and y = 1 − cos θ in

Figure 2.2. We note the following two inequalities from the graphs (see TC1.3 for more detail):

−|θ| ≤ sin θ ≤ |θ| and 0 ≤ 1 − cos θ ≤ |θ|.

Figure 2.2

Using the Sandwich Theorem we can show that

lim sin θ = 0,
θ→0

and
lim cos θ = 1.
θ→0

32
Theorem 2.5.3. (TC 2.4)
sin θ
lim = 1.
θ→0 θ

Proof. Consider the following diagram on the unit circle.

y
R(1, tan θ)

P (cos θ, sin θ)

θ
x
O Q(1, 0)

Note: P is on the unit circle, so we have P (cos θ, sin θ); Q is on the x-axis at (1, 0) and R at
(1, tan θ) (check this).

Note: lim sin(nθ)

nθ
= 1.
θ→0

Proposition 2.5.4.
1 
cos A sin B = sin(A + B) − sin(A − B) (2.1)
2
C +D C −D 1
cos sin = [sin C − sin D] (2.2)
2 2 2
C +D C −D 1
sin sin = − [cos C − cos D] (2.3)
2 2 2
Theorem 2.5.5.
d
(sin x) = cos x
dx

Homework: Use equation (2.3) to prove using differentiation from 1st principles
d
(cos x) = − sin x.
dx

π dy
Example 2.5.6. If y = 3 cos x − 4 sin x + sin find .
3 dx

33
2.5.1 Tutorial questions — Differentiation of sine and cosine
D3. Find the limits as θ → 0 of
θ sec θ − 1 sin 2θ sin kθ
, θ cot θ, , , .
sin θ θ2 θ θ
(Hint: multiply top and bottom of the last one by k.)

D4. From first principles find the derivatives with respect to θ of:
(a) cos θ (b) tan θ (c) sin2 θ E (d) sin(θ2 ).

D5. Write down the derivatives of:

√
(a) − sin x + 3 cos x with respect to x,
(b) θ − sin θ + π with respect to θ.
d
T6. Show that R cos(x−α) = −R sin(x−α), where R and α are constant, by first expanding
dx
both sides, using the addition formulae for sin and cos.

34
2.6 Tangents and Normals

dy

If y = f (x), we now know is the gradient of the tangent at any point x, f (x) .
dx

Definition 2.6.1. A normal to a curve at any point on a curve is the line perpendicular to the
tangent at that point.

normal

tangent
y = f (x)

If two lines are perpendicular, the product of their gradients is −1.

gradient of normal × gradient of tangent = −1

dy
gradient of normal × = −1
dx
−1
gradient of normal = dy .
dx

Example 2.6.2. A curve has equation y = 2x3 − 3x2 − 9x + 15.

Let P be the point on the curve where x = −2.

(a) Find the y-coordinate of P .

(b) Find the gradient of the tangent to the curve at P .

(c) Find the equation of that tangent.

(d) Find the equation of the normal at P .

1
Homework: Find the equation of the tangent to the curve y = x + at the point (1, 2).
x

Example 2.6.3. Find the equation of tangent to the curve

y = x + 2 sin x
π
where 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π, at the point x = .
3
At which points are there horizontal tangents?

35
2.6.1 Tutorial questions — Tangents and normals
D7. Find the equations of the tangents and normals to the curve y = 3x − x2 at the points
where the curve cuts the x axis (i.e. x = 0 and x = 3).

D8. Find the equations of the tangents and normals to the curve y = x3 − 4x at the points
where the curve cuts the x axis. Do these tangents and normals cut the curve again?
−1
D9. Show that the slope of the normal to the curve y = x2 at the point where x = t is ,
2t
and find the equation of this normal. If the normal cuts the y axis at the point P (0, c),
show that t2 − c + 21 = 0. Deduce that if c > 12 then there are two solutions for t, and
hence two (non-vertical) normals from P to the curve, but that if c ≤ 21 then there are
no non-vertical normals. (The y axis is also a normal, for which t = 0 but the slope is
undefined.)
√
D10. (a) If α is the acute angle√between the normal to the curve y = x and the horizontal at
a general point P (a, a) on the curve, find tan α. (Hint: slope of normal = − tan α.)
(b) Also find tan β if β is the acute angle between the same normal and the line P F ,
where F is the point ( 14 , 0). (Hint: if β is the acute angle between lines with slopes
m1 and m2 , then tan β = |m 1 −m2 |
1+m1 m2
.) Hence show that the angles α and β are equal
in magnitude.
(c) Draw a sketch, including the line P F , the normal at P , and the horizontal ray ex-
tending rightwards from P, and deduce, using the laws of reflection, that a parabolic
reflector brings rays parallel to the axis of symmetry to a focus at F .
y
P
ΒΑ

x
O F

Figure 2.3: Sketch for Question 10

36
2.7 Maxima and Minima (Turning Points) (TC 4.1)

2.7.1 Absolute max/min

Definition 2.7.1. Let f be a function with domain D.

At a point where x = c in D, we have :

• an absolute maximum if f (x) ≤ f (c)

• an absolute minimum if f (x) ≥ f (c)

for all x in D.

Example 2.7.2. If y = x2 , we have

Abs Max Abs Min

D = (−∞, ∞)

D = [0, 2]
D = (0, 2]

2.7.2 Local max/min

Definition 2.7.3. Let f be a function, let C be an interior point in the domain D with x = c.
Then C is

• a local max if f (x) ≤ f (c)

• a local min if f (x) ≥ f (c)

for all x in some open interval containing C.

37
 y
M AX

M IN

At a local max/min the tangent is horizontal.

Thus
dy
= 0.
dx
These points are often called CRITICAL POINTS.
(Note : If f 0 is undefined, it is also called a critical point.)

Example 2.7.4. A curve has equation y = x3 − 3x2 − 9x + 5.

dy
Find the turning points on the curve, using a table of sign of
dx

dy
= 3x2 − 6x − 9 = 3(x2 − 2x − 3) = 3(x − 3)(x + 1)
dx

This is called the first derivative test (See TC 4.3). We look at the signs of the gradients of
the tangents on either side of the critical point.

+ − min +
−

max
0

2.8 Higher Derivatives and the 2nd Derivative Test

dy
Given y = f (x), we differentiate to obtain or f 0 (x).
dx
If we differentiate again we obtain the 2nd derivative
d2 y
 
d dy
or 2 or f 00 (x)
dx dx dx

38
 d3 y
and if we differentiate again we get or f 000 (x) or f (3) (x) . . . and so on.
dx3

ds d2 s
Example 2.8.1. If s is the displacement, is the speed and 2 is the acceleration.
dt dt

d3 y
Example 2.8.2. If y = cos x, find 3 then find the first ten derivatives.
dx
Can you find a pattern?

39
2.8.1 Second Derivative Test (TC 4.4)

This test uses the second derivative to identify the critical points. i.e., it allows us to determine
whether the critical point is a maximum or minimum without having to draw a table of signs
of the first derivative.

Suppose the point (a, f (a) is a (local) maximum on the curve y = f (x). We plot the graph
of f . We then plot the graph of the derivative f 0 (x), at x = a, f 0 (a) is clearly zero.

f (x) f 0 (x)

f (a)

a x a x

If we look at the derivative of that last graph (i.e., the second derivative) we see that at the
point where x = a, we have f 00 (a) < 0.

Thus we have a simple rule: for a local maximum point (a, f (a))

f 0 (a) = 0 and f 00 (a) < 0.

We also notice that if x < a, then f 0 (x) > 0 and if x > a, then f 0 (x) < 0. The sign of the first
derivative changes.

Similarly, for a local minimum at (a, f (a)), we have the graphs y = f (x) and y = f 0 (x) as
follows:
f (x) f 0 (x)

f (a)

a x a x

Thus we have another simple rule: for a local minimum local point (a, f (a))

f 0 (a) = 0 and f 00 (a) > 0.

40
 d2 y
Figure 2.4: If < 0, then the tangents “trace out” a local maximum.
dx2

d2 y
Figure 2.5: If > 0, then the tangents “trace out” a local minimum.
dx2

We also notice that if x < a, then f 0 (x) < 0 and if x > a, then f 0 (x) > 0. The sign of the first
derivative must change.

Note: Not all points where f 0 (a) = 0 are maximum or minimum, they can be points of
inflection. We shall see that these points occur when f 00 (x) = 0.

We can think about the Second Derivative test geometrically in the following way.

The first derivative tells us what the gradient of the curve is, i.e. “how the function is
changing”. The second derivative tells us how the first derivative is changing, i.e. “how the
tangents are changing”.
d2 y
So, if < 0 then the slopes of the tangents are decreasing over the interval, or graphically,
dx2
the “slopes are tending from positive to negative” (see figure 2.4).

d2 y
If > 0 then the slopes of the tangents are increasing over the interval, or graphically,
dx2
the “slopes are tending from negative to positive” (see figure 2.5).

41
Example 2.8.3. Use the second derivative test to identify the critical or turning points of
y = x3 − 3x2 − 9x + 5.

Example 2.8.4. Find the critical points of

√
r(θ) = 6 cos θ + 2 3 sin θ

where θ ∈ [0, 2π].

Confirm your answer by writing r(θ) in the form R cos(θ − α) as seen in algebra.

2.8.2 Tutorial questions — Higher derivatives

D11. The displacement s metres of a particle at time t seconds is given by the equation s = 30t−
5t2 . Find the velocity and acceleration at time t. What is the maximum displacement?
What is the initial velocity?
d2 sin x d4 sin x
D12. Show that = − sin x and deduce that = sin x. Find (quickly) sin(227) x.
dx2 dx4
T13. Prove by induction that the n-th derivative of xn is n!. (Hint: the (k + 1)-th derivative
is the k-th derivative of the first derivative.)

D14. A beam bending or sagging under a load satisfies the equation y (4) = kL, where y denotes
the deflection from the horizontal at a distance x from one end, L denotes the load at
that point, and k is constant. Assuming L is constant and y is a polynomial, what is the
highest degree y can have?
E Sketch the expected deflection of an equally loaded beam supported a quarter of its length
in from each end, and compare your sketch with your answer.

2.8.3 Some examples applying max/min to physical problems (TC

4.6)

Example 2.8.5. A window in the form of a rectangle measuring 2x by y is surmounted by a

semi-circle of radius x. The total perimeter is P . If P is a constant, find the values of x and y
that will maximise the area in order to give maximum light!

x x

42
Example 2.8.6. A square base box (called a cuboid) with NO LID, costs R2/cm2 for the base
and R1/cm2 for the vertical faces. The base has side x cm, and the height is y cm. If the
volume is 64cm3 , find the values of x and y that will minimize the cost of producing the box.

Example 2.8.7. A sector has an area of 1 cm2 . Find r and θ that will minimize the perimeter.

2.8.4 Tutorial questions — Maxima and minima

D15. A manufacturer wishes to produce cylindrical metal tanks (with lid) having a volume of
6 cubic metres. If the radius of the tank is r metres and the height is h metres, express h
in terms of r. The metal for the curved portion of the tank costs R20 per square metre,
while the metal for the base and lid costs R40 per square metre. Show that the total cost
in rands is 80(πr2 + 3r ), and find the dimensions and cost of the cheapest tank.
D16. Find the points on the graph xy 2 = 16 which are nearest the origin. (Hint: take a general
point (x, y) on the graph, and express its distance from the origin in terms of x alone.
Then find the value of x for which the square of the distance has a minimum value.)
D17. A box without a lid is made by cutting corners from a sheet of tin 160mm × 100mm and
folding up the edges as shown in Figure 2.6. Express the volume in terms of h only and
find the dimensions of the box of maximum volume.

2.9 Tutorial answers

1. (a) 2x + 1 (b) − x12 (c) x
(d) √ −1√ .
(x2 +1)1/2 2 t(2+ t)2

43
 Figure 2.6: Box made from a sheet of tin

√
4 3 x
2. (a) 4x3 +6x2 −5 (b) log10 2 (c) 0 (d) 3t2 −2t (e) x3
− x12 − x94 (f) 2
+ 2x1√x .
1
3. 1, 1, 2
, 2, k.

4. (a) − sin θ (b) sec2 θ (c) 2 sin θ cos θ (d) 2θ cos(θ2 ).

√
5. (a) − cos x − 3 sin x
(b) 1 − cos θ.

6. Omitted.

7. At (0, 0) tangent is y = 3x and normal is y = − 13 x.

At (3, 0) tangent is y = −3x + 9 and normal is y = 31 x − 1.

8. Tangents: y = −4x, No; y = 8x − 16, √ Yes, at x = −4; y = 8x + 16, Yes, at x = 4. √

Normals: y = 14 x, Yes, at x = ± 12 17; 8y + x − 2 = 0, Yes, at x = −1 ± 41 14;
√
8y + x + 2 = 0, Yes, at x = 1 ± 14 14.

9. Omitted.
√ √
4 a √
10. tan α = 2 a, slope of P F is 4a−1
, tan β = 2 a.

11. v = ds
dt
= 30 − 10t, acceleration = dv
dt
= −10, maximum displacement = 45 m, initial
velocity = 30 ms−1 .
d3
12. − cos x = dx3
sin x, since 227 = 56 × 4 + 3.

13. Omitted.

14. Degree four.

6 3 1/3
15. h = πr2
, r = ( 2π ) , h = π6 ( 2π
3
)2/3 , C = 360( 2π
3
)1/3 .
√
16. (2, ±2 2).

17. h = 20, w = 60, l = 120.

44
Chapter 3

DIFFERENTIATION COMPLETED:
TC Ch3

We have other rules to cope with more complicated expressions.

3.1 The Product Rule (TC 3.3)

Proposition 3.1.1. Let u and v be functions of x, then

d dv du
(uv) = u + v
dx dx dx
dy
Example 3.1.2. y = x2 sin x =
dx
Example 3.1.3. y = sin(2x)
Example 3.1.4. y = (x3 + 3x) sin x
Example 3.1.5. y = uvw
Example 3.1.6. y = x2 (x + 1) cos x
Example 3.1.7. An application problem:

A shelf has to be put on the inside of a cupboard door. The sides of the shelf are straight with
OB = OA; this allows the door to open. (A corner must be cut off.)

C B

shelf cut of f
a

θ a
O door A

Let OA = OB = a (fixed)
Find the angle θ = AOB that gives a max area for the shelf.

45
3.2 The Quotient Rule (TC 3.3)

Proposition 3.2.1. Let u and v be functions of x, then

du dv
d  u  v dx − u dx
=
dx v v2
1−3x2
Example 3.2.2. y = 5x4 +2

cos t
Example 3.2.3. y = sin t−t2

Example 3.2.4. y = tan x

TUT: Find and learn the derivatives of cot x, sec x, cosec x. (TC 3.5)

x+4
Example 3.2.5. Find the max/min values of f (x) = .
x2 + 9

3.2.1 Tutorial questions — Product and quotient rules

D1. Differentiate:
2 1
(a) x cos x (c) (e) (g) x sec x
x2
+1 1 + sin x
2
x −1 cosec x
(b) x2 sin x (d) (f)
x2 + 1 tan x

and

(h) use the double angle formulae to differentiate sin 2x and cos 2x.

D2. A rectangle is drawn in the first quadrant with two sides on the co-ordinate axes and one
corner on the curve y = cos x, where 0 ≤ x ≤ π2 .

(a) Find an expression for the area A of the rectangle in terms of x.

dA
(b) By putting dx
= 0, show that the area will be a maximum (or a minimum) when
x = cot x.
(c) Find an approximate solution of this equation.
(d) By considering the sign of the first derivative, prove that the area is a maximum.
√
(e) Show that the maximum area can be expressed as x2 / x2 + 1 for this value of x.

D3. A cone is drawn inside a sphere of radius 1 as shown in Figure 3.1. Express the volume
V of the cone in terms of θ, and find the dimensions of the cone of maximum volume.
Check that it is a maximum. What proportion of the sphere does the cone of maximum
volume occupy?

46
 1

Θ 1

Figure 3.1: Cone inside sphere

3.3 The Chain Rule (TC 3.6)

Example 3.3.1. y = (x3 + 1)2 = x6 + 2x3 + 1 We can differentiate as usual, or use the
composition of functions.


Proposition 3.3.2. If y = f (u) where u = g(x), and hence y = f g(x) , then

dy dy du
= · .
dx du dx

The structure u means y is a function of u and u is a function of x (this structure is also

x
called a dependency diagram).
−2
Example 3.3.3. y = (1 − 3x2 ) = u−2 where u = 1 − 3x2
4
Example 3.3.4. Usually we omit writing it as a function of u. y = (sinx + x3 )

Example 3.3.5. Q1-11 Find derivatives for the following:

1. y = sin(2x) 2. y = sin2 x 3. y = sin(x2 )

1 (x2 + 1)2
4. y = (2x + 5)10 5. y = (1−3x2 )2
6. y =
(x3 − 1)3
r
3x2 + 1 √
7. y = sin(3x + 7) 8. y = 9. y = tan3 x
sinx
 45
√

3 − 32
10. y = cosx 11. y = x + 5x

Example 3.3.6. y = cosec x = (sin x)−1

5
Example 3.3.7. y = sin5 (3x + 2) = sin(3x + 2)


47
 Try y = sec2 (5x) if you want.

dy 1
Note: = dx .
dx dy

x+2
Example 3.3.8. y = x−1

3.3.1 Higher Derivatives (TC 3.3)

Example 3.3.9. Find a formula for the nth derivative of

i) y = (3 − 2x)1/2 ii) y = (1 + 2x)100

For this we find the first, 2nd, 3rd and 4th derivative and get a pattern from which we obtain
the nth derivative.

3.3.2 Implicit Differentiation (TC 3.7)

The differentiation performed so far were on explicit functions, where one variable was ex-
pressed in terms of the others, i.e.
y = f (x).
Expressions such as

x2 + y 2 = 1
sin x + 2xy = cos(xy)

are implicit.

We can sometimes change an implicit relation to an explicit relation (by makingy subject of
dy
formula); but usually this is not possible. In order to find , we need to peform an “implicit
dx
differentiation”.
dy
Example 3.3.10. Suppose x2 + y 2 = 1, then find .
dx
dy
Here can be found in terms of x and y.
dx
dy
We do NOT write = . . . . We differentiate each term in x2 + y 2 = 1 with respect to x. NOT
dx
forgetting the CHAIN RULE when differentiating y 2 with respect to x.
dy
Example 3.3.11. Q1-6 Use implicit differentiation to find dx
.

1. x2 + y 2 = 9 ⇒.

2. 3 + y 3 + x2 − y = 2 ⇒

3. xy = y 2 ⇒

48
 dy
4. If 3xy 3 + x2 − y = 2, find .
dx
y
5. tan = x2 + y 3
x
π
6 Let x sin y + y sin x =
2
 
π 5π
6.a Show that the point , lies on the curve.
6 6
 
π 5π
6.b Hence find the equation of the tangent at , .
6 6

3.3.3 Tutorial questions — The chain rule

D4. Differentiate the following functions with respect to x:
√ 1
(a) x3 + 1 (c) (e) cos3 4x (g) sin 2x cos 3x
(x2 − x + 1)4
(b) (x3 + 3x − 1)9 (d) sin2 x (f) sec3 x (h) sin(x2 ).

D5. A piston is connected to a crank of radius 1 by a connecting rod of length l as shown in

Figure 3.2 overleaf.

(a) Express the co-ordinates of Q in terms of θ and use the distance formula for |P Q|2
to show that p
y = cos θ − l + l2 − sin2 θ.
(b) Show that if l is very large, then y ≈ cos θ.
(c) Draw
p the (theoretical) graph of y against θ for 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π if l = 1. (Hint:
1 − sin2 θ = | cos θ| not just cos θ. Why?)
2 2
(d) Find dydθ
and ddθy2 . Compare the magnitudes of the values of ddθy2 at θ = 0 and θ = π.
It follows that the tensile force on the connecting rod at top dead centre at constant
angular velocity is greater in magnitude than the compressive force at bottom dead
centre.

D6. Find y 0 in terms of x and y by implicit differentiation if:

√
(a) x2 y + xy −2 = 2 (c) xy + x+y =1
(b) sec x tan y + sin x cos y = 1 (d) sin(x + 2y) = cos(2x − y).

In (d) solve the trigonometric equation, express y in terms of x, and then find y 0 explicitly.
Do your answers agree?

49
 Figure 3.2: Piston in cylinder

3.4 Derivatives of Other Basic Functions (TC 3.3 & 3.8)

3.4.1 The exponential function y = ex .

Consider the gradient of f (x) = ax at x = 0.

dy ax+∆x − ax
= lim , so at x = 0 we have
dx ∆x→0 ∆x

dy a∆x − 1
= lim .
dx ∆x→0 ∆x

Let’s look at various values for a, when ∆x → 0 for ∆x = 0, 0001

a 1 1.5 2 ? 3 3.5
a∆x −1
∆x
0 0.40 0.69 1 1.10 1.25

We predict there is a value for a between 2 and 3 such that

a∆x − 1
lim = 1.
∆x→0 ∆x
This value for a is called e, where e = 2, 718281828 . . . .

The function y = ex is called the exponential function

Increasing function through (0, 1).

50
x → ∞, ex → ∞
x → −∞, ex → 0 .
ex > 0

Another (equivalent) definition for e (see TC 3.8) is

 n
1
lim 1 + =e
n→∞ n

Example 3.4.1.
1 1


n = 1 1+ 1
= 2
1 10


n = 10 1 + 10 = 2, 59374246
1 100


n = 100 1 + 100 = 2, 704813829
1

1000
n = 1000 1 + 1000 = 2, 716923932
n = 10000 2, 718145927
n = 100000 2, 718268237
n = 1000000 2, 718280469
 a n
and lim 1+ = ea .
n→∞ n

Theorem 3.4.2.
d x
(e ) = ex .
dx

Proof.

Example 3.4.3. Q1-8: Find the derivatives of the following:

51
 1. y = e2x 2. y = xe 3. y = e−x

ex
4. y = etanx 5. y = 6. y = 21 (ex − e−x )
1 + ex

ex − e−x
7. y = 12 (ex + e−x ) 8. y =
ex + e−x

3.4.2 The Natural logarithm y = ln x.

LOGARITHMS to base e are called natural logs denoted by either loge or ln.

y = loga x has inverse y = ax

loga x = y ⇐⇒ ay = x

log is a 1 − 1 function, m = n ⇐⇒ loga m = loga n.

Properties of logarithms (to learn) (TC 1.6):

• loga (xy ) = y loga x

• loga a = 1
• loga (xy) = loga x + loga y
• loga (x/y) = loga x − loga y
• aloga x = x (proof below)
logb x
• loga x = (change of base)
logb a

Proof. Let y = aloga x

52
3.4.3 Derivative of y = ax

y = ax
Recall a = eln a , so that
x
y = eln a = ex ln a

Example 3.4.4. Find the derivatives of the following:

9. y = 25x 10. y = 3x + e2x + x3 + 53x + x2e + 44e

3.4.4 Derivative of y = ln x

y = ln |x| ⇒ ey = x

3.4.5 Derivative of loga |x|

d


Example 3.4.5. dx
ln(x2 + 1)

Example 3.4.6. Find the derivatives of the following:

11. y = x ln |x| 12. y = log10 (3x + 4)

13. Find the domain of y = ln(3x2 − 2x − 1), then find y 0 .

14. y = ln(1 − 2x)2 15. y = ln[(x2 + 1)(5x − 6)] 16. y = ln(sin x + cos x)

3.4.6 Logarithmic Differentiation

Suppose we have a complicated expression involving products, powers, such as

(x − 1)4 (3x + 2)3/2

y= or y = (2x)sin x
(x + 4)6

dy
and we need to find . We perform a “logarithmic differentiation” as follows:
dx

• TAKE logs on both sides (preferably ln)

• SIMPLIFY, using log rules

• Differentiate implicitly with respect to x.

• Multiply by y, and substitute original expression for y.

Example 3.4.7. y = (2x)sin x

53
 dy
Example 3.4.8. Use logarithmic differentiation to find dx
:

1. y = xx

2. y = xtanx

r
3x2 + 1
3. y =
sinx
√
(x + 2)3 2x − 1
4. y =
(5x − 2)10

5. Find the equation of the tangents at x = 2 for the curve xy = y x (Note: there are 2
points (2,2) and (2,4)).

3.4.7 Inverse Trigonometric Derivatives (TC 3.9)

3.4.8 Derivative of y = arcsin x

y = arcsin x
 
−π π
sin y = x y∈ , .
2 2

d √ 1
dx
(arcsin x) = 1−x2

d −1
Extra TUT: Show that (arccos x) = √ .
dx 1 − x2

3.4.9 Derivative of y = arctan x

y = arctan x

 
−π π
tan y = x y∈ , .
2 2
d 1
(arctan x) = .
dx 1 + x2

Example 3.4.9. y = arcsin(2x) and y = (arctan x)2

dy
Example 3.4.10. Find dx
for the inverse Trig. functions.

54
  
arctan x
p 2x + 1
1. y = e 2. y = arcsin(3x) 3. y = arctan
x−1
 
cos x
4. y = arcsin 5. y = (arcsin(2x)) ln(3x)
1 + sin x

x


Example 3.4.11. y = arctan a

3.4.10 Tutorial questions — Derivatives of other basic functions

D7. (a) By taking ∆x = 0, 00001 (or a value nearer zero) use your calculator to verify the
a∆x − 1 e∆x − 1
values of lim given in the table. Similarly verify that lim = 1.
∆x→0 ∆x ∆x→0 ∆x
a∆x − 1
(b) Verify that lim = ln a for the same values of a, by calculating the right
∆x→0 ∆x
hand side, and estimating the left hand side, using ∆x = 0, 00001 again.
(c) By differentiating ax from first principles and also by the formula, prove that the
result in (b) is true for all positive values of a.
dy
D8. Find dx
if:

(a) y = xex (d) y = (e) x 2y + y 2x = 4 (g) y = 12 (ex + e−x )

−x
e + sin 2x √
(b) y = e−x sec 4x e−x − cos 3x (f) x = 1 + e2y (h) y = 12 (ex −e−x ).
2
(c) y = e−x

The last two are called hyperbolic functions (see Algebra Chapter 4). Notice that each
is the derivative of the other.

T9. The temperature T of a liquid at time t is given by T = Ae−kt degrees above the ambient
(i.e. surrounding) temperature. Find dT
dt
and show that it is proportional to T . (This is
Newton’s Law of Cooling.)
dy
D10. Find dx
if:
 1/2
(a) y = x ln x 1 − cos x
(g) y = ln (first simplify)
ln 2x 1 + cos x
(b) y =
sin 3x (h) y = ln(ln x)
(c) y = ln(x2 + 1) (i) y = (ln x)2 + ln(x2 )
(d) y = ln(cosec x − cot x) (j) y = log2 x + logx 2 (first express y in
(e) x ln 2y + y ln 3x = 1 terms of logs to base e).
(f) y = ln(sec x) − sec(ln x)

dy
D11. Find dx
if:

(a) y = x arcsin x arctan 2x

(b) y =
ln 5x

55
 (c) y = arcsin(cos 3x) (e) arctan( xy ) = π
4
(explain!)
(d) y = arctan x + arctan( x1 ) (explain!) (f) y = arcsin(e−x ).

T12. In order to differentiate y = uv , where u and v are both functions of x, one can first take
natural logarithms of both sides (ln y = v ln u) and then differentiate implicitly. This
technique, called logarithmic differentiation, is also useful for complicated products
and quotients, because of the laws of logarithms.

(a) Use logarithmic differentiation to differentiate:

(i) xsin x
(ii) (sec x)cot x
−x
(iii) (arctan x)e
(iv) (ln 2x)ln 3x
(v) (x2 + x + 1)(x4 + 1)(x2 + 1)
(vi) (x2 + 1)1/2 (x4 + 1)1/4 (x6 + 1)1/6 .
(b) Find, but do not learn, formulae for the derivatives of uv and u1 u2 u3 u4 . . . un .
(c) Find the equations of the tangent and normal to the curve xy = y x at the point
(2, 4).

E13. Prove by induction that if u and v are functions of x, then

n  
dn (uv) X n dr u dn−r v
= .
dxn r=0
r dx r dxn−r

This formula is called Leibniz’ formula for the nth derivative of a product. It is easy to
remember, because it is similar to the binomial theorem. Use it to find the 4th derivative
of e−x sin x and the 6th derivative of x6 ex .

56
3.5 First Approximations (TC 3.11)

Suppose that the point P (x, y) is a point on the curve y = f (x), where both its coordinates
values are known.
√ √
eg. Let y = 3 x , we know that for x = 8, y = 2 because 3 8 = 2.

Also suppose that we have another point whose x coordinate is x + ∆x, for small ∆x. i.e. it is
close to our known point) and we wish to find an approximation to it’s y value.
√ √
eg. we wish to approximate 3 9 = 3 8 + 1
here ∆x = 1 (considered “small”).

In general: P (x, y) = x, f (x)
a change ∆x in x will produce a change y in ∆y



Q x + ∆x, y + ∆y = x + ∆x, f (x + ∆x)

We draw the tangent of the curve at P .

Let R be the point on the tangent with x coordinates x + ∆x.
If ∆x is small, slope of secant P Q ≈ slope of tangent

57
 ∆y dy
∆x
≈ dx
= f 0 (x)

∴ ∆y ≈ ∆xf 0 (x) (3.1)

where ∆y = f (x + ∆x) − f (x)

∆y = f (x + ∆x) − f (x) ≈ ∆xf 0 (x)

f (x + ∆x) ≈ f (x) + ∆xf 0 (x)

NOTE: these formulas work if ∆x < 0, i.e. Q is to the left of P .

√
3
√
eg. 9 =? Let y = 3
x
√3


Known value √ 8 at (8, 2) = x, f (x)

3
Unknown value 9 at (8 + 1, ?) = x + ∆x, f (x + ∆x))
√
x = 8, ∆x = 1, f (x) = 3 x , f 0 (x) = 13 x−2/3
√ √ 1
9 ≈ 8 + 1 · 8−2/3
3 3
∴ f (x + ∆x) =
3
1 −2 1 1
= 2+ 2 =2+
3 3 4
1
= 2+ = 2.083 (exact = 2.080083823)
12

Example 3.5.1. Find a first approximation to 2171/3 .

Example 3.5.2. ln(1.1) =?

Example 3.5.3. cos 1 =?

Example 3.5.4. A belt connects pulleys of diameter 2r and 2R with centres x apart, as
illustrated in the figure below (similar diagram discussed in Chapter 1).

(a) Show that the length of the belt (`) is given by the following expression:
` = 2[Rπ − (R − r)θ + x sin θ]

(b) if the pulleys are moved apart (x is increased) show that the change in the length of the
belt is given by:
d`
= 2 sin θ
dx
Note: θ is a function of x, while R, r and π are constants.
(c) Given that R = 15 and r = 5 and x is increase from 26 to 26, 13; find a first approximation
of the related change in the length of the belt.

58
 y s2

s1 y
θ1 r π−θ
θ
O1 x O2

Example 3.5.5. Find a first approximation to tan 0,7.

Example 3.5.6. Estimate the change in volume in a cube when the side changes from 1cm to
1.3cm.

Example 3.5.7. A cylinder of fixed height 8cm, has its radius increasing from 2cm to 2,5cm.
Find a first approximations to the change of its surface area (including its 2 lids).

3.5.1 Tutorial questions — First approximations

D14. A spherical soap bubble has internal radius of 50 mm and thickness 0, 1 mm. Find the
approximate volume of soap solution required. Use your calculator to find the exact
volume, and compare your answers.

D15. Find first approximations to:

(a) 821/4 (b) arctan(1, 01) (c) ln(0, 9) (d) arcsin(0, 45).
Compare your approximations with the values obtained by using your calculator.
√ √
D16. (a) Find a first approximation to 1 + ∆x if ∆x is small. (Hint: let f (x) = 1 + x
near x = 0.)
(b) By putting ∆x = − sin2 θ/l2 , show that a first approximation to the piston position
in Question 5 above is y = cos θ − (sin2 θ)/2l.
2
(c) Compare the approximate values of ddθy2 at θ = 0 and θ = π obtained from this
formula with the exact values obtained previously.

D17. In some cars the fan belt is adjusted by effectively increasing the radius r of one pulley,
while keeping the other radius R and the distance x between the pulleys constant.

(a) Using the formula L = 2{x sin θ+rθ+R(π−θ)} (see Calculus Chapter 1 Question 11),
find dL
dr
in terms of dθ
dr
. (You will need the product and chain rules, because θ is not
constant.)

59
 (b) Find dθ
dr
by implicitly differentiating the expression cos θ = (R − r)/x, and hence
show that dL
dr
= 2θ.
(c) Find the approximate increase in length if R = 120, x = 160, and r is increased from
40 to 41. (All dimensions are in mm.)

3.5.2 Tutorial questions — Assorted examples on differentiation

dy
D18. Find dx
if
√
(a) y = x2 sin x e2x (q) y = 2 arctan( x)
(j) √ √
(b) y = x sin(x2 ) 1 + 3x 2 x
(k) y = arctan(e−x ) (r) y = arcsin( )
(c) y = earcsin x 1+x
(l) y = arcsin((1 + (s) y = ln | cosec x − cot x|
(d) y = arcsin(ex ) 2x −1/2
e ) ) (t) y = − ln | cosec x +
(e) y = arctan(x4 ) ln x
(m) y = x cot x|
(f) y = (arctan x)4 1 + cos x
(n) y = (ln x)x
(g) ln(x + y) = e xy (u) y = 21 ln
x2 y 2 1 − cos x
(h) ln(xy) = e x+y (o) + 2 =1
a2 b (v) y = ln cot( 12 x)
√ 2
3x x y2 1 + tan x
(i) (p) 2 − 2 = 1 (w) y = arctan( ).
1 + e2x a b 1 − tan x
d y 2
D19. Find dx 2 if

(a) y = cos 2x (b) y = (1 − 2x)1/3 (c) y = ln(1 + 21 x).

dy
E20. If y = arcsin(sin x), find dx (the answer is not always 1), and hence sketch the graph
y = arcsin(sin x) for x between −2π and 2π. (Remember that arcsin always lies between
− π2 and π2 .) Is the graph continuous? Is it smooth?

3.6 Tutorial answers

1. (a) cos x − x sin x (b) 2x sin x + x2 cos x (c) (x−4x
2 +1)2 (d) (x24x
+1)2
− cos x
(e) (1+sin x)2
2 2
(f) − cosec x(cot x + cosec x) (g) sec x(1 + x tan x) (h) 2 cos 2x, −2 sin 2x.

2. (a) A = x cos x (b) dA

dx
= cos x − x sin x (c) x ≈ 0, 86033359.
(For Picard, rewrite as x = arctan( x1 ).)
32π 8
3. r = sin θ, h = 1 + cos θ, maximum volume = 81
= 27
of sphere.
2
4. (a) 2√3x
x3 +1
(b) 27(x2 +1)(x3 +3x−1)8 (c) (x−4(2x−1)
2 −x+1)5 (d) sin 2x (e) −12 cos2 4x sin 4x
(f) 3 sec3 x tan x (g) 2 cos 2x cos 3x − 3 sin 2x sin 3x (h) 2x cos(x2 ).
dy
5. dθ
= − sin θ − √sin2θ cos 2θ .
l −sin θ
d2 y
At θ = 0, dθ2
= −1 − 1l .
d2 y
At θ = π, dθ2
= 1 − 1l .

60
 √
2xy+y −2 −2y x+y−1
6. (a) 2xy −3 −x2
(b) − secsecx xtan x tan y−cos x cos y
sec2 y−sin x sin y
(c) √
2x x+y+1
2 sin(2x−y)+cos(x+2y)
(d) sin(2x−y)−2 cos(x+2y)
(which = −3 or 13 ).

7. Omitted.
2
8. (a) ex + xex (b) e−x sec 4x(4 tan 4x − 1) (c) −2xe−x
−x −x −x x ln 2−2y √
(d) −ee−x −cos
+2 cos 2x
3x
− (e +sin 2x)(−e +3 sin 3x)
(e−x −cos 3x)2
(e) −y2
x2y ln 2+2x
(f) e−2y 1 + e2y
(g) 12 (ex − e−x ) (h) 21 (ex + e−x ).

9. dT
dt
= −kAe−kt = −kT .

10. (a) ln x + 1 (b) sin 3x−3x cos 3x ln 2x

x sin2 3x
(c) x22x+1 (d) cosec x (e) −y(x ln 2y+y)
x(y ln 3x+x)
(f) tan x− x1 sec(ln x) tan(ln x) (g) cosec x (h) x ln1 x (i) x2 (ln x+1) (j) x ln1 2 − x(ln
ln 2
x)2
.

√ x 2 arctan 2x −3 sin 3x
11. (a) arcsin x + 1−x2
(b) ln 5x(1+4x2 )
− x(ln 5x)2
(c) | sin 3x|
= ∓3 (d) 0 (e) 1
−x
(f) √ −e .
1−e−2x

sin x
12. (a) (i) xsin x (cos x ln x h+ x
) (ii) (sec x)cot x (1 − (cosec
i
2
x)(ln sec x))
−x −x
(iii) (arctan x)e e
(1+x2 ) arctan x
− e−x ln(arctan x)
(iv) (ln 2x)ln 3x x1 ln(ln 2x) + ln 3x
 
ln 2x h i
4x3
(v) (x2 + x + 1)(x4 + 1)(x2 + 1) x22x+1 +x+1
+ x4 +1
+ 2x
x2 +1
h i
2 1/2 4 1/4 6 1/6 x x3 x5
(vi) (x + 1) (x + 1) (x + 1) x2 +1
+ x4 +1
+ x6 +1
.
h 0 i
v 0 v−1 0 u1 u02 u0n
(b) (i) u (ln u)v + vu u (ii) u1 u2 . . . un u1
+ u2
+ ··· + un
.
dy y 2 (1−ln x) y−4 4(1−ln 2) y−4 1−2 ln 2
(c) dx
= x2 (1−ln y)
. Tangent is x−2
= 1−2 ln 2
. Normal is x−2
= − 4(1−ln 2)
.

13. −4e−x sin x, ex (x6 + 6(6x5 ) + 15(30x4 ) + 20(120x3 ) + 15(360x2 ) + 6(720x) + 720).

14. 103 π.

15. (a) 3, 0092 (b) 0, 7904 (c) −0, 1 (d) 0, 4661.

√
16. 1 + ∆x ≈ 1 + 21 ∆x.
2π
17. ∆L = 3
.
arcsin x
e√ ex
18. (a) x(2 sin x + x cos x) (b) sin(x2 ) + 2x2 cos(x2 ) 1−x2
(d) √1−e(c)
2x
4x3 4(arctan x)3 y(x+y)exy −1 y(xex+y −1)
(e) 1+x8 (f) 1+x2 (g) 1−x(x+y)exy (h) x(1−yex+y )
√ √ √ √
3(1+e2x −4xe2x ) e2x (4 x+4 3x− 3) −1 −1
(i) 2√x(1+e2x )2 (j) √ √
2 x(1+ 3x)2
(k) ex +e−x (l) ex +e −x

1 b2 x 2
(p) ab 2xy 1
ln x−1 x
 
(m) 2x ln x (n) (ln x) ln(ln x) + ln x (o) − a2 y (q) √x(1+x)
1
(r) √x(1+x) (s) cosec x (t) cosec x (u) − cosec x (v) − cosec x (w) 1.

19. (a) −4 cos 2x (b) − 98 (1 − 2x)−5/3 (c) − 14 (1 + 12 x)−2 .

61
 dy
20. dx
= √ cos x 2 = cos x
| cos x|
= ±1. Graph is continuous but not smooth.
1−sin x

62
Chapter 4

INTEGRATION: TC Ch4.8 & Ch5

4.1 The Indefinite integral or antiderivative (TC 4.8)

Think of a function F (x) whose derivative f (x) is 3x2 ? It could be x3 , x3 + 4, x3 − 5 etc. The
answer is NOT unique.

F (x) = x3 + c where c is any constant works.

The inverse of differentiation is called integration and we write

Z
3x2 dx = x3 + c.

In general Z
f (x)dx = F (x) + c

where
F 0 (x) = f (x)
c is called the constant of integration and f (x) the integrand.

We say the integral of f (x) is F (x) + c.

R
Example 4.1.1. 3x2 dx

In general
xn+1
Z
xn dx = + c, n 6= −1,
n+1
xn+1 xn
 
d
since +c = (n + 1) + 0 = xn .
dx n+1 n+1
Example 4.1.2. Thus we have

R
1. (4x3 + 7x2 − x + 5)dx
R√ R
2. x dx = x1/2 dx

63
Example 4.1.3. Recall the derivatives of the trigonometric functions, exponential and loga-
rithmic functions and the inverses of the trigonometric functions.

R
1. cos xdx.
R
2. sec2 xdx.
R
3. ex dx
R 1
4. dx
x
R 1
5. dx
1 + x2
R 1
6. √ dx
1 − x2
Example 4.1.4. YOU OFTEN NEED TO CANCEL THE EFFECT OF THE CHAIN RULE:

R
1. (3x + 1)5 dx
R
2. sin 2x dx
R
3. e4x dx
R
4. 3x dx
R
5. (3 cos x − 5 sec2 x) dx
R dx
6.
1 + 4x2

4.1.1 Fundamental principles of integration

1. If F (x) and G(x) are both integrals of the same function f (x) then F (x) = G(x) + c.
That is, Z
If f (x)dx = F (x) or G(x) then they differ by a constant.

2. If a and b are constants then

Z Z Z
(af (x) + bg(x))dx = a f (x)dx + b g(x)dx.

This should be clear from the rules of differentiation and the fact that differentiation and
integration are inverse operations.

64
 3. Some rules (Verify them for yourself by differentiating the RHS in each case to get the
integrand on the LHS):
Z
xn dx
Z
sin(ax)dx
Z
cos(bx)dx
Z
(ax + b)n dx
Z 0
f (x)
dx
f (x)
Z
eax dx

See Table 4.3 in TC section 4.8 for the Antiderivative linearity rules. Also Table 4.2 (TC
4.8) for a summary of integrals of common functions.

Example 4.1.5. (See the sections on Initial Value Problems and Antiderivatives and Motion
(TC 4.8) for more detail): A body moves under constant acceleration a. After time t, its
displacement from a fixed point 0 is S. If initially it starts at 0 with speed u, find its velocity
and displacement after time t.
1
Example 4.1.6. Show, (a) that F (x) = cos 2x and G(x) = cos2 x are both integrals of the
2
same function and (b), verify that they differ by a constant.

Example 4.1.7. More examples

1
R
1. (x−1)2
dx
1
R
2. x2 −2x+2
dx
x
R
3. x2 +1
dx
R
4. tan x dx

All the integrals that we have found so far involved c, the constant of integration. These inte-
grals were called INDEFINITE INTEGRALS (See the definition in TC 4.8 relating Indefinite
Integrals and Antiderivatives).

4.1.2 Tutorial questions — Fundamental principles

D1. Integrate with respect to x by inspection (i.e. find by trial and error a function f (x) such
d
that dx f (x) = the given function).

65
 (a) cos x (g) −x + sin 3x 1
(l)
3x + 2
(b) sec x tan x (h) 1 − cos 2x
(m) cos(5x − 4)
2
(c) 3x (i) 2x
(n) (3x + 1)10
3 1 2
(d) √ (j) 6
+ (o) sec2 (2x − 5)
1 − x2 x 1 + 4x2
1 1 (p) (4 − 9x)−1/2
(e) (k) + cosec 2x cot 2x
2
x +1 2x (q) (1 − 9x2 )−1/2
(f) cosec2 x (r) (x2 + 2x + 2)−1 .

D2. (a) Show that the functions − arctan( x1 ) and 12 arctan( 1−x
2x
2 ) are both integrals of the

same function (by showing that they have the same derivative). Calculate their
difference for various values of x between 0 and 1 to verify that they differ by a
constant. (This is no longer true if you go beyond 0 or 1.)
(b) Repeat part (a) with the functions 8 cos4 x and 4 cos 2x + cos 4x. (Here the difference
is constant for all values of x.)

D3. At time t a particle has acceleration 12 +sin t in some

R units. Find general expressions for its
velocity
R and displacement. (Hint: Velocity = Acceleration dTime and Displacement =
Velocity dTime.) Find the exact expressions (i.e. evaluate the two arbitrary constants)
if

(a) at time t = 0 the particle is at rest at the origin,

(b) at time t = 0 the particle has velocity 1 and at time t = 2 it has displacement 5.

4.2 Area as the Limit of a Sum (TC 5.1 & 5.2)

Suppose we wish to find the area of the region between the graph y = f (x) and the x-axis from
x = a to x = b.

b−a
We use n rectangles of equal width, denoted by ∆x = n
.
The interval [a, b] is divided up as follows:

x0 , x1 , x2 , x3 , . . . , xn where x0 = a and xn = b

Suppose we put the top right corners on the curve.

66
The height of the n rectangles are therefore:

f (x1 ), f (x2 ), . . . , f (xn ) or f (a + ∆x), f (a + 2∆x), f (a + 3∆x), . . . , f (a + n∆x).

Hence
n n
X b−aX  b − a
Total area of the n rectangles = ∆x f (a + i∆x) = f a+i .
i=1
n i=1 n

n
b−aX  b − a
Area = lim f a+i
n→∞ n i=1 n

This formula is called “A Riemann sum”.

Example 4.2.1. Find the area between the graph y = −x2 + 5 and the x-axis from x = 0 to
x = 2.

TUTORIAL:

1. Find the area using the limit of a sum (a Riemann sum) of the region between the graph of
y = f (x) and the x-axis from x = a to x = b for the following:

(a) f (x) = x3 , a = 0, b = 3,

(b) f (x) = 4 − x2 , a = 1, b = 2,

(c) f (x) = 2x − x3 , a = 0, b = 1,

(d) f (x) = 1 − x2 , a = −1, b = 1,

(e) f (x) = 1 + x + x2 + x3 , a = 0, b = 1.

Answers: 1. (a) 81/4, (b) 5/3, (c) 3/4, (d) 4/3, (e) 25/12.

67
4.2.1 Tutorial questions — Integral as the limit of a sum
D4. By splitting the integral into n strips of equal width, then letting n → ∞, use the
idea of an integral as the limit of a sum to find the area enclosed between the curve
y = 1 + x + x2 + x3 , the x axis, and the lines x = 0 and x = 1. (Hint: use summation
formulae from Algebra Chapter 3.) Check your answer by integrating in the normal way.
D5. Use the method of Question 4 to verify the formula for the volume of a cone of height
h and base radius r. (Hint: rotate the line y = rx
h
between the points where x = 0 and
x = h about the x axis. See Algebra Chapter 3 Question ??.)
R1
D6. (i) Evaluate 0 2x dx by normal integration.
(ii) Approximate the integral by a sum, using n strips of equal width, and evaluate the
sum. (Hint: it is a geometric series.)
1 2h − 1
(iii) By taking the limit of the sum, and letting h = , deduce that lim = ln 2.
n h→0 h
R2
D7. (a) Evaluate 1
x−1 dx in the normal way.
(b) Approximate the integral by a sum, using n strips of equal width.
(c) Deduce from (a) and (b) that
2n
X 1
lim = ln 2.
n→∞
j=n+1
j

(This sum cannot be expressed exactly in terms of n. If you can use a computer or
programmable calculator, evaluate the sum for n = 100 or 1000 and compare it with
the right hand side.)

4.3 The Definite Integral (TC 5.3)

We define the definite integral J of a function f on the interval [a, b] as follows:

n   n
X b−a X
J = lim f (xi ) = lim f (xi )∆x
n→∞
i=1
n n→∞
i=1

and introduce the following symbol:

n
X Z b
lim f (xi )∆x = f (x)dx
n→∞ a
i=1
R
where is the integral sign, a and b are respectively the lower and upper limits of integration,
Rb
f (x) is the integrand and dx tells us that x is the variable of integration. We say a f (x)dx
is the integral of f from a to b and when you find the value of the Riemann Sum you have
evaluated the integral.

Hence, if f is continuous and non-negative on the interval [a, b], then the area of the region
bounded by the graph of y = f (x), the x-axis and the lines x = a and x = b is given by
Z b
Area = f (x)dx.
a

68
4.3.1 Some properties of the Definite Integral

If we think about the definition of the definite integral as the Riemann Sum, then the following
properties should make intuitive sense (See TC 5.3 Theorem 2 for complete list and graphic
illustration):
Z b Z a
1) Order of integration: f (x)dx = − f (x)dx
a b
Z a
2) Zero width interval: f (x)dx = 0
a
Z b Z b
3) Constant multiple: kf (x)dx = k
f (x)dx for any constant k
a a
Z b Z b Z b
4) Sum and Difference: (f (x) ± g(x))dx = f (x)dx ± g(x)dx
a a a
Z b Z c Z c
5) Additivity: f (x)dx + f (x)dx = f (x)dx
a b a

4.3.2 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus (TC5.4)

The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, the central theorem of integral calculus, connects
integration and differentiation and enables us to compute the definite integral without having
to evaluate limits of Riemann Sums.

TheoremR x 4.3.1 (Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part1). If f is continuous on [a, b], then
F (x) = a f (t)dt is continuous on [a, b] and differentiable on (a, b) and its derivative is f (x):
Z x
0 d
F (x) = f (t)dt = f (x).
dx a

Let FR (x) be the area under the curve y = f (t) from a to x as shown in Figure 4.1. Then
x
F (x) = a f (t)dt as we said before. What the theorem asserts is that at every x,

d
F (x) = f (x).
dx

Figure 4.1: F (x) is a function giving the area under f (t)

69
 dy Rx
Example 4.3.2. Use the Fundamental Theorem to find if y = a (t3 + 1)dt:
dx

(For more examples see TC 5.4 Example 2)

Theorem 4.3.3 (Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 2). If f is continuous at every point
in [a, b] and F is any antiderivative of f on [a, b], then
Z b
f (x)dx = F (b) − F (a).
a

Note: the usual notation for the difference F (b) − F (a) is

[F (x)]ba .
Also, Z b Z b Z b
f (y)dy = f (t)dt = f (x)dx = F (b) − F (a).
a a a
The variable is NOT important (we call it a dummy variable).
Example 4.3.4. Find the following definite integrals:
R1
1. 0
(3x2 + 4x − 7)dx
R π/2
2. π/4
(2 sin x − cos x)dx
R2
3. 0
(2x + 1)2 dx
R1
4. −1
(1 − e−u )du
Example 4.3.5. Different integrals of the same function.
√
a) Show by differentiating that 2 arcsin x and arcsin(2x − 1) are both integrals of the
same function.
1 1
b) Integrate this function from x = to x = , using each integral in a) separately and
4 2
show that you do indeed get the same answer.

MORE EXAMPLES:
Example 4.3.6. The definite integral and the Riemann sum.
R3
a) Evaluate 0
(2x3 + 3x2 )dx.
b) Approximate the integral by a sum, using n strips of equal width.
c) Verify that as n tends to infinity your answer in (b) tends to your answer in (a).
Example 4.3.7. Another example on the definite integral and the Riemann sum.
Ra
a) Evaluate 0
ex dx.
b) Approximate the integral by a sum using n strips of equal width.
1
c) By taking the limit of the sum as n → ∞ and putting h = deduce that
n
eah − 1
lim = a.
h→0 h

70
4.3.3 Tutorial questions — Definite integrals
D8. Evaluate the following definite integrals.
Z 1 Z 1 Z π/4
−x
(a) x
(e + e ) dx (c) (et + e−t ) dt (e) sec2 x dx
0 0 0
Z π Z 1 Z −2
(b) cos x dx (d) 2u du (f) 2u du.
π/2 −2 1

D9. UseZthe Fundamental Theorem of Calculus and properties of definite integrals to find
b
d
f (t)dt if b is constant.
dx x

4.4 Area and Integration (TC5.6)

We know from the definition of the definite integral that the area bounded by the curve y = f (x),
the x-axis and the lines x = a and x = b is

Z b
Area = f (x)dx = F (b) − F (a), where F 0 (x) = f (x)
a

and f is continuous and non-negative on the interval [a, b].

Example 4.4.1. Find the area indicated in the diagram

71
Example 4.4.2. Find the area bounded by y = sin x, the −x-axis between x = 0 and x = π.

Example 4.4.3. We use the same technique for a curve whose values are negative.

Example 4.4.4. Find the area as in the diagram.

4.4.1 Area between curves

For the area between curves, both above the x-axis for the interval [a, b],

Z b Z b
A = f (x)dx − g(x)dx (Area under top - area under bottom)
a a
Z b
= (f (x) − g(x))dx (top curve - bottom curve)
a

72
Example 4.4.5. Find the area shaded in the diagram:

Now let’s look at the situation where the curves are not always non-negative.

If we “push up” both curves, by adding a constant c, sufficient to make both of them positive,
we are not altering the area. Hence
Z b Z b



Area = f (x) + c dx − g(x) + c dx
a a
Z b


= f (x) + c − g(x) − c dx
a
Z b


= f (x) − g(x) dx
a

Same as before, so we do not need to worry where the curves are in relation to the x-axis.
What about if the curves cross over?
Since we integrate TOP curve - BOTTOM curve, we need to split up our calculations. The
following example will illustrate.
Example 4.4.6. Find the area enclosed by the curve y = x3 + x2 and y = 2x.

TUTORIAL:

1. Find the area enclosed by the curve y = x3 + 1, the x-axis, the lines x = −2 and x = 1.
Answer: 19/4

73
 2. Find the area enclosed by the curves y = 3x3 − x2 − 10x and y = −x2 + 2x.
Answer: 24

4.5 Volume and Integration TC 6.1

4.5.1 Volumes of solids with known cross sections

(TC 6.1: Slicing by Parallel Planes)

Suppose A(x) is the cross sectional area of a solid at x, taken perpendicular to the x-axis, then
the volume of the solid from x = a to x = b is given by

Rb
Volume = a
A(x)dx.

Proof. Begin by partitioning the interval [a, b] (as we did when finding area under the curve) and
slice through the solid by planes perpendicular to the x axis at the partition points. We know
the cross sectional area at each of the points, xk , on the subinterval. Hence we approximate
the volume of each of the thin slices by a cylindrical solid with base area A(xk ) and height
∆xk = xk − xk−1 .

74
 1 2
Example 4.5.1. Prove that the volume of a cone of radius r and height h is πr h.
3
Example 4.5.2. Prove that the volume of square base pyramid of height h is
1
V = hB,
3
where B is the area of the base.

Example 4.5.3. A sphere of radius a has a hole of radius b drilled through the centre.
Find the volume remaining.

75
4.5.2 Volumes of Revolution

(TC 6.1: Solids of revolution)

We shall look at solids generated when a region in the plane is rotated about the x-axis. These
types of solids are commonly found in engineering and manufacturing. These solids are called
solids of revolution.
Example 4.5.4. Different shaped regions in the plane generate different shaped solids.

1. The region between a horizontal line and the x-axis will generate a cylinder.

2. The region between a slanting line and the x-axis will generate a cone.

3. Suppose the area bounded by the curve y = f (x), the x-axis and the lines x = a and
x = b is rotated around the x-axis a full revolution.

2
In each case the cross section is a circle of radius f (x). So the cross section area is π f (x) .
Hence Z b Z b

2
Volume = cross section area dx = π f (x) dx.
a a

Rb
2
Volume of revolution about the x axis = a
π f (x) dx.

A similar formula can be derived if we rotate the region about the y-axis, the radius is now x
expressed as a function of y, we integrate with respect to y with the limits of integration taken
on the y-axis.
Hence

76
 Rb
2
Volume of revolution about the y-axis = a
π f (y) dy.

Example 4.5.5. Find the volume of a cone of radius r and height h by rotating about the
x-axis, the region between the line y = hr x and the x-axis from x = 0 to x = h.

Example 4.5.6. Use solids of revolution to find the volume of a sphere of radius r.

Example 4.5.7. Find the area of the region enclosed between the curves y = sin x and y = cos x
between x = 0 and x = π2 . Then find the volume of the solid obtained when this region is rotated
about the x-axis.

4.6 Area and Polar Curves TC 11.5

Suppose we have a polar graph whose equation is r = f (θ) and we wish to find the area bounded
by the curve and the rays θ = α and θ = β. We approximate the area with n nonoverlapping
fan-shaped circular sectors based on a partition of the central angle. The typical sector has
radius rk = f (θk ) and central angle ∆θk based on our partition.

Recall the area of a sector is

1
A = r2 θ,
2
where θ is measured in radians.

The area of each sector in our partition is then

1 1
Ak = rk2 ∆θk = [f (θk )]2 ∆θk .
2 2

So the area is approximately

n
X 1
[f (θk )]2 ∆θk ,
k=1
2

77
 giving us the following formula for the area enclosed by a polar curve:
n Z β
X 1 2 1
A = lim [f (θk )] ∆θk = [f (θ)]2 dθ.
n→∞
k=1
2 2 α

Hence the area of the region enclosed by the rays θ = a and θ = b and the polar curve r = r(θ)
is given by
1 b
Z
Area = [r(θ)]2 dθ.
2 a
Example 4.6.1. Find the area enclosed by the logarithmic spiral r = 2θ and the rays θ = 0
and θ = π.

Example 4.6.2. Find the area enclosed by the curve r(θ) = 3 + 2 cos θ and the rays θ = 0 and
θ = π/3.

Example 4.6.3. Find the area enclosed by the spirals r = θ and r = 2θ between θ = 0 and
θ = π2 .

78
Example 4.6.4. Find the area of the region that is INSIDE the circle r = 3 sin θ and OUTSIDE
the cardioid r = 1 + sin θ.

4.6.1 Tutorial questions — Areas and volumes

T10. By drawing a sketch, convince yourself that in the proof of the theorem on areas

A(x + ∆x) − A(x) ≈ |f (x) − g(x)|∆x

(hint: the left hand side is the area of a narrow vertical strip of width ∆x), and hence
that dA
dx
= |f (x) − g(x)|, as stated.

D11. Find the area of the region:

√
(a) enclosed between the x axis, the lines x = 1 and x = 4, and the curve y = x + √1x ,
(b) enclosed between the parabola y = 3x2 + x + 1 and the line y = 3 − 4x,
(c) enclosed between the curves y = x2 and y = 2x and the lines x = 1 and x = 5 (find
the points of intersection by trial and error),
10
(d) enclosed between the curves y = 1+x2
and y = 4 − x,
4 3 1
E(e) lying below the curves y = √25−x 2 and y = x , above the line y = 2 , and to the right

of the y axis. (Sketch the region, and divide it in two.)

D12. Find the volume of the solid:

1
(a) with cross-sectional area 4x2 +4x+5
lying between the planes x = 0 and x = 21 ,
π
(b) obtained by rotating the region under the curve y = sec x between x = 0 and x = 3
about the x axis,
(c) obtained by rotating the region between the curves y = √1 and y = 1
between x = 1
x x 2
and x = 2 about the x axis,
√
(d) obtained by rotating the region enclosed between the curves y = x and y = x
about the y axis.
E(e) left behind when a conical hole is bored in a sphere of radius a as shown in Figure 4.2.
Ra Ra
T13. (a) Show that −a f (x) dx = 0 {f (x) + f (−x)} dx. (Hint: write the left hand side as
the sum of an integral from −a to 0 and an integral from 0 to a, and substitute first
u = x then x = −u in one of them.)
Ra Ra
(b) Use part (a) to show that −a f (x) dx = 2 0 f (x) dx if f is an even function. Explain
the result about the integral by sketching the graph of a typical even function.

79
 Figure 4.2: Conical hole in sphere

Ra
(c) Similarly, show that −a
f (x) dx = 0 if f is an odd function. Again explain the result
graphically.
(d) Check if the integrands in the following definite integrals are even or odd functions,
and then evaluate the integrals.
Z π Z π/4
(i) x cos x dx (iii) sin θ ln sec θ dθ
−π −π/4
Z 1 Z 1
(ii) x arctan x dx (iv) (arcsin x)2 dx.
−1 −1

4.7 Tutorial answers

1.

(a) sin x + c (g) − 21 x2 − 13 cos 3x + c (m) 1

5
sin(5x − 4) + c
(b) sec x + c (h) x − 21 sin 2x + c (n) 1
33
(3x + 1)11 + c
3 2x 1
(c) x + c (i) ln 2
+c (o) 2
tan(2x − 5) + c
√
(d) 3 arcsin x + c (j) − 51 x−5 + arctan 2x + c (p) − 29 4 − 9x + c
1
(e) arctan x + c (k) 2
ln |x| − 21 cosec 2x + c (q) 1
3
arcsin 3x + c
1
(f) − cot x + c (l) 3
ln |3x + 2| + c (r) arctan(x + 1) + c.

1
2. (a) Derivative = 1+x2
, difference = π2 . (b) −32 cos3 x sin x, 3.

3. v = 12 t − cos t + c, s = 14 t2 − sin t + ct + k.

(a) v = 21 t − cos t + 1, s = 14 t2 − sin t + t.

(b) v = 21 t − cos t + 2, s = 14 t2 − sin t + 2t + sin 2.
25
4. 12
1
5. 3
πr2 h.

6. Omitted.

7. (a) ln 2.

80
 1 1
8. (a) e − e
(b) −1 (c) e − e
(d) −3 (e) 1 (f) 3.

9. −f (x).

10. Omitted.

11. (a) 20
3
(b) 6 19
54
(c) 6
ln 2
−4 (d) 20 arctan 2 − 10 arctan 3 − 9 + 5π
2
3
(e) 4 arcsin 5 + 3 ln 2 − 3.
π
√
12. (a) 16 − 14 arctan 21 (b) π 3 (c) π2 (d) 2π
15
R a cos α 2 2
sin α a cos α
dx = π3 a3 (1 + cos α)2 .
R
(e) π −a (a − x2 ) dx − π (1+cos α)2 −a
(x + a) 2

π π2
13. (d) (i) 0 (ii) 2
−1 (iii) 0 (iv) 2
− 4.

81
Chapter 5

FURTHER APPLICATIONS OF
DIFFERENTIATION

5.1 Maxima and Minima problems: (Revision) (TC 4.6)

1. Do diagrams if needed, showing variables.

2. Find the equation for the quantity that needs to be optimised. y = f (x).

3. Find critical points, by solving f 0 (x) = 0.

4. Look at the table of signs of f 0 (x) OR do a second derivative test.

5. If required find the optimum value of y.

Example 5.1.1. In a tunnel the traffic flow rate y (cars per hour) is related to the traffic
density x (cars per km) by
x
y = −32x ln ; 0 < x < 100.
100

a) Find the maximum flow rate.

b) Verify that it is a maximum.

c) What is the corresponding density x and average speed?

Example 5.1.2. A rectangle is drawn with the origin at one vertex, 2 sides on the positive x
and y axes and a vertex on the curve x = e−t , y = sin2 t where 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π. Find the maximum
area of the rectangle.

82
 5.1.1 Tutorial questions — Maxima and minima
D1. A circular solenoid of radius a exerts a force proportional to x/(x2 + a2 )5/2 on a magnet
at a distance x from the centre of the coil. Find the value of x for the maximum force.
Prove that it is a maximum.

D2. Show that in Figure 5.1 the length l of the space available for the ladder is given by
l = a cosec θ + b sec θ, and find the minimum value of l, assuming a and b are constant.
Prove that it is a minimum. Hence find the length of the longest ladder that can be
carried horizontally around a corner from an 8m wide passage into a 1m wide passage.

Figure 5.1: Ladder just fitting around a corner in a passage

D3. In a mathematical model of the growth of √ a sunflower head it is assumed that at time t
seed number n has polar co-ordinates r = t − n and θ = nα, where α is constant.
(a) Find the cartesian co-ordinates at time t of seeds n = 0 and n = q, where q is constant.
(b) Use the distance formula to show
p that the square of the distance between seeds n = 0
and n = q is equal to 2t − q − 2 t2 − qt cos(qα).
(c) If cos(qα) > 0, find the minimum value of the square of the distance, and the value
of t at which the minimum is attained. Prove that it is a minimum.

5.2 Curve Sketching (TC 4.4)

Step 1. Find y intercept (x = 0), x intercept (y = 0).
dy
Step 2. Find stationary points: where dx
=0

Step 3. Identify them (table of signs or 2nd derivative test.)

Step 4. Concavity: (Optional)

if f 00 (x) < 0 CONCAVE DOWN ∩
if f 00 (x) > 0 CONCAVE UP ∪.

Step 5. Behaviour for large x.

lim y and lim y.
x→∞ x→−∞

Note
xex → ∞ as x→∞
xex → 0 as x → −∞

83
 “EXPONENTIALS beat POWERS beat LOGS” in the race to infinity. i.e.

ex > xn > ln x as x → ∞.

Step 6. A point of inflection is a point where f 00 (x) = 0 and where concavity changes. To find
dy
the gradient at that point, find dx .

Example 5.2.1. Sketch y = x3 − 2x2 + x − 2.

Example 5.2.2. Sketch the curve y = x4 − 2x2 .

Step 7. For rational functions: Find the asymptotes. There are 3 kinds: vertical, horizontal,
oblique.

(a) Vertical: look at values of x that give a division by 0 or that give log of 0.
x2 +x−7
e.g: (x+1)(x−2) has 2 vertical asymptotes x = −1 and x = 2.
(b) Horizontal: if y → c as x → ±∞ then y = c is a horizontal asymptote.
(c) Oblique: if y → ±∞ as x → ±∞ then we express y in the form y = mx + c + g(x)
where g(x) → 0 as x → ±∞, then the oblique asymptote is y = mx + c.

Note: The graph may cross a horizontal or oblique asymptote, it only tells us that the
graph gets closer to that line for large x.

Example 5.2.3.
1
x2 + x + 1 x+1+ x
y= = → ∞ as x → ∞.
x+1 1 + x1

1 1
By long division we have y = x + x+1
and since x+1
→ 0 as x → ∞, we have an oblique
asymptote at y = x.

This is optional but useful: Look at the behaviours of y and x near the vertical asymptotes.

84
Example 5.2.4. Sketch the curve of

x2 + x + 1
y= .
x+1
x2 −x−2
Example 5.2.5. Sketch y = x−3
:
x
Example 5.2.6. Sketch y = (x+1)2
.

EXTRA TUTORIAL

x2
y= x2 −4

x
p
y= x−2

Example 5.2.7.
y = x2 e−x N OT E : y ≥ 0.

Example 5.2.8.
1
y= for x > 0
x ln x

5.2.1 Summary of asymptotes of graphs

Let the equation of the graph be of the form

T (x)
y= ,
B(x)

where T (x) and B(x) are polynomials in x.

• VERTICAL ASYMPTOTES occur whenever B(x) = 0.

3x + 2 5
e.g:y = has vertical asymptotes at x = 1 and x = .
(x − 1)(2x − 5) 2

• HORIZONTAL ASYMPTOTES occur when limx→±∞ y = c where c is a constant.

The equation is y = c.

• SLANTING ASYMPTOTES occur when limx→∞ y = ∞.

To get the equation of the slanting asymptote, divide T (x) by B(x) and write

T (x) Remainder
y= in the form y = Quotient + .
B(x) B(x)

As x → ∞ the term Remainder

B(x)
will tend to 0, hence the slanting asymptote will have
equation y = Quotient, (provided the degree of T (x) is 1 more than the degree of B(x),
otherwise the quotient is not linear.)

85
 GENERAL RULE WITH DEGREES

The degree of a polynomial is the value of the highest power.

If the degree of T (x) > degree of B(x), then limx→∞ y = ∞.

If the degree of T (x) = degree of B(x), then limx→∞ y = c.

If the degree of T (x) < degree of B(x), then limx→∞ y = 0.

5.2.2 Tutorial questions — Curve sketching

D4. Sketch the following curves, after finding all easily obtainable information from y, y 0 , and
y 00 .

(a) y = 10+12x−3x2 −2x3 (e) y = 16(x − 25) (g) y = x ln |x|

x(x − 16)
(b) y = x4 − 4x (h) y = x3 ex
(x + 1)(x − 2)
(c) y = x + x1 (f) y = (i) y = (5 + x1 )ex
x(x − 1)
(d) y = x + 2 sin x (j) y = e−x/5 sin x.

The curve in (j) is damped simple harmonic motion.

D5. The growth of populations or the progress of chemical reactions under constrained con-
ditions can often be described by the logistic curve y = b/(1 + Re−kt ), where b, k, and R
are positive constants.
(a) Show that 0 < y < b for all values of t (hint: show that the denominator is greater
than 1), and determine the behaviour of y as t → ±∞.
(b) Find y 0 and sketch the curve. Show that the curve is steepest when y is midway
between the asymptotes.
7x − 3
D6. Sketch the graph y = x − 5 + , after finding all necessary information. (Note that
x2
the graph has a vertical and an oblique asymptote, and that it cuts the oblique asymptote
where x = 37 . This is perfectly acceptable.)
D7. Sketch the graph y = x4 (x − 1)4 after finding all necessary facts from y, y 0 , and y 00 . (Note
that the nature of the minima cannot be determined from the values of y 00 there.)

5.3 Related rates of change (TC 3.10)

dy
Recall dt
is the rate of change of y with respect to t.

Recall the chain rule:

dy dy dx
= ,
dt dx dt
dx dx dy du
= ···
dt dy du dt

86
 Often in physical problems, rates of change of different variables are related to each other.

If the radius of a circle changes, then its area or circumference also changes. How are these
rates of change related?

Example 5.3.1. The radius of a circle changes at a rate of 2cm/s. How fast is the area
changing when the radius is 5 cm?

Example 5.3.2. The perimeter of a circle is increasing at a rate of 10mm|s. How fast is the
area changing when the radius is 50mm?

Example 5.3.3. Sand falls from a chute at a rate of πm3 |min and lands in a conical pile with
radius equal to its height. Find the rate at which the height increases when V = 9πm3 .

Example 5.3.4. A balloon is blown up, its volume increases at a rate of 100πcm3 |min. What
is the rate of increase of its radius and surface area when r = 5cm?
dV dr dS
= 100π, =?, =? when r=5
dt dt dt
Example 5.3.5. A rectangle has one side on the positive x-axis and one side on the positive
y-axis. One vertex is at the origin, the opposite vertex is in the 1st quadrant on the curve
y = xe−x . If x = t − sin t, find the rate of change of the area and perimeter when x = π.

Example 5.3.6. A car scissors jack is made up of 4 piece frame each 250mm long, arranged
in a rhombus. It is activated by turning a screw thread with a 6mm pitch (Pitch: how far the
screw advances for every 1 turn of the handle). If the handle is turned at a rate of 1 revolution
per second, how fast is the car rising when y = 300mm? Does it become easier or harder to
turn the handle as the car rises?

87
Example 5.3.7. Water flows from a tap of radius a cm; at a constant rate k cm3 /sec. The
tap is a vertical cylinder. Water forms a smooth stream. At time t, the stream h cm below the
tap has radius r cm The amount of water with height h cm has volume V cm3 . let v be the
velocity of flow at point A; satisfies

k2
v2 = + 2gh
π 2 a4
Find
dV dh dV
, , .
dt dt dh

Hence show that

k2 1 1
h= ( − ).
2gπ 2 r4 a4

5.3.1 Tutorial questions — Related rates

D8. A gas-filled balloon is in the shape of a hemisphere of radius r on top of a cone of radius
r and height 2r. (All dimensions are in metres.)

(a) (a) Find the volume V and surface area A in terms of r.

(b) (b) If r increases at 0, 01 ms−1 find the rates of change of V and A when r = 5.
(c) (c) If V increases at 10−3 π m3 s−1 , find the rates of change of r and A when r = 5.

D9. A rod of radius a is being sawn through as shown in Figure 5.2. At time t let h denote
the depth of the cut and let A denote the area of the cut face, assuming that the line of
saw teeth is kept horizontal.
dA dh
(a) Express A and h in terms of θ and find dθ
and dθ
.
dA dθ dh
p
(b) Assuming that dt
= k (constant), find dt
and show that dt
= k/2 h(2a − h).
dA
E(c) Note that dh
= 2a sin θ. How could this be proved directly?

88
 Figure 5.2: Saw cutting rod

D10. The area A mm2 of the image on an observer’s retina is inversely proportional to the
square of the distance s m between object and observer. An object moves in such a way
that at time t seconds the distance s = 8(t2 − 7t + 13) metres. If A = 4 when s = 8, find
dA
dt
from dA
ds
and ds
dt
at times t = 2 and t = 4. What is the maximum area, and when does
it occur?
D11. Recording tape of thickness a mm is being wound onto a reel at a constant rate of b
mm s−1 . Assuming that the side view of the tape already on the reel is a circle of radius
r, it can be shown that the area of the circle increases at a constant rate of ab mm2 s−1 .
(Can you see why?) Find drdt
in terms of r.
D12. A particle P moves with constant angular velocity dθ
dt
= k radian s−1 on the circle
x2 + y 2 − 4x + 3 = 0 as shown in Figure 5.3.

H0,cL

Θ
O LH4,0L

Figure 5.3: Shadow cast by rotating particle

(a) A light source at L(4, 0) causes the shadow of P to be cast on the y axis at the point
S(0, c). Express the co-ordinates of P and S in terms of θ. Find the velocity of S
when θ = π4 and when θ = 2π 3
. What is the maximum value of c and for what value
of θ is it attained? Can you verify this geometrically?
(b) Using the same diagram, suppose P is a horse racing around a circular track (with
the same angular velocity as before), and L is a television cameraman filming the

89
 sin θ dφ
race. If φ is the angle OLP , show that tan φ = , and find , i.e. the
2 − cos θ dt
angular velocity with which the cameraman must rotate his camera.

5.4 Tutorial answers

1. x = 12 a.
√
2. Shortest distance = (a2/3 + b2/3 )3/2 . Longest ladder = 5 5 m.

3. Minimum value of square of distance is q| sin(qα)|, occurring when t = 21 q(1+| cosec(qα)|).

4. See sketches (Figure 5.4).

Figure 5.4: Sketches for Question 4, 5, 6, and 7

90
 5. y 0 = bRke−kt (1 + Re−kt )−2 > 0. At y = 21 b, t = 1
k
ln R and y 00 = 0, so curve is steepest.
See Figure 5.4.

6. See sketch (Figure 5.4).

7. At x = 0 and x = 1, both y 0 and y 00 are zero. See Figure 5.4.

√ √
8. V = 34 πr3 , A = πr2 (2 + 5), dA = 2+ 5
π, dV = π, dr = 10−5 , dA
= 10−4 (2 +
√ dt 10 dt dt dt
5)π.

9. (a) A = 12 a2 (2θ − sin 2θ), h = a(1 − cos θ), dA

dθ
= a2 (1 − cos 2θ), dh
dθ
= a sin θ.
dθ k
(b) dt
= 2a2 sin 2θ

dArea
(c) dHeight
=Breadth.

10. A = ks−2 , k = 4(8)2 = 256. At t = 2 dA

dt
= 89 . At t = 4 dA
dt
= −8. Maximum area A = 64
9
when t = 72 .
dr ab
11. In one second film of length b mm and thickness a mm is added to the reel. dt
= 2πr
.
√
4 sin θ π 8k(5 2−1) 2π
12. P (2 + cos θ, sin θ) S(0, 2−cos θ
). When θ = 4
, velocity = 49
. When θ = 3
,
√
4 3
velocity = − 32k 25
. Maximum value of c is 3
when θ = π
3
(and LS is tangent to the
circle).
(b) dφ
dt
= k(2 cos θ−1)
5−4 cos θ
.

91