Э.К.

Собиров (Институт языкознания РАН)

E.K. Sobirov (Institute of Linguistics, Russian Academy of Sciences)

Об изучении лексики таджикского языка новейшего времени

On learning the vocabulary of the Tajik language in modern times

Аннотация

Статья посвящена лексике таджикского литературного языка новейшего периода

и характеру отражения в ней русизмов, интернационализмов и персизмов.

This article is focused on the vocabulary of the modern standard Tajik language and the

nature of the reverberation of Russicisms, internationalisms and Persianisms in it.

Ключевые слова

таджикский язык, персидский язык, заимствования, русизмы, лексикография, сло-

вари, полевая лингвистика

Tajik, Persian, loan-words, Russicisms, lexicography, dictionaries, field linguistics

In 2013, Tajikistan celebrated the 22nd anniversary of its independence. Having got the

sovereignty in 1991, it faced serious political, economical and cultural tasks. The most im-

portant one among these was the problem of choosing a state language as a symbol of national

integration.

The language, which has been passed as the official language of Tajikistan, is Tajik, as

reflected in Clause 2 of the 1994 Constitution of the Republic of Tajikistan. The Russian lan-

guage functions as that of international communication.

Apart from Russian and Tajik, a significant position is held by the Uzbek language,

which plays an important role in Tajikistan, especially in the North near the Uzbekistani border.

Widespread intermarriages, constant habitation of the ethnic Uzbeks in Tajikistan, as well as

other factors have led to the fact that within the population of Northern Tajikistan many use the

Uzbek language as the second one in their interethnic communication. They use a lot of minor

unwritten languages in the areas of compact habitation (for example, Pamirs, Yagnob, etc.) on
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par with the state language of the Republic of Tajikistan and the Uzbek language. They are used

as the languages of common, cultural and industrial communication.

Since 1991, the status of the Tajik language has been significantly changing. When Ta-

jikistan was a part of the USSR, Tajik was greatly influenced by Russian. Tajikistan (the then

Bukhara Emirate) had been a part of Russian Empire since 1868. Lingual contacts with Russian

language have been lasting since that time. But when Tajikistan was a part of USSR, these con-

tacts greatly extended. If one takes the Tajik–Russian Dictionary published in 1954, one may

see a great deal of Russicisms and international borrowings, which had been adopted by the Ta-

jik language through Russian. Apart from loanwords, there also calques from Russian language:

забони маснуъӣ (Tajik) ‘artificial language’ – искусственный язык (Russian); хати

иртиботӣ ‘communication line’ – линия связи; калимаи мошин ‘word’ (as a computing term)

– машинное слово (literally, “machine word”); нақшаи ҳофиза ‘memory mapping’– схема

памяти (literally, “memory scheme”). There are also English-based calques (passed through

Russian). For example, English file – Russian файл – Tajik парванда; microstatement –

микрооператор – резамалкард; on-line – неавтономный – ғайрихудмухтор; identification –

идентификация – шиносоӣ. Sometimes it is difficult to determine where a term is calqued

from, English or Russian, cf. regulator – регулятор – танзимкунанда; segmentation –

сегментация – қисматбандӣ; transparency – прозрачность – шаффофият. In some cases

there are adoption or calquing plus adoption from both Russian and Persian: microsystem –

микросистема – резсистем; automatics – атоматика – худкор; microprogram –

микропрограмма – резбарнома; supercomputer – суперкомпьютер – абаркомпютер; multi-

graph – мультиграф – абаргроф. It is common both for the standard language and the vernac-

ular. One might find some instances in the latter, such as: раҳмати калон along with the Rus-

sian pattern of большое спасибо ‘thank you very much’ (“big thank you”); саломат бошед

‘bless you’ used when somebody is sneezing (literally, “be healthy”) – Russian ‘будьте

здоровы’ – instead of the traditional Tajik speech formula пир шавед (literally, “I wish you to

grow old”, that is “to live long life”); пудрати бригадавӣ – Russian бригадный подряд ‘bri-

gade contract’; пудрати оилавӣ – Russian семейный подряд ‘family contract’; комбайн –

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Russian комбайн ‘combine harvester’. These are examples from the spoken language, but there

are Russicisms in all realms of attainments and life.

In the period of USSR the clerical work was carried out in Russian, the official speeches

were made in Russian, many names of the streets, news-papers, the varieties of large-scale and

small-scale advertisements, shops’ signboards, the names of organizations and enterprises were

mostly Russian. The Russian language was studied in all collages and universities, as well as in

schools mostly by bearers of the Russian language. The same situation was present even in dis-

tant and hard-to-reach mountain kishlaks.

After the declaration of independence of Tajikistan, the situation changed. Many ethnic

Russians and Russian speakers left Tajikistan, teaching of the Russian language in educational

institutions and schools became different in quality. The Language and Terminology Committee

(Кумитаи забон ва истилоҳот), established by the Tajikistani government, oversees the sole

use of the official language in the clerical work, names of organizations, and official speeches.

The drastic reduction of the Russian vocabulary in new edited Tajik-Russian dictionaries was a

consequence.

Within the last two decades, the Tajiks have increased cultural, industrial, trade, finan-

cial, as well as business contacts with Iran and Afghanistan. The Tajiks quite strongly perceive

themselves as a constituent of the huge habitat of Iranian lingual culture. Personal international

contacts in this realm are increasing, and common classical literary heritage takes on special

significance. There is a cultural mission of Iran in Dushanbe as well as the joint Research Socie-

ty of Iran and Tajikistan, which publishes a scientific journal Номаи пажӯҳишгоҳ ‘Journal of

scientific research’ on the regular basis. Widespread are exchanges of students, scientists, cul-

tural and scientific delegations, exhibitions, movies and TV programs, as well as mass media

partnership.

All these changes could not help affecting the contemporary Tajik language, especially

standard language, and the Tajik vocabulary is particularly revealing here as it adopted indig-

enous Tajik words, some Arabisms (previously obsolete and recently revived), Persianisms,

Turkicisms (via the Uzbek language), and international loan words via Russian and Persian.

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 A very important moment in the development of the contemporary Tajik, especially of

the spoken language, is the tendency in changing its dialectal orientation. The dialects of

Northern Tajikistan were the foundation of the prevalent standard Tajik. These patois were pres-

tigious, while the Southern dialects did not enjoy either popularity or prestige. When Tajikistan

became independent, representatives from the South, coming mainly from Kulyab and speaking

the local dialect, were elected in the government. Now all politicians and public officials make

their speeches in the Kulyab dialect, which is also used in broadcasting. The president of Tajiki-

stan originates from Kulyab, as well. Thus, nowadays the situation is reversed, with speakers of

the Northern dialects or standard Tajik being impacted by Southern patois. Cf.: да бари ма

‘next to me’ instead of the customary дар бари ман; дами раҳи ма быд ‘he stood on my way’

instead of дар сари роҳи ман буд; мара чықыр бфаҳмен ‘do not misunderstand me’ instead of

маро дуруст фаҳмед; ҳам шикамби модарым сер боша, ҳам шикамби хыдым ‘that my moth-

er was sick and that I was sick’ instead of ҳам шиками модарам сер бошад, ҳам шиками

худам; мы гырыстым ‘I cried’ instead of ман гиристам; фромӯш накыне ‘don't forget’ instead

of фаромӯш накунед; у ҳозӣ ховай ‘he sleeps now’ instead of ӯ ҳозир хоб аст; ура кор

нагрыфт ‘he didn't interfere him’ instead of ба ӯ кордор нашуд; атаи ма сӯмдор быд ‘my dad

was a rich man’ instead of падари ман пулдор буд; хешы таборым ёрдам каан ‘helped my

relatives’ instead of хешу таборам ёрдам карданд; ага гапош туғрӣ быброя ‘if his words are

true’ (implying the future actions) instead of агар гапҳояш рост бароянд; ҳамаш дурӯғай

‘that is a lie’ instead of ҳамааш дурӯғ аст.

The features of the contemporary Tajik language situation are caused by the following

extralinguistic circumstances:

1) The impact of the civil war, and as the result the fall of overall education level in Ta-

jikistan.

2) Migration of qualified pedagogical specialists.

3) Migration of qualified Russian speaking population.

4) Increasing role of Islam and Muslim clergy resulting in the activation of religious

terminology is the result of it.

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 5) Elements of globalization in Tajik society, including the onset of computerization,

the interest in studying English, the departure of some Tajik students to study in European,

American and Canadian universities.

6) Introduction of new international terminology, which is also supported by the Tajiks

residing in Russia.

7) The changes in the ways of the field work of Tajik language specialists in view of the

changed social, political, and economic situation. This point will be stated below.

This paper focuses on researching the vocabulary of contemporary standard Tajik. This

task requires communicating with the speakers of the standard language. These are rather hard

to find in Moscow, since most of the Tajik immigrants use dialects. A fellowship of standard

Tajik speakers is hardly possible in Moscow.

In the Soviet era, Russian-speaking researchers of the Tajik language from Moscow or

Leningrad did not find any problems with data gathering, for all they had to do was to travel to

the republic. Tajik Iranists were able to gather the material on the spot. The situation is different

nowadays, and one is bound to content oneself with the available means, namely:

1) Using one’s own linguistic store (this author is an ethnic Tajik);

2) Using new Tajik lexicographical data obtained in the Republic of Tajikistan (vide in-

fra);

3) Using Tajik data gathered from the Internet, namely media (press, radio and TV

broadcasting);

4) Sporadic fieldwork with Tajik speakers of the standard register.

The lexicographical material used here comprises the two-volume Tajik-Russian Dic-

tionary (2004–2005) with 65,000 entries, the one-volume Tajik-Russian Dictionary (2006) that

has 5,000 more entries added (70,000 entries), Computer Dictionary of New Technologies

(1995), Dictionary of Modern International Banking Terms (1999), English-Tajik Dictionary

(2005), etc.

The systematic comparison of the articles from these dictionaries with the entries from

the older Tajik Russian dictionary of 1954 turns out to be very interesting. It shows that there is

a great many of Persianisms, Arabisms, old and recent Russicisms (as well as international loan
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words adopted via Russian) and Turkicisms in new dictionaries. The dictionary of 1954 was

overladen with Russicisms. Below, I am going to confine myself to the fate of the Russicisms

and will not touch on other adoptions (Arabisms, Persianisms, Turkicisms) or indigenously Ta-

jik material. In general, the amount of Russicisms has been significantly reduced in the newer

dictionaries. The most frequently used words have been kept, especially those of international

origin, such as автомобил ‘automobile’, биржа ‘stock exchange’, ватт ‘watt’, генетика

‘genetics’, канал ‘channel; canal’, лирика ‘poetry’, метро ‘underground transit’, нотариус

‘notary’, олимпиада ‘Olympics’, паспорт ‘passport’, рентген ‘X-ray’, танк ‘tank’,

университет ‘university’, ферма ‘farm’, чемпион ‘champion’, шинел ‘greatcoat’, эксперт

‘expert’. Lately, an Arab/Tajik compound тарабхона (тараб ‘fun’, хона ‘house’) has been

used on par with the loan word ресторан ‘restaurant’. The Soviet-era political and ideological

vocabulary has been removed, cf.: агентура ‘agents’, агитатор ‘propagandist’, агитация

‘agitation, campaigning, political activism’, агитаторӣ ‘related to political activism or agita-

tion’, агитколлектив ‘propagandist team’, агитпункт ‘propaganda station’, агрессия ‘ag-

gression’, агрессор ‘aggressor’, агрессивӣ ‘aggressive’, анархия ‘anarchy’, анархизм ‘anar-

chism’, анархист ‘anarchist’, анархистӣ ‘anarchistic’, бюрократия ‘bureaucracy’,

горисполком ‘city executive committee’, горком ‘city committee’, горсовет ‘town Soviet’,

демонстрация ‘demonstration’, интернационал ‘Internationale’, комитет ‘committee’,

комсомолдухтар ‘female member of the Young Communist League’, комсомолец ‘(typically)

male member of the Young Communist League’, мандат ‘mandate’, нарком ‘people’s com-

missar’ (i.e. minister), наркомат ‘people’s commissariat’, партия ‘party’, пионер, пионерӣ

‘juvenile male follower of the Young Pioneer movement’, пионердухтар ‘juvenile female fol-

lower of the Young Pioneer movement’, пролетар / пролетарӣ ‘proletarian’, пропаганда

‘propaganda’, пропагандист ‘propagandist’, профком ‘local trade union’, профорг ‘trade-

union organizer’, райисполком ‘district executive committee’, райком ‘district committee’,

райсовет ‘district Soviet/council’, революционер ‘revolutionary’, ударник ‘shock worker’ (an

honorary title for a person displaying exemplary performance in a labor discipline), утопия

‘utopia’, центризм ‘centrism’, эксплуататор ‘exploiter’, ячейка ‘cell of an organisation’, etc.

Of the abundant vocabulary related to the stem партия, the only entry left is that of the word.
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Derivatives and composites have been removed with this stem, e.g.: партком ‘party commit-

tee’, парткабинет ‘political education room/office’, партконференция ‘party conference’,

парторг (ташкилотчии партиявӣ) ‘local party leader’ and партсъезд (съезди партия) ‘par-

ty congress’. The word бригада ‘brigade, team of workers’ remains, but there is no entry for

бригадир ‘foreman, workers’ team leader, taskmaster; brigade general (obsolete)’; however, as

I have already stated above, the dictionaries have retained the calque/borrowing пудрати

оилавӣ ‘family contract’. The Tajik derivate стахановчӣ ‘Stakhanovite’ (a person particularly

successful in a labor discipline) is removed, and so on, and so forth. Old and contemporary ne-

ologisms have been added, including: аудитор ‘auditor’, банкомат ‘cash machine’, вексел

‘bill’, гиперинфлятсия ‘runaway inflation’, дебитор ‘debtor’, еврокорт ‘euro card’, жетон

‘counter, token’, зеро-купон ‘zero-coupon bond’, индексатсия ‘indexing’, кадастр ‘cadastre’,

лизинг ‘leasing’, монобонк ‘mono bank’, нота ‘note’, ордер ‘order’, прайм плюс ‘prime

plus’, рейтинг ‘rating’, секюритизатсия ‘securitization’, трансфер ‘transfer’, фючерс ‘fu-

tures’, ҳолдинг ‘holding’, чек ‘check’.

Some Russicisms are given with a reference to their Tajik counterparts, cf.: галстук

‘tie’ vide гарданбанд; метеор ‘meteor’ vide шиҳоб; мошинрон ‘driver’ vide ронанда; парад

‘parade’ vide расмигузашт; прожектор ‘spotlight’ vide нурафкан; транспортёр ‘convey-

or’ vide наққола; турист ‘tourist’ vide сайёҳ; туристӣ ‘tourist’ vide сайёҳӣ. Colloquial

compound lexemes based on Russian and Tajik stems are also included, e.g. газолуд ‘gas pollu-

tion’; картошкағундорак ‘potato harvester’; милисахона ‘police station’; cамбочӣ ‘sambo

wrestler’ (practitioner of the Soviet martial art); телебарнома ‘TV program’; фотонусха ‘pho-

tocopy’; ноибконсул ‘vice-consul’; чандкорпуса ‘multihull’; ғайристандарт ‘Non-standard’;

байнибонкӣ ‘interbank’; ҳисоб-фактура ‘invoice’.

Some historisms have been kept or added: болшевик ‘Bolshevik’, граф ‘graph’, вексел

‘bill’, камзӯл ‘camisole’, княз ‘prince’, князигарӣ ‘principality’, конверт ‘envelope’,

меншевик ‘Menshevik’, уезд ‘district’, фелдъегер ‘state messenger, courier’. The Russicism

бушка ‘barrel’, which we have found in a Tajik entry, is in fact a loanword based on Persian

boshke ‘barrel’. The word is replaced by баррел in newer Tajik dictionaries, but the old one

contains only the colloquialism бочка.

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 It is very important to mention the changes in Tajik orthography, the letters ц, ы, щ, ь

having been excluded from the Tajik alphabet and correspondingly replaced by с/тс, и, ш, –

(according to the Persian language). For instance, сезий ‘cesium’; селлофан ‘cellophane’;

селлулоид ‘celluloid’; селлюлоза ‘cellulose’; сенария ‘scenario, script’; сиклон ‘cyclone’;

интернатсионализатсия ‘internationalization’; интерференсия ‘interference’;

кондитсионер ‘air conditioner’; консепсия ‘conception’; конфронс ‘conference’;

телекоммуникатсия ‘telecommunication’; трапетсия ‘trapezium’; конкú ‘skates’; коняк

‘cognac, brandy’; модел ‘model’; модул ‘module’; пиеса ‘play, piece of music’; повест ‘nov-

el’; релеф ‘relief’; рубл ‘ruble’; кеди ‘gumshoes’; лижá ‘ski’; Шёлково ‘Scholkovo’, Виборг

‘Vyborg’ (city names); Шерба ‘Scherba’, Шорс ‘Schors’ (family names). Mixed lexemes of

Russian/Tajik or Tajik/Russian origin, as well as the colloquial ones have been added:

автоматонидан ‘automotize’, газолуд ‘gas-laden’, гамманурҳо ‘gamma rays’, сарконсул

‘consul-general’, чандкорпуса ‘multihull’. Some hystorisms were kept or added: галифе ‘rid-

ing breeches’, уезд ‘district of the Russian Empire’, губерния ‘province of the Russian Empire’.

The Russicism Дума ‘State Duma’ is labelled historical realia in the older dictionary but has

no such label in the newer one due to political and social changes in Russia. The lexeme

губернатор ‘governor’ is treated similarly. The international loan word комиссариат (bor-

rowed via Russian) has been kept along with word-combinations that contain Tajik relational

adjectives, for example, комиссариати ҳарбӣ ‘military registration and enlistment offices’. At

the same time, a Russicism военкомат is used in the vernacular, and one may see this word-

combination on the very sign boards of those offices.

If one looks at the names of city streets and squares, one may notice the replacement of

Russicisms and Russian realia by Tajik lexemes. For instance, there are now Хиёбони Рудакӣ

‘Rudaki Avenue’ instead of Хиебони Ленин ‘Lenin Avenue’, Майдони Озодӣ ‘Freedom

Square’ instead of Майдони Ленин ‘Lenin Square’ (nowadays reinvented as Майдони

Исмоили Сомонӣ ‘Isma’il ibn Ahmad Square’ to honor the Samanid emir of Transoxiana and

Khorasan). One can see the same in newspapers’ titles, e.g. Тоҷикистони Советӣ ‘Soviet Ta-

jikistan’ has become Ҷумҳурият ‘The Republic’, while Комсомоли Тоҷикистон ‘The Young

Communist League of Tajikistan’ is now Ҷавонони Тоҷикистон ‘Tajikistani Youth’), etc.

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 At the same time, one may find quite a few newspapers with Russian titles, for example,

Аргументы и факты ‘Arguments and Facts’, Вечерний Душанбе ‘The Dushanbe Evening

Post’, Памир ‘The Pamirs’, Русский язык и литература в школах Таджикистана ‘The Rus-

sian language and literature in Tajikistani schools’, etc.

Names of offices and organizations can contain Tajik, international, Persian, and Rus-

sian vocabulary combined together, cf.: Маркази фурӯши техника (Technical Center Sales),

Агентии туристӣ (Tourist agency), Прокат столов и стульев. Барои беҳтарин рӯзи ҳаёт

‘Tables and chairs for rent (in Russian). For the best day of your life (in Tajik)’; Пажӯҳиши

илмҳои педагогӣ ‘research in pedagogy’ (literally, “pedagogical science”), ҶСК

«Тоҷикметал» ‘Open Joint-Stock Company Tajikmetal’.

The word pairs from different languages on the signboards, mentioned above, convey

similar meanings, but they may not actually be synonyms: Прокат – Кироя ‘Lease – Rent’,

Сигарет – Тамоку ‘Cigarette – Tobacco’, Пиво – Оби ҷав ‘Beer – Barley water’, Лотерея –

Вомбарг ‘lottery – bond’; the author has also found a Russian-language notice reading

Требуется официантка ‘waitress needed’.

Most likely, the name pairs such as сартарошхона – парикмахерская ‘barbershop’,

ресторан – тарабхона ‘restaurant’ (in classical Tajik-Persian, tarabxona has a literal meaning

of “house of merriment”), etc. are intended for varied locutionary targets (both Russians and

Tajiks) in the linguistically heterogeneous environment. This code switching, therefore, enables

mutual understanding and relatively comfortable communication between people.

In some cases, it is difficult to state the origin of one of the words in such word-pairs or

word-combinations clearly. See, for example, a signboard of the central ticket office in Dushan-

be reads чиптаҳои ҳавопаймоӣ ‘airplane tickets’, with a Persian adjective ҳавопаймоӣ used

instead of the Russicism аэроплан ‘airplane’). Here, чипта ‘ticket’ is the word widely spread

in the vernacular and media; however, its origin is not quite clear. Cf. a phrase overtly borrowed

from Persian: асъори миллӣ ва хориҷӣ ‘national and foreign currency’.

The given examples demonstrate the absence of an official norm in the modern period,

which may be considered transitional for the Tajik language.

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 To conclude, consider another word pair. A signboard of a café in Dushanbe airport

reads Бистро – Тезтайёр.

The word бистро ‘bistro’ is an international loan word, presumably of French origin

([French bistro(t) < Russian бистро; the word appeared by the end of the Patriotic War of 1812

(the French invasion of Russia), when a part of Russian troops entered the territory of France, –

probably based on the remark Быстро, быстро! ‘[Make it] quick! Quick!’ addressed to French

restaurateurs]. In some countries, it means a canteen, a little restaurant) [1, 130].

The authenticity of this etymology is argued (for one thing, in A.V. Dybo’s spoken

opinion). According to scholars dealing with Romance languages (for instance, I.I. Chelysheva

in her personal letter), the etymology of the word bistrot from Russian «быстро» is considered

as baseless. I hereby quote her letter, “If we agree with it, we shall presume the following: the

French could hear it in 1814, when Russian troops entered Paris. However, it was only 1884

when the lexeme appeared in the French language as an argot word meaning ‘tavern-keeper,

publican’ but not in a pub or café per se; in 1892, it acquired the reading ‘café’. This means that

the Russians in Paris and the first mention of this word are separated by the gap of seventy

years. Moreover, the proposed etymology makes the meaning ‘tavern-keeper’ unlikely. And one

more point, … it was unlikely for Russian speakers, such as the Cossacks, coming along to

drink alcohol, to say, Быстро! Быстро! ‘Quick! Quick!’ and not something like, Неси! Давай!

‘Bring it in! Come on!’, etc. This word with an unclear etymology is linked to the colloquial

French word bastringue meaning ‘hop’, ‘dancing hall’, as well as ‘loud music in a café’. More-

over, the word bistraud ‘servant, apprentice’ in Poitevin (regional dialects of Poitou, the South-

West of France) can be a probable etymon. There is another variant of origin, that of bistouille

‘bad wine, cheap alcohol’… For me, personally… bistrot is, first of all, a Parisian café (alt-

hough, the aforementioned province of Poitou is situated South of Paris). It is not without rea-

son that the modern meaning is ‘petit café à la française’, i.e. a small cafe in the French style” 1.

The Tajik lexeme тезтайёр is a compound consisting of тез – ‘quick, quickly’, тайёр

‘ready, prepared’. According to F. Sharipova, PhD, a professor of Tajik National University (an

1
Professor Chelysheva refers to the following sources: Dictionnaire historique de la langue française.
Sous la dir. de A. Rey. P., 1998; Trésor de la langue française (http://atilf.atilf.fr/).

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opinion stated in her letter), the word тезтайёр has been formed quite artificially and is not in

use among the Tajiks.

According to T. Shokirov, a professor of Khujand University, the lexeme бистро in the

city of Khujand has a little bit different reading of тезпур (тез ‘quick, quickly’, пур ‘full,

filled, a lot of’).

In S. Ayni’s dictionary one may find the entry пур ‘full, filled’ and the word-

combination хӯрдани пур ‘to overeat, to stuff oneself’. Here S. Ayni makes a reference to Layla

and Majnun by Nizami Ganjavi (1141–1209):

Об арчӣ ҳама зулол хезад,

Аз хӯрдани пур малол хезад.

‘Though water comes forth transparent [from the entrails of the earth], // Overconsump-

tion thereof causes much discomfort’ [5, 300].

According to the information received from the Tajiks residing in the USA, it was pos-

sible to hear the following Tajik expression with пур, namely ман пурам ‘I am full’, which is a

loan translation of the American English I am full. This phrase is not used in Tajikistan or Iran,

cf. Persian man siram ‘I am full’

In fact, many Russicisms and internationalisms that are not present in newer Tajik-

Russian dictionaries are still being used in the Tajik language, especially in colloquial speech.

Surely, to draw the conclusion, one is bound to spend more time and efforts on the ongoing field

research in the Tajikistani environment.

References

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