RWANDA POLYTECHNIC/ MUSANZE COLLEGE

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY

ACADEMIC YEAR: 2023 – 2024

PRODCTION OF SUSTAINABLE CONCRETE TILES

CONTAINING RECYCLED GLASS
CASE STUDY: RULINDO DISTRICT, RUSIGA SECTOR

This Capstone Project Submitted in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the
Bachelor of Technology in Civil Engineering (Construction Technology)

Name: IRAGUHA Irene Reg. No: 23RP00395

SUPERVISOR: Eng. MBARUSHIMANA Yves

September 2024
DECLARATION (A)
“I do hereby declare that this Capstone Project submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirement
for the Bachelor of technology in Civil Engineering (Construction Technology), at Rwanda
Polytechnic, Musanze college is my original work and has not previously been submitted
elsewhere. In addition, I do declare that a complete list of references is provided indicating all
the sources of information quoted or cited.

Done by: IRAGUHA Irene 23RP00395

Date………/……/2024 Signature……………….
DECLARATION (B) /by supervisor
I/we confirm that the work reported in this capstone project was carried out by the candidate
under my supervision and it has been submitted with my approval as the supervisor.

College Supervisor

Name: Eng. MBARUSHIMANA Yves

Date………/………/2024

Signature…………………….

Name:

Date……………………….

Signature and stamp of the company……………………………

Date……………………...

Signature…………………….

Name:

Date……………………….
DEDICATION
To Almighty God who has guided me;
To my parents and who helped me in my studies;
To my close friend who helped me in capstone project
To my all friends and classmates.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research would not have been possible without the support of many people. A few lines are
therefore too short to express profound gratitude to everyone who enabled me to successfully
complete.
First, I wish to express my gratitude to my supervisor, Eng. MBARUSHIMANA Yves, for his
constructive criticisms and helpful guidance. Working with him, has been a wonderful
experience.
I deeply express my special thanks to the Management of RP-MUSANZE College and all staff
of the department of civil engineering who, tirelessly, devoted their time for my graduate studies.
I would also like to thank the Management of civil engineering staffs for their cooperation.
Finally, yet importantly, I wish to thank everyone who, directly or indirectly, helped to make this
study both successful and enjoyable.
ABSTRACT
The basis of this final project is to work out “Production of sustainable concrete tiles
containing recycled glass” These tiles offer a durable and visually appealing alternative to
traditional tiles, while also reducing the environmental impact. The main objective of this project
is Production of sustainable concrete tiles containing recycled glass.
It is an innovative approach aims to create tiles that are not only durable and aesthetically
pleasing but also Thermal Insulation, light in weight, life cycle and end of life consideration,
surface treatment (slip resistance), affordable and environmentally friendly.
Because the disposal of waste materials, such as glass, presents a significant challenge for
municipalities and industries alike. Recycling glass offers a sustainable solution to reduce waste
and conserve resources. By incorporating recycled glass into concrete production, it is possible
to create eco-friendly construction materials that minimize environmental impact while
maintaining performance and aesthetics. By production of sustainable concrete tile containing
Recycled glass, reduce quantity of aggregate to be used, it would reduce the amount of glasses
battle that ends up in landfills, thereby mitigating the associated health hazards and
environmental impact. Moreover, this initiative will contribute to the local economy by creating
jobs and promoting the use of locally sourced materials. This mix design replaces part of the
coarse aggregate with recycled glass, which can significantly reduce costs, especially if the glass
is sourced locally or recycled in-house. The use of sand and locally available aggregates also
contributes to cost savings compared to ceramic tiles, which require more intensive processing
and materials.

Total Cost for 12 m²: 74,732.85RWF, cost per Tile: Cost per Tile=74,732.85RWF /75 tiles
=996.438RWF/tile, Total Cost produced concrete tile containing recycled glass for m²:
74,732.85RWF /12m2=6,227.73RWF per Square meter. This mix design replaces part of the
coarse aggregate with recycled glass, which can significantly reduce costs, especially if the glass
is sourced locally or recycled in-house. The use of sand and locally available aggregates also
contributes to cost savings compared to ceramic tiles, which require more intensive processing
and materials.
TABLE OF CONTENT

DECLARATION (A)......................................................................................................................2
DECLARATION (B) /by supervisor...............................................................................................3
DEDICATION.................................................................................................................................4
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.............................................................................................................5
ABSTRACT....................................................................................................................................6
TABLE OF CONTENT...................................................................................................................7
LIST OF TABLE.............................................................................................................................9
LIST OF SYMBOLS, ACCRONYMNS AND ABBREVIATIONS............................................11
LIST OF FIGURE.........................................................................................................................12
CHAPTER 1: GENERAL INTRODUCTION..............................................................................13
1.1. BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY...................................................................................13
1.2. PROBLEM STATEMENT.................................................................................................14
1.3. OBJECTIVES.....................................................................................................................14
1.3.1 GENERAL OBJECTIVE.............................................................................................14
1.3.2 SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES.............................................................................................15
1.4. RESEARCH QUESTION/HYPOTHESIS.........................................................................15
1.5. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY...................................................................................15
1.5.1. PERSONAL INTEREST.............................................................................................15
1.5.2. ACADEMIC INTEREST............................................................................................15
1.5.3. PUBLIC INTEREST...................................................................................................16
1.6. SCOPE OF THE STUDY...................................................................................................16
1.6.1. SCOPE.........................................................................................................................16
1.6.2. LIMITATIONS............................................................................................................16
CHAPITER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW.....................................................................................17
2.0. INTRODUCTION..............................................................................................................17
2.1. CAUSES GLASS WASTE.................................................................................................17
2.5 COMPONENTS OF CONCRETE......................................................................................20
2.5.1 CEMENT......................................................................................................................20
 2.5.2 SAND...........................................................................................................................21
2.5.3 COARSE AGGREGATES...........................................................................................21
2.5.4 WATER........................................................................................................................22
2.6 CONCRETE MIX DESIGN................................................................................................22
2.7 TILE TESTS........................................................................................................................23
2.7.1 PHYSICAL TESTS......................................................................................................23
2.7.3. MECHANICAL TESTS..............................................................................................23
2.7.4. FIELD NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING..................................................................24
2.7.5 VISUAL EXAMINATION..........................................................................................24
2.7.6. SIMULATION TEST..................................................................................................25
2.8. IMPORTANCE OF TILE...................................................................................................25
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY.................................................................................................27
3.0. INTRODUCTION..............................................................................................................27
3.1. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY.......................................................................................27
3.2. RESEARCH DESIGN........................................................................................................27
3.2.1. COLLECTION OF MATERIALS..............................................................................28
3.2.2. CONDUCT MIX DESIGNS TO ACHIEVE THE REQUIRED STRENGTH...........29
3.2.3. PROCEDURES USED FOR MANUFACTURING...................................................29
3.2.4 LABORATORY TEST................................................................................................31
CHAP 4: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION....................................................................................38
4.0. INTRODUCTION..............................................................................................................38
4.1 CONDUCT MIX DESIGN..................................................................................................38
4.2 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH............................................................................................41
4.3. WATER ABSORPTION TESTS.......................................................................................42
4.4. REBOUND HAMMER TESTS.........................................................................................44
4.5. DENSITY AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY............................................................................45
4.6. STAIN RESISTANCE.......................................................................................................46
4.7 BILLS OF QUANTITY......................................................................................................46
4.8. A COMPARISON BETWEEN THE PRODUCTION OF SUSTAINABLE CONCRETE
TILES CONTAINING RECYCLED GLASS AND CERAMIC TILES..................................50
4.8.1. COMPARISON BASED ON RAW MATERIALS....................................................50
 4.8.2. COMPARISON BASED ON PRODUCTION PROCESS.........................................50
4.8.3. COMPARISON BASED ON ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT..................................50
4.8.4. COMPARISON BASED ON COST EFFICIENCY...................................................51
4.8.5. COMPARISON BASED ON DURABILITY AND PERFORMANCE.....................51
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS...................................................53
5.1 CONCLUSION....................................................................................................................53
5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS.....................................................................................................53
REFERENCES..............................................................................................................................55
APPENDICE.................................................................................................................................56
LIST OF TABLE
Table 1Standard Concrete Mix Design..........................................................................................23
Table 2Compressive Strength........................................................................................................41
Table 3Water Absorption (%).......................................................................................................43
Table 4rebound values...................................................................................................................45
Table 5Comparison based on Raw Materials................................................................................50
Table 6Comparison based on Production Process.........................................................................50
Table 7 Comparison based on Environmental Impact...................................................................51
Table 8Comparison based on Cost Efficiency...............................................................................51
Table 9Comparison based on Durability and Performance...........................................................52
LIST OF SYMBOLS, ACCRONYMNS AND ABBREVIATIONS
%: Percent
KN: Kilo Newton
Mm: Millimeter
Cm: Centimeter
N/mm2: Newton per square millimeter
MPa: Mega Pascal
W/C: Water to cement ratio
kg: kilogram
OPC: Ordinary Portland Cement
UTM: Universal Testing Machine
Ww: Weight of wet
Wd: Weight of dry
LIST OF FIGURE
Figure 1glass waste........................................................................................................................18
Figure 2Glass waste.......................................................................................................................19
Figure 3 cement.............................................................................................................................21
Figure 4sand...................................................................................................................................21
Figure 5materials used in production............................................................................................28
Figure 6Procedures used for manufacturing..................................................................................30
Figure 7Procedures used for manufacturing..................................................................................31
Figure 8Compressive Strength Test...............................................................................................32
Figure 9Water Absorption Test.....................................................................................................33
Figure 10Density and Specific Gravity Test.................................................................................34
Figure 11stain resistance test and way of removal........................................................................35
Figure 12Rebound Hammer Test...................................................................................................36
Figure 13Compressive Strength (MPa).........................................................................................42
Figure 14 chart of comparison ceramic tile and concrete tile containing recycled glass cost.......48
Figure 15chart of comparison ceramic tile and concrete tile containing recycled glass cost........49
Figure 16Procedure of manufacturing concrete tile containing recycled glass.............................65
Figure 17Density and Specific gravity test....................................................................................65
Figure 18Stain resistance and way to remove it............................................................................66
Figure 19Compression test............................................................................................................66
Figure 20Rebound hammer test for checking the variation of strength........................................67
Figure 21 final product of concrete tile containing recycled glass................................................67
CHAPTER 1: GENERAL INTRODUCTION

1.1. BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

Rwanda, like many other developing countries, faces significant challenges in waste
management, particularly from industries such as beer production and construction. These
industries generate substantial amounts of waste, including glass, which often ends up in landfills
or polluting the environment. Rwanda's growing beer production industry, while contributing to
economic development, also generates considerable waste, especially glass bottles. Traditional
disposal methods, such as landfilling, are unsustainable and exacerbate environmental
degradation.

Concrete is one of the most widely used construction materials globally, valued for its durability
and versatility. However, the disposal of waste materials, such as glass, presents a significant
challenge for municipalities and industries alike. Recycling glass offers a sustainable solution to
reduce waste and conserve resources. By incorporating recycled glass into concrete production, it
is possible to create eco-friendly construction materials that minimize environmental impact
while maintaining performance and aesthetics.

In response to escalating environmental concerns and the imperative for sustainable construction
practices, this proposal outlines a comprehensive plan to produce concrete tiles containing
recycled glass. The construction and beer production industries are generating increasing
amounts of waste, including glass, which often ends up in landfills or polluting the environment.
The construction industry, being one of the largest contributors to environmental issues such as
carbon emissions and resource depletion, presents a prime opportunity for innovation and
improvement. By integrating recycled glass into concrete tile production, this project aims to
contribute to the advancement of eco-friendly building materials and practices.

This project seeks to create concrete tiles that are environmentally sustainable by incorporating
recycled glass as a key component in their production process. These tiles offer a durable and
visually appealing alternative to traditional tiles, while also reducing the environmental impact of
construction activities. This proposal presents a detailed framework for the research and
production of sustainable concrete tiles containing recycled glass. It delineates the problem
statement, objectives, methodology, and budgetary considerations essential for the successful
execution of the project.

1.2. PROBLEM STATEMENT

The construction and beer production industries generate a significant amount of waste,
including glass, which often ends up in landfills. This traditional method of disposing of waste
materials, such as glass, presents a major challenge for municipalities and industries alike, as it is
not only unsustainable but also contributes to significant environmental degradation. The
accumulation of glass waste from demolished buildings and used bottles in landfills poses
serious health hazards and has far-reaching consequences for both human health and climate
change. Addressing these issues requires innovative solutions that promote sustainability in
construction materials.

In Rwanda, the availability of locally manufactured tiles is limited. Most floor tiles are imported,
making them expensive and less accessible to the local population. This reliance on foreign tiles
highlights a critical need for a sustainable and cost-effective alternative. My proposed solution is
production of sustainable concrete tile containing Recycled glass. This innovative approach aims
to create tiles that are not only durable and aesthetically pleasing but also Thermal Insulation,
acoustic properties (sound absorption), light in weight, life cycle and end of life consideration,
surface treatment (slip resistance), affordable and environmentally friendly.
By production of sustainable concrete tile containing Recycled glass, reduce quantity of
aggregate to be used, it would reduce the amount of glasses battle that ends up in landfills,
thereby mitigating the associated health hazards and environmental impact. Moreover, this
initiative will contribute to the local economy by creating jobs and promoting the use of locally
sourced materials. The production of these floor tiles will not only provide a cost-effective
solution for the local market but also set a precedent for sustainable manufacturing practices in
Rwanda.
1.3. OBJECTIVES
1.3.1 GENERAL OBJECTIVE
The main objective of this project is Production of sustainable concrete tiles containing recycled
glass
1.3.2 SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
To effectively guide the research, the general objective is supported by the following specific
objectives:
1. To Collect glass from disposal sites and other materials like cement, sand and gravel
2. To Conduct mix designs to achieve the required strength.
3. To produce (Manufacture) tile specimens.
4. To perform test of the new tiles produced
5. To Estimate the cost of produced tile.

1.4. RESEARCH QUESTION/HYPOTHESIS

1. What types of glass waste, cement, sand and gravel are most suitable for recycling into
concrete tiles?
2. What are the optimal mix proportions of recycled glass, cement, and other materials to
achieve the desired strength and durability in the tiles?
3. How do the newly developed tiles perform in terms of water absorption, compressive
strength, and other relevant tests compared to existing tiles?
4. Can the use of recycled glass enhance the functional properties of the tiles, such as slip
resistance, thermal insulation, or acoustic properties?
5. What are the environmental benefits of using recycled glass in concrete tile production,
such as reducing waste and conserving natural resources?

1.5. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

1.5.1. PERSONAL INTEREST
Production of sustainable concrete tiles containing recycled glass will help me in research to
understand the practical skills and knowledge got in class, increases the experience of innovation
and creativity, improves critical thinking and solve problems in engineering industry and even in
society.
1.5.2. ACADEMIC INTEREST
As a student who is ending up bachelor level in the option of construction technology, my
research will be the references and motivation for other students or another researcher especially
within MUSANZE college.
1.5.3. PUBLIC INTEREST
If this project is not done the world will continuous to suffer because glass is generally harmful
and has far reaching consequences, due to Glasses from old battle and after use, demolished
building ends up in landfills, as well as sharp effects on human beings, carbon dioxide, and
climate change. Help people to live in comfortable area by against the glass waste and to
increase the hygienic and got affordable tile.

1.6. SCOPE OF THE STUDY

1.6.1. SCOPE
The scope of this project is production of sustainable concrete tile containing Recycled glass as
building materials. This study includes production of tile, conducting laboratory test. The tile
sample made from waste glass, coarse and fine aggregate, cement and water(concrete) as
building material. This should be done in Rwanda especially where development occur in urban
and local area. So the implementation of this project will focused to whole country to enable
people to get tile which is durable and affordable.
1.6.2. LIMITATIONS
Potential limitations and anticipated problems include constraints in material availability,
variability in recycled glass quality, technical challenges in concrete tile production, and market
acceptance barriers. Strategies to address these limitations will be implemented through
collaborative partnerships, rigorous experimentation, and stakeholder engagement.
CHAPITER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0. INTRODUCTION
Tile is a construction material made from recycled glass and concrete which is used as floor tile
to provide the appearance of the building and prevent water penetration to the floor base.
(Kherraf ,2022)
Most glass waste is simply a type of used product – such as an empty jam jar after spreading it
all over your toast. The other main kind of waste glass is broken items like a cracked car
windscreen or a dropped vase. Recycling is possible for most types of glass and some common
examples are:
Bottles: used and empty glass bottles for beer and wine, olive oil, sauces, and any other liquids
Jars: any type of glass jar that’s no longer needed like those for condiments, jam, cosmetics,
and glass candle jars
Glassware: broken or unneeded drinking glasses, jugs, containers, and vases
Window panes: broken or removed windowpanes from buildings or vehicles
Furniture: old and broken glass coffee tables, tabletops, lamps, or other furniture
Manufacturing: trimmed and offcuts of glass from the manufacturing process
2.1. CAUSES GLASS WASTE
The main cause of glass waste is simply using its contents. This could be finishing a bottle of
wine at home, drinking a bottle of beer in a restaurant, or emptying the last bit of mayonnaise
from a glass jar in a commercial kitchen. Using any product in a glass bottle or jar creates waste
that should be recycled.
Accidents are another reason for glass waste. Knocking over a vase, dropping a bottle, or
cracking a car windshield may cause it to shatter and leave you with many shards of glass to
clean up. Manufacturing glass products also leads to material being cut off and wasted – though
it may be melted and reused.

Some of the main places that create waste glass are restaurants, bars, cafes, shops,
and pubs simply because they use and sell many products in glass bottles and jars. As glass is
infinitely recyclable it’s a good material to use and preferable to plastic alternatives, as long as
it’s sent for recycling at the end of its life. (Siddique ,2008)

Figure 1glass waste

2.3 STATISTIC OF GLASS WASTE

Get a sense of how much glass we use and waste we produce as individuals and businesses with
these important glass facts and stats. They help drive home how reducing glass usage and
wastage even a little bit can help make a big difference. Here are some crystal-clear glass waste
facts:
About 130 million tonnes of glass are produced around the world every year
Around five million tonnes of glass are used in the UK annually
In the UK we recycle around 76.5% of all used glass
Recycling one tonne of glass saves around 385,000 tons of CO2 emissions
The glass industry recycles around 27 million metric tons worldwide each year
If a glass bottle ends up in landfill it could take up to one million years to degrade
1,350 glassworks with more than 2,500 glass furnaces operate today
The biggest glass furnace produces more than a million glass bottles and jars daily
The earliest examples of glass created by humans are from around 4,000 years ago by craftsmen
in Mesopotamia
2.4 GLASS RECYCLING FACTS
Recycling glass is best for the environment. Consider these facts and stats about glass recycling
for a greater understanding of the benefits:
Cullet is the name for recycled glass, and it requires a lower heating temperature than glass made
from raw materials – which means 40% less energy is needed to make products from recycled
glass Recycled glass cullet saves raw materials: one tonne of cullet saves 590kg of sand, 185kg
of soda ash, and 172kg of limestone Every tonne of glass reused and recycled in the
manufacturing process saves around 315kg of carbon dioxide (Zawada ,2021)

Figure 2Glass waste

2.4 GLASS WASTE STATISTICS

Lots of glass products are thrown away by homes across the UK every day. Some local councils
accept glass in household recycling bins while in other locations you must recycle glass bottles
and jars at your nearest bottle bank. As an idea of how much glass homes use here are some
domestic glass waste statistics:
The average UK household uses 500 glass bottles and jars every year
Around 1,500,000 tonnes of glass bottles are recycled from UK households annually
Recycling one tonne of glass can make around 4,000 bottles and jars
There are around 3,000 glass bottle banks across the UK and each one can hold up to 3,000
bottles and jars before it needs emptying
Recycling glass is fast – an old bottle can go from your recycling bin to becoming a recycled
glass bottle for sale in 30 days
Glass waste statistics and facts for
pubs, bars, and restaurants
It’s no surprise that pubs, bars, and restaurants create high volumes of glass waste. Drink bottles,
jars of condiments, ingredients in the kitchen, and even glass candle jars on tables are the main
reasons. Recycling is important to help the environment but also reduces waste collection costs
for such businesses.
Here are a few facts about the glass waste pubs and bars produce:
Bars, restaurants, and pubs send 200,000 tonnes of glass to landfill annually
Packaging and glass recycling levels are around 73% for pubs in the UK
Beer bottles are often brown as the amber tint reflects ultraviolet light that protects the beer from
spoilage (Butler ,2019, January)

2.5 COMPONENTS OF CONCRETE

2.5.1 CEMENT
Cement content influence the workability of concrete in two ways. First, for a given w/c
ratio, the larger the cement content, the higher the total water amount in the concrete,
hence, the consistency of concrete will be enhanced. Second, cement paste itself plays the
roles of coating, filling, and lubrication for aggregate particles. In normal concrete, a
considerably low cement content tends to produce a harsh mixture, with poor consistency
and, subsequently, poor finish ability. High cement content implies that more lubricant
is available for consistency improvement. Finally, with an increase of the cement
content at a low w/c ratio, both consistency and cohesiveness can be improved. Under
the same w/c ratio, the higher the cement content, the better the workability. Increasing
the fineness of the cement particles will decrease the fluidity of the concrete at a given
w/c ratio, but will increase the cohesiveness. Concrete containing a very high proportion of
cement or very fine cement show excellent cohesiveness but tend to be sticky.
(Gartner ,2018)

Figure 3 cement

2.5.2 SAND
With the worldwide decline in the availability of construction sands along with the
environmental pressures to reduce extraction of sand from rivers, the use of manufactured sand
as a replacement is increasing. With the ban on sand mining implemented by different states, and
with the increasing demand for river sand for construction works, many civil engineers have
expressed the need to promote use of manufactured sand in the construction industry. As per
reports, manufactured sand is widely used all around the world and technicians of major projects
around the world insist on the compulsory use of manufactured sand because of its consistent
gradation and zero impurity (Mehta ,1994)

Figure 4sand
2.5.3 COARSE AGGREGATES
Coarse aggregates are in igneous rocks that forms products of an explosive volcanic eruption. In
these eruptions, the volcanic blasts rock, ash, magma and other materials from its event. The
only requirement is that the materials are air full produced by a volcanic eruption.
Volcanic aggregates can contain fragments of dust-sized particles and be composed off
many different types of material. Different volcanoes are supplied with magma of different
composites. Many of this aggregates deposits form magma with rhyolites composites but
andesitic, basaltic and other types of magma might contribute to the volcanic aggregates
might consist mainly of large block of materials in a volcanic ash matrix, with distance
from the vent, the clasts will be smaller. (Etxeberria ,2007)

2.5.4 WATER
Besides water, concrete is the second most widely used material on this planet. Water is
responsible for the strength gain, workability, and overall durability of concrete as it is
responsible for its hydration. Generally, it is accepted that any potable water is suitable for
drinking and making concrete. However, the construction industry is water-consuming and
contributing to the country's Gross Domestic Product (GDP). The largest cement-producing
countries are China and India with 2.2 billion and 320 million metric tons in 2019 under global
water stress conditions by 30% and 40%, respectively. To reduce the water stress in the
construction industry, various alternative water types are being used as mixing water to the
concrete. Fortunately, different countries have shown interest in reusing non-potable water when
possible. Seawater (SW), Wash water from Ready Mix Concrete plants (WWRMC), Greywater
(GW), Treated Sewage Wastewater (TSWW), and Magnetized water (MW) were experimented
in concrete for mixing and curing. (World Water Assessment Programme (United
Nations) ,2009)

2.6 CONCRETE MIX DESIGN

Concrete mix design is the process of determining the proportions of the various components that
need to be combined to create a concrete mix with the desired properties. The mix design takes
into consideration factors such as the strength, durability, workability, and desired appearance of
the concrete, as well as the specific materials being used. The goal is to create a concrete mix
that is cost-effective, easy to place, and compact, and that meets the performance requirements
for the intended use.
Various grades of concrete are categorized as M5, M7.5, M10, M15, and so on, where M refers
to Mix and the number behind M represents Characteristic Compressive Strength (fck) of
concrete(N/mm2)28 days when checked using a (15 cm×15 cm×15 cm) cube in a direct
compression test. (Shakhmenko ,1998, January)
Concrete proportions up to M25 grade are referred to as nominal mix concrete.
S.No. Grade of Concrete Concrete Mix Design Ratio
(Nominal Mix) (Cement: Sand: Coarse Aggregate)
1 M5 1:5:10
2 M7.5 1:4:8
3 M10 1:3:6
4 M15 1:2:4
5 M20 1:1.5:3
6 M25 1:1:2
Table 1Standard Concrete Mix Design

2.7 TILE TESTS

This discusses the various diagnostic tools used in the investigation of
delamination failure of tiles in a high rise building in Singapore. Such techniques include
both field and laboratory-based examinations as well as extensive and meticulous data
collection.
2.7.1 PHYSICAL TESTS
Physical tests are used to characterize some basic properties of the materials used in
the tiling works. Such tests include porosity, expansion due to moisture or thermal variation,
Young's modulus and density. These tests may be conducted on the tile itself or the bedding
and render behind the tile. Knowledge of the properties of the various components of the
tiling system would allow assessment to be made on the quality of the materials and them
likely behavior and interaction between one another when exposed to service condition.
A summary of tests is given in table 1.
2.7.3. MECHANICAL TESTS
Common mechanical tests used in investigation of tiles delamination failures include
the adhesion bond strength test between the different layers of the tiling system, i.e. tile,
bedding, render and the background. Two types of adhesion strength tests can be performed;
one is the tensile adhesion and the other is the shear adhesion. The tensile adhesion test is
more commonly carried out since it is easier to perform. Shear adhesion test on the other
hand requires more elaborate set up and thus more expensive. Generally, the shear adhesion
of a tile to adhesive is higher than the tensile counterpart depending on the tile key backing
details. Other types of mechanical tests include strength tests such as flexural strength and
compressive strength. Similar to the physical properties, information on the mechanical
properties facilitate assessment of quality and likely interaction between the various
components in the tiling system. Bond strength meanwhile provides additional insight into
the existing

2.7.4. FIELD NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING

Nondestructive testing is one of the most popular tests for failure analysis for the
simple reason of being nondestructive. However, the use of such techniques has to be made
with caution as a number of them do require a certain degree of experience and expertise in
interpreting the results. Nondestructive testing are used basically to scan and determine
locations of suspected poor or non-adhesion, entrapped moisture, leakages and excessive
strain or movement. Probably one of the most well received technique in building facade
investigation such as a tiled facade is the infrared thermography. Other techniques include
the mechanical tapping with the aid of a robotic climber, strain gauging, ultrasonic and the
laser technique. In addition, other insitu tests may also be performed for instance moisture
measurement, salt detection, temperature monitoring etc. A list of suitable techniques is
given in table 4.
2.7.5 VISUAL EXAMINATION
Visual examination is the most basic and probably the most important diagnostic tool
in any investigation works. An extensive amount of information can be drawn from such
simple method which will not be shown through elaborate and expensive analyses. However,
visual examination must be carried out by trained and experience personnel, otherwise,
vital information may be omitted which could adversely influence the finding of the
investigation. Visual examination should be performed in the field at the site of failure and
more importantly when the evidence. of failure is still present. Unfortunately, quite often,
investigators are called in after rectification works have been carried out or failed components
have been disposed of. The examination should be carried out on site on the building
which tiles have delaminated as well as on the delaminated samples themselves.
In-situ visual examination should be carried out with the aid of some tools such as a
camera, a grey chart, measuring tape, caliper magnifying glass, fiberscope, mirrors etc.
2.7.6. SIMULATION TEST
Simulation tests involve a series of experiments to reproduce the failure observed on
site and to study the effects of the parameters gathered from the various stages of the diagnosis.
Details of simulation tests could normally be worked out once the initial stages of the
investigative analysis has been completed or almost completed. In tile failure investigation,
it would usually encompass preparation of the substrate, installation of tiles based on
materials and methods used on site, accelerated weathering and performance tests.
Performance tests are the base which the effects of the various parameters of the performance
of the installed tiles are studied. The adhesion bond strength and visual examination are
probably the most common assessment criteria. (Botas ,2017)

2.8. IMPORTANCE OF TILE

hygienic Tiles are mold and mildew resistant.
Allergy-free The impervious tile surface won’t trap dust, pollen, or
contaminants.
Pet friendly Resistant to claws and unaffected by dirty paws and “little
accidents”.
VOC free Tiles will not give off dangerous volatile organic compounds.
Hardwearing Tiles suitable for all traffic areas.
High heel friendly Strong, unaffected by the concentrated load of heeled shoes.
Underfloor heating compatible Ideal to combine with underfloor heating for toasty toes and
 efficient heating.
Termite & woodworm proof Tiles are off the menu when it comes to termite dining.
Low maintenance So easy, just sweep, wipe with a damp cloth or a light mop.
Long-lasting Tiles can last as long as the building, they are made of tough
stuff.
Odor free No absorption means no odors.
Maximum water resistance Glazed tiles and porcelain tiles are impervious to water.
Fire & heat resistant Tiles will not burn or add fuel to any fire.
Color-Fast Ceramic tiles will not fade in sunlight or strong UV light.
(Guo ,2008, February)
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY

3.0. INTRODUCTION
This chapter mainly relies on carrying out the procedures, schemes, techniques, which were used
during the study. These methods were essential, scientifically planned and value-neutralized.
They include theoretical procedures, experimental studies, numerical schemes and statistical
approaches where necessary.

3.1. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

1. In order to achieve the objectives of this project, the following methods have been used:
2. Internet research because it serves as a guidance and original source of information.
3. Site investigation is to identify the availability of glass and concrete materials
ingredients.
4. To keep in collaboration with supervisor
5. Use of building codes provide minimum standards for safety, health and general welfare
6. including physical property and mechanical property.
7. Microsoft office Excel used for calculating and estimating the bill of quantities.
8. Microsoft office Word used for typing works.
9. Reading books related to property of building materials.
10. Using interviews and questionnaire for asking the level of glass impacts.

3.2. RESEARCH DESIGN

1. Collection materials like cement, sand, gravels and glass from disposal sites.
2. Conduct mix designs to achieve the required strength. (Properties of materials: Portland
Cement :32.5 grade, fine aggregate (River sand (Giciye): 5 mm max), and coarse
aggregate pass in sieve 10mm)
3. Batching, mixing and casting tile
4. Laboratory and field test: compressive strength test (concrete cubes) as sample on mix
used,
Water absorption test, stain resistance, rebound hammer, density and specific gravity.
5. Estimate the cost of produced tile.
3.2.1. COLLECTION OF MATERIALS
The production of sustainable concrete tiles containing recycled glass involves a series of well-
defined steps to ensure both environmental responsibility and high-quality output. The process
begins with sourcing and collecting glass from disposal sites, cement, sand, gravel and water.
Recycled Glass: Collected from local disposal sites, crushed, and sorted into aggregate-sized
particles. This not only reduces waste but also provides an eco-friendly alternative to traditional
aggregates.
Cement: Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) of 32.5 grade, specifically chosen for its strength and
binding properties.
Fine Aggregates: (Giciye) sand, known for its consistent quality and suitability for concrete
production.
coarse Aggregates: Sourced from the crushed site in the Musanze district. aggregates are valued
for their lightweight and insulating properties, these aggregates provide strength and durability to
the tiles.
Water: Clean and free from impurities, fetched from a reliable water source to ensure the mix
quality.
Figure 5materials used in production

3.2.2. CONDUCT MIX DESIGNS TO ACHIEVE THE REQUIRED STRENGTH

To design a concrete tile containing recycled glass with a target compressive strength of 20
N/mm², while being more cost-effective and affordable than ceramic tiles, I will focus on
optimizing the concrete mix with an appropriate balance of materials, including recycled glass,
to achieve both strength and cost efficiency.
Step 1: Establishing the Mix Design Requirements
Step 2: preparation of Materials to be used
Step 3: Proportions for Mix Design and for % of recycled glass as partial replacement
Step 4: Calculation of Material Quantities
3.2.3. PROCEDURES USED FOR MANUFACTURING

Here are the procedures of production of sustainable concrete tile containing recycled glass

Preparation of Materials

Cleaning recycled glass: Remove any large debris or contaminants and dust from glasses.

Cement: ensure the quality of cement free from lumps and ensure a smooth mixing process and
up to date (not expired) Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC).

Fine Aggregates: Sand should be free from impurities (passing through a 4.75 mm sieve).
Coarse Aggregates: Crushed stone (passing through a 10 mm sieve).
Water: use Clean and potable water.

Mixing the Dry Ingredients

Proportions: Typically, a ratio of cement, sand, recycled glass and gravel can vary based on the
desired properties of the final product.

Combine Dry Ingredients: Mix Dry Materials: Combine cement, sand, recycled glass, and
coarse aggregates in a concrete mixer or by hand until uniformly mixed.
Molding

Prepare Molds: Clean and grease the molds to prevent sticking. Molds can be made from
various materials, such as wood, metal or plastic, and should be designed according to the size
and shape of tile you want to produce.

Figure 6Procedures used for manufacturing

Adding Water

Add Water: Gradually add water while mixing until the desired consistency is achieved. The
goal is to achieve a workable consistency where the mixture can hold together but isn’t too wet.
Casting: Pour the concrete mix into tile molds, compact to remove air voids, and finish the
surface.

Compaction: Use a hydraulic or mechanical press to compact the mixture in the molds. This
step is crucial for achieving the desired density and strength.

Trimming and Cutting: Trim any excess material and cut the tile to the final dimensions as
required. This can be done with cutting tools.

Curing: Demold after 24 hours and cure the tiles in water for 28 days to achieve optimal
strength.
Finishing

Surface Treatment: includes grinding surface by grinder machine or by hand for aesthetics,
uniformity, durability, or weather resistance.

Figure 7Procedures used for manufacturing

3.2.4 LABORATORY TEST

3.2.4.1. COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH TEST
Objective: To measure the tile's ability to withstand compressive forces without failing.
Apparatus: Compression testing machine, concrete tile samples.
Procedure
Place the representative cube sample for mixture used in the compression testing machine.
Gradually apply force until the tile fails or breaks.
Record the maximum force endured by the cube sample
Tools and Equipment
Universal Testing Machine (UTM), curing tank, sample molds.
Results
The compressive strength of tiles with recycled glass may slightly reduce compared to
conventional tiles, but should still meet industry standards for load-bearing applications.
Recycled glass can be used without significantly compromising the tile's structural integrity
Figure 8Compressive Strength Test

3.2.4.2. WATER ABSORPTION TEST

Objective
To determine the tile's porosity and ability to absorb water.
Apparatus
Weighing balance, water, drying paper (for cleaning water).
Procedure
Weigh the dry tile (W1).
Submerge the tile in water for 24 hours.
Weigh the tile after drying the surface (W2).
Calculate water absorption as ({W2 - W1}/{W1} times 100).
Results
Recycled glass reduces water absorption due to its non-porous nature, improving the tile's
resistance to moisture, Tiles with recycled glass have lower water absorption, enhancing their
durability in wet environments.
Figure 9Water Absorption Test

3.2.4.3. DENSITY AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY TEST

The apparent specific gravity is assessed by comparing the tiles weight in air against buoyance in
water
Objective
To determine the density and specific gravity, which affect the tile's weight and strength.
Apparatus
Weighing balance, volume measurement tools (measure length, width, height)
Procedure
Measure the tile's volume.
Weigh the tile.
Calculate density as mass/volume.
Tools and Equipment
Precision balance, measuring tape.
Results
Density may slightly decrease with recycled glass, but the tiles remain strong and lightweight,
Recycled glass reduces tile weight, making it easier to handle and install.
Figure 10Density and Specific Gravity Test

3.2.4.6. STAIN RESISTANCE TEST

This is method for the determination of resistance of tiles to staining by maintaining test
solutions and materials in contact with the proper surface of the tile for suitable length of time.
The surfaces are then subjected to defined cleaning method and finally inspected for visual
change.
Objective
To evaluate the tile's ability to resist stains from common substances.
Apparatus
Staining agents (e.g., coffee, oil), cleaning tools.
Procedure
1. Apply staining agents to the tile surface.
2. After a set period, clean the tile and inspect for stains.
Tools and Equipment
Staining agents, cleaning tools.
Results
Recycled glass enhances stain resistance, especially with a smooth, polished surface.
Tiles with recycled glass are more stain-resistant, making them easier to maintain.
Figure 11stain resistance test and way of removal

3.2.4.7. REBOUND HAMMER TEST

The Rebound Hammer Test, also known as the Schmidt Hammer Test, is a non-destructive
method used to assess the compressive strength of concrete by measuring the rebound of a
spring-driven hammer that impacts the concrete surface. It provides an estimate of the in-place
strength of concrete.
Objectives:
1. Estimate the compressive strength of concrete.
2. Identify variations in concrete strength within a structure.
3. Assess the overall quality of concrete in a non-destructive manner.
Tools and Equipment
1. Rebound Hammer: A handheld device that consists of a spring-loaded mass that strikes the
concrete surface and a rebound mechanism to measure the rebound distance.
2. Grinding Stone or Emery Paper: Used to prepare a smooth and flat test surface.
3. Measuring Tape or Distance Measurement Device: To measure the rebound distance
accurately.
4. Reference Calibration Anvil: A hardened steel reference anvil used for calibrating the rebound
hammer before testing.
Procedures
1. Surface Preparation: Grind or prepare a smooth, flat, and clean test surface on the concrete to
ensure accurate results.
2. Calibration: - Calibrate the rebound hammer using the reference calibration anvil according to
the manufacturer's instructions.
3. Test Point Selection: Select test points representative of the concrete area to be assessed and
Ensure the test points are free from loose particles or surface irregularities.
4.Test Execution: Hold the rebound hammer perpendicular to the concrete surface, Press the
hammer against the concrete and release the spring-loaded mass to impact the surface and
Record the rebound distance indicated on the hammer.
5. Repeat Testing: Conduct multiple tests at each selected test point for reliability and Ensure
consistent and accurate rebound readings.
6.Calculation: Use the rebound distance readings to estimate the compressive strength of
concrete based on empirical correlation charts provided by the rebound hammer manufacturer.
7. Interpretation: Higher rebound values generally correlate with higher compressive strengths,
while lower values may indicate lower strengths or potential issues with the concrete.

Figure 12Rebound Hammer Test

Result
The Rebound Hammer Test is a quick and convenient method for assessing the in-place strength
of concrete structures, providing valuable information for quality control and structural
evaluation.
Indicate variations strength within a tile.
Summary of Results
Strength: Slight reduction in compressive strength and rebound hammer, but still within
acceptable limits for most applications.
Durability: Improved resistance to impacts, and stains, making the tile longer-lasting.
Aesthetics: Enhanced visual appeal with unique textures and colors from the glass.
Environmental Benefits: Significant reduction in waste and use of natural resources,
contributing to sustainability.
These tests ensure that concrete floor tiles containing recycled glass not only offer sustainability
benefits but also meet the necessary performance standards for safe and durable use in various
applications.
CHAP 4: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.0. INTRODUCTION
Generally, this chapter presents the result obtained from manufacturing or producing and testing
of produced sustainable concrete tile containing Recycled glass have the dimension of 40* 40* 1
Cm and 40*40*1.3 cm.
Project of production of sustainable concrete tile containing Recycled glass as innovative
approach aims to create tiles that are not only durable and aesthetically pleasing but also Thermal
Insulation, water resistance, light in weight, life cycle and end of life consideration, surface
treatment (slip resistance), affordable and environmentally friendly, have been implemented by
using recycled glass, cement, sand, gravel and water, after implementation the different tests are
carried out to check whether intended production achieved.

4.1 CONDUCT MIX DESIGN

Mix Design Calculation

 Cement density: 1440 kg/m³

 Sand density: 1600 kg/m³
 Gravel density: 1600 kg/m³
 Recycled glass density: 2500 kg/m³
 Water-cement ratio: 0.5

Total Volume Calculation

 Tile dimensions: 40 cm × 40 cm × 1 cm = 1600 cm³ = 0.0016 m³

Mix Ratio: 1:1.5:3 (Cement: Sand: Coarse Aggregate)

1. No Recycled Glass (0% Recycled Glass)

 Total parts: 1 (Cement) + 1.5 (Sand) + 3 (Gravel) = 5.5 parts

 Volume allocation:
o Cement volume: (1/5.5) × 0.0016 m³ = 0.000291 m³
o Sand volume: (1.5/5.5) × 0.0016 m³ = 0.000436 m³
 o Gravel volume: (3/5.5) × 0.0016 m³ = 0.000873 m³
 Weight calculations:
o Cement weight: 0.000291 m³ × 1440 kg/m³ = 0.419 kg
o Sand weight: 0.000436 m³ × 1600 kg/m³ = 0.698 kg
o Gravel weight: 0.000873 m³ × 1600 kg/m³ = 1.048 kg
o Water weight: 0.5 × 0.419 kg = 0.209 kg

2. 25% Recycled Glass

 Volume allocation:
o Gravel volume: 0.75 × 0.000873 m³ = 0.000655 m³
o Recycled glass volume: 0.25 × 0.000873 m³ = 0.000218 m³
 Weight calculations:
o Recycled glass weight: 0.000218 m³ × 2500 kg/m³ = 0.545 kg
o Remaining gravel weight: 0.000655 m³ × 1600 kg/m³ = 1.048 kg

3. 50% Recycled Glass

 Volume allocation:
o Gravel volume: 0.5 × 0.000873 m³ = 0.000437 m³
o Recycled glass volume: 0.5 × 0.000873 m³ = 0.000437 m³
 Weight calculations:
o Recycled glass weight: 0.000437 m³ × 2500 kg/m³ = 1.093 kg
o Remaining gravel weight: 0.000437 m³ × 1600 kg/m³ = 0.699 kg

4. 75% Recycled Glass

 Volume allocation:
o Gravel volume: 0.25 × 0.000873 m³ = 0.000218 m³
o Recycled glass volume: 0.75 × 0.000873 m³ = 0.000655 m³
 Weight calculations:
o Recycled glass weight: 0.000655 m³ × 2500 kg/m³ = 1.638 kg
o Remaining gravel weight: 0.000218 m³ × 1600 kg/m³ = 0.349 kg
Final Mix Designs

1. 0% Recycled Glass
o Cement: 0.419 kg
o Sand: 0.698 kg
o Gravel: 1.048 kg
o Water: 0.209 kg

2. 25% Recycled Glass

o Cement: 0.419 kg
o Sand: 0.698 kg
o Gravel: 0.703 kg
o Recycled Glass: 0.545 kg
o Water: 0.209 kg

3. 50% Recycled Glass

o Cement: 0.419 kg
o Sand: 0.698 kg
o Gravel: 0.699 kg
o Recycled Glass: 1.093 kg
o Water: 0.209 kg

4. 75% Recycled Glass

o Cement: 0.419 kg
o Sand: 0.698 kg
o Gravel: 0.349 kg
o Recycled Glass: 1.638 kg
o Water: 0.209 kg

Conclusion

 Strength Considerations: Increasing the percentage of recycled glass typically results in

a reduction in compressive strength due to its lower density and mechanical properties
 compared to traditional gravel. For achieving the target strength of 20 MPa, a lower
percentage of recycled glass might be more appropriate.
 Cost Efficiency: Higher percentages of recycled glass can reduce costs and promote
sustainability, but they may also necessitate adjustments in mix design or additional
additives to meet strength requirements.

Based on the data:

 25% recycled glass shows good balance with a compressive strength of 19.6 MPa, close
to the target strength of 20 MPa.
 50% recycled glass and 75% recycled glass may require further adjustments to achieve
the desired strength, possibly by increasing the cement content or incorporating additives.

Conclusion

This mix design replaces part of the coarse aggregate with recycled glass, which can
significantly reduce costs, especially if the glass is sourced locally or recycled in-house. The use
of sand and locally available aggregates also contributes to cost savings compared to ceramic
tiles, which require more intensive processing and materials. Regular testing of the tiles
produced with this mix is recommended to ensure consistent quality and strength.

4.2 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

Recycled Glass Target Strength Achieved Strength Required Force Applied Force
Success
(%) (MPa) (MPa) (kN) (kN)
0% 20 20.4 450 450 Yes
25% 20 19.6 450 441 Yes
50% 20 16 450 360 No
75% 20 12 450 270 No
Table 2Compressive Strength

1. Compressive Strength vs. Recycled Glass Percentage

A bar chart can help visualize the compressive strength for each percentage of recycled glass.
  X-Axis: Percentage of Recycled Glass
 Y-Axis: Compressive Strength (MPa)

Figure 13Compressive Strength (MPa)

4.3. WATER ABSORPTION TESTS

1. Dry Weight Measurement:
2. Weigh each tile after curing to determine the dry weight (W_d).
3. Soak the tiles in water for 24 hours.
4. Wet Weight Measurement
5. Remove the tiles from the water, let excess surface water drain off, and then weigh the
tiles to determine the wet weight (W_w).
Interpretation:
absorption percentage: Water Absorption(%)=((Ww−Wd)/Wd) ×100,
The following data for three specimens of concrete tiles containing recycled glass:
Specimen Dry Weight (W_d, g) Wet Weight (W_w, g) Water Absorption (%)
P1 1374.5 1465.4 7.13
P2 1370.8 1461.3 7.10
Specimen Dry Weight (W_d, g) Wet Weight (W_w, g) Water Absorption (%)
P3 1375.2 1467.1 6.69
Table 3Water Absorption (%)

Calculation for each specimen:

Specimen P1:
Water Absorption (%)= (1465.4−1374.5)1374.5×100=90.91374.5×100=7.13%
Specimen P2:
Water Absorption (%)= (1461.3−1370.8)1370.8×100=90.51370.8×100=7.10%
Specimen P3:
Water Absorption (%)= (1467.1−1375.2)1375.2×100=91.91375.2×100=6.69%
Average Water Absorption: 7.13%+7.10+6.69= 6.97%

To visualize the water absorption data, a bar chart with the following labels:
X-Axis: Specimen (P1, P2, P3)
Y-Axis: Water Absorption (%)

Conclusion
Water Absorption Results: The average water absorption for the tiles with recycled glass is
6.64%, which is relatively low compared to typical values for concrete. This low absorption rate
indicates that the tiles are effective at resisting water ingress.
Impact of Recycled Glass: The inclusion of recycled glass contributes to a reduction in water
absorption due to its low porosity compared to traditional aggregates. This enhances the
durability and longevity of the tiles.
Durability: The results demonstrate that the concrete tiles with recycled glass are effective in
minimizing water absorption, thereby improving their resistance to environmental factors and
potential degradation over time.

4.4. REBOUND HAMMER TESTS

The Rebound Hammer Test, also known as the Schmidt Hammer Test, is a non-destructive
method used to assess the compressive strength of material by measuring the rebound of a
spring-driven hammer that impacts the surface. It provides an estimate of the in-place strength of
material.
Use the rebound distance readings to estimate the compressive strength of special cladding
material based on empirical correlation charts provided by the rebound hammer manufacturer.
Higher rebound values generally correlate with higher compressive strengths, while lower values
may indicate lower strengths or potential issues with the concrete.
 Civil engineering laboratory
rebound hammer test
Test method BS812-105.1:1989 RECORDING FORM; 001
Client: RP MUSANZE COLLEGE
PROJECT: Final year priject
Structure name: sustainable concrete tile containing recycled glass
Dates of manufacturing : 04/08/2024
Age of material: 7 days
Testing date: 07/09/2024
Machine used: rebound hammer
SN of points position reading strengh value average
1 -90 25 22 strengh Mpa
2 -90 22 18
3 -90 28 27
4 -90 24 21
5 -90 24 21
6 -90 25 22
7 -90 22 18
8 -90 28 27
9 -90 24 21
10 -90 23 19
Median 19

Average 21.6
Low reading 18
High reading 28

Done by: IRAGUHA Irene Verified by: Lab technician

Table 4rebound values

conclusion
providing valuable (21.6 Mpa) information for quality control and structural evaluation.
Indicate variations strength within a tile, The Rebound Hammer Test is a quick and convenient
method for assessing the in-place strength of concrete structures, providing valuable information
for quality control and structural evaluation. The value indicates that the strength of 20Mpa has
been achieved and increased as time goes.

4.5. DENSITY AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY

Interpretation:
1. Tile Volume Calculation
Tile dimensions: 0.4 m x 0.4 m x 0.01 m
Tile Volume=0.4×0.4×0.01=0.0016 m3
2. Density Calculation:
Tile Weight: 1270.8 kg
Density Formula: Density=Mass/Volume=1270.8 kg/0.0016 m3=794250kg/m3
3. Specific Gravity Calculation:
Specific Gravity Formula: Specific Gravity=Density of Tile/Density of Water (Assuming the
density of water = 1000 kg/m³)
Specific Gravity: Specific Gravity=794250 kg/m3/1000 kg/m3=794.25
Conclusion
Despite this reduction in tile thickness, resulting in a very high density (794250 kg/m³) and
specific gravity (794.25), the tiles maintain sufficient strength while being lightweight for their
intended application. These properties highlight the tile's durability and practicality in sustainable
construction, even with reduced material usage.
Recycled glass enhances the ease of handling and installation due to reduced weight, making it a
viable material for sustainable construction.

4.6. STAIN RESISTANCE

Interpretation: The smooth surface provided by the glass reduces the adherence of stains.
Conclusion: These tiles are easier to maintain, making them ideal for spaces requiring high
cleanliness standards.
CONCLUSION FOR TEST RESULT
production of sustainable concrete tiles containing recycled glass presents a viable, cost-
effective, and environmentally friendly alternative to traditional tiles. These tiles meet or exceed
the performance characteristics of conventional concrete and ceramic tiles, with added benefits
such as improved stain and water resistance, lightweight, and lower production costs. The
adoption of recycled glass in tile production not only contributes to environmental sustainability
but also results in high-quality, durable products suitable for a wide range of applications.

4.7 BILLS OF QUANTITY

1. Material Costs in Rwanda:

 Cement: 400 RWF per kg

 Sand: 70 RWF per kg
  Gravel: 80 RWF per kg
 Recycled Glass: 30 RWF per kg
 Water: 2 RWF per kg

2. Material Requirements for 75 Tiles:

 Cement: 31.43 kg
 Sand: 52.35 kg
 Gravel: 78 kg
 Recycled Glass: 40.5 kg
 Water: 15.675 kg

3. Cost Calculation:

Material Quantity Cost per Unit (RWF) Total Cost (RWF)

Materials
Cement 31.43 kg 400 12,572.00
Sand 52.35 kg 70 3,674.50
Gravel 78 kg 80 6,240.00
Recycled Glass 40.5 kg 30 1,215.00
Water 15.675 kg 2 31.35
Total Material Cost 23,732.85
Labor Costs
Mixing 12 m² 500 RWF/m² 6,000.00
Tile Molding, Manufacturing, and Curing 12 m² 2500 RWF/m² 30,000.00
Grinding and Finishing 12 m² 1250 RWF/m² 15,000.00
Total Labor Cost 51,000.00
Overall Total Cost 74,732.85

4. Cost per Tile Calculation:

Total Cost for 12 m²: 74,732.85RWF

Cost per Tile: Cost per Tile=74,732.85RWF /75 tiles =996.438RWF/tile

Total Cost produced concrete tile containing recycled glass for m²: 74,732.85RWF
/12m2=6,227.73RWF per Square meter

6. Comparison with Kenya Ceramic Tiles and Local Costs: Average Cost of Ceramic
Tile (40 cm × 40 cm) in Rwanda: 9,500 RWF per Square meter

Type of Tile Cost (RWF)/Square meter

concrete tile containing recycled glass 6,227.73RWF
Ceramic Tiles 9,500 RWF

Figure 14 chart of comparison ceramic tile and concrete tile containing recycled glass cost
Figure 15chart of comparison ceramic tile and concrete tile containing recycled glass cost

Conclusion

1. Cost Effectiveness: Concrete tiles containing recycled glass are highly cost-effective
compared to traditional ceramic tiles.
2. Affordability to Community: The substantial reduction in cost makes concrete tiles
with recycled glass a highly affordable option. This cost-effectiveness can help lower
construction expenses and make high-quality tiling more accessible to a larger portion of
the community.
3. Environmental Impact: Utilizing recycled glass not only cuts costs but also contributes
to sustainability by reducing waste. This environmentally friendly approach aligns with
goals to decrease the carbon footprint and promote recycling.
4. Recommendation: Concrete tiles with recycled glass are recommended due to their
affordability and sustainability. They provide a significant cost saving compared to
traditional ceramic tiles and offer an eco-friendly alternative. This makes them an
excellent choice for cost-conscious and environmentally aware projects.
4.8. A COMPARISON BETWEEN THE PRODUCTION OF SUSTAINABLE
CONCRETE TILES CONTAINING RECYCLED GLASS AND CERAMIC TILES
4.8.1. COMPARISON BASED ON RAW MATERIALS
Sustainable Concrete Tiles with Recycled Ceramic Tiles:
Glass:
Cement as the primary binder. Clay as the primary raw material.
Sand and coarse aggregates. Kaolin (a type of clay) for whiteness and
plasticity.
Recycled glass as a partial replacement for Feldspar to lower the firing temperature.
coarse aggregates.
Water for hydration. Silica (quartz) for strength and durability.
Possible use of supplementary cementitious Water for molding and shaping.
materials (e.g., fly ash, slag).
Table 5Comparison based on Raw Materials

4.8.2. COMPARISON BASED ON PRODUCTION PROCESS

Sustainable Concrete Tiles with Recycled Ceramic Tiles:
Glass:
Mixing of cement, aggregates, recycled glass, Mixing and blending of raw materials.
and water.
Molding into desired shapes. Shaping by pressing or extrusion.
Curing for a specified period (usually 28 Drying to remove moisture content.
days).
Possible surface treatment or polishing. Firing in a kiln at high temperatures (~1000-
1250°C).
Less energy-intensive production process. Glazing for aesthetic finishes and additional
strength.

Table 6Comparison based on Production Process

4.8.3. COMPARISON BASED ON ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

Sustainable Concrete Tiles with Recycled Glass: Ceramic Tiles:
 Utilization of recycled materials reduces landfill High energy consumption due to kiln
waste. firing.
Lower carbon footprint compared to ceramic tile Significant carbon emissions from the
production. firing process.
Reduced energy consumption due to the absence of Quarrying for raw materials like clay can
high-temperature firing. lead to environmental degradation.
Potential reduction in natural resource extraction Waste generated from off-cuts and
(e.g., less need for virgin aggregates). imperfect tiles.
Possibility to incorporate other waste materials, Limited use of recycled content in
further enhancing sustainability. traditional production processes.
Table 7 Comparison based on Environmental Impact

4.8.4. COMPARISON BASED ON COST EFFICIENCY

Sustainable Concrete Tiles with Recycled Ceramic Tiles:
Glass:

Lower production costs due to reduced energy Higher production costs due to energy-
requirements. intensive processes.
Cost savings from using recycled glass as a Raw material costs may be higher, especially
substitute for virgin aggregates. for high-quality clays.
Simple production process leads to lower Labor costs are increased due to the
labor and operational costs. complexity of production.
Potential for local production reduces Transportation costs can be higher if raw
transportation costs. materials or finished products are imported.
Long-term durability can reduce maintenance Initial investment in kiln and firing
and replacement costs. technology is significant.

Table 8Comparison based on Cost Efficiency

4.8.5. COMPARISON BASED ON DURABILITY AND PERFORMANCE

Sustainable Concrete Tiles with Recycled Ceramic Tiles:
 Glass:

Compressive strength can be tailored to specific Typically have a high compressive

needs (e.g., 25 N/mm²). strength.
Good resistance to weathering and wear. Excellent resistance to scratches and
stains.
Potential for surface treatments to enhance High durability and longevity,
aesthetics and durability. particularly in residential and commercial
applications.
Can be designed for load-bearing applications. Water absorption can vary, influencing
suitability for different environments.
Performance varies depending on mix design and Consistent performance due to
quality of recycled glass. standardized manufacturing processes.
Table 9Comparison based on Durability and Performance
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 CONCLUSION
This chapter provides the conclusions drawn from the research and offers recommendations for
future work and implementation.
The primary objective of this study Production of Sustainable Concrete Tiles Containing
Recycled Glass has been successfully achieved. This project demonstrates the potential for
integrating recycled glass into concrete tile production, presenting a sustainable solution to the
challenges of glass waste management and construction material production in Rwanda.

The sustainable concrete tiles developed in this study offer several advantages:
Environmental Benefits: By incorporating recycled glass, the project contributes to waste
reduction and minimizes the need for new raw materials, thereby supporting environmental
conservation efforts.
Cost Efficiency: The use of recycled materials reduces production costs, making the tiles more
affordable than conventional options.
Durability and Aesthetics: The tiles produced are not only durable but also aesthetically
pleasing, with enhanced properties such as thermal insulation and sound absorption.
Local Economic Impact: The project promotes the use of locally sourced materials and has the
potential to create job opportunities, thus supporting the local economy.
Overall, this research demonstrates that it is feasible to produce high-quality, sustainable
concrete tiles using recycled glass, offering a viable alternative to traditional construction
materials.

5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS
Based on the findings of this research, several recommendations can be made:
Further Research on Material Optimization: Future research should focus on optimizing the
mix proportions of recycled glass, cement, and other aggregates to further enhance the
mechanical properties of the tiles.
Investigating the potential for other waste materials to be incorporated into the concrete mix
could also contribute to broader sustainability efforts.
Industry Collaboration: Collaboration with local industries, particularly those involved in glass
production and recycling, is essential to ensure a steady supply of high-quality recycled glass for
tile production.
Establishing partnerships with construction companies can facilitate the adoption of these
sustainable tiles in the market.
Policy and Regulation: The government and regulatory bodies should consider developing
standards and incentives for the use of recycled materials in construction, which would
encourage wider adoption of sustainable practices.
Market Development and Awareness: Conducting market research to understand consumer
preferences and acceptance of recycled glass tiles is crucial for successful commercialization.
Awareness campaigns highlighting the environmental and cost benefits of these tiles could help
in driving market demand.
RP- Musanze college and Other Educational Institutions: Educational institutions like
Musanze college should invest in more advanced laboratory equipment to facilitate further
research and development in this field.
Encouraging final-year students to undertake similar projects will contribute to the body of
knowledge on sustainable construction materials.

In conclusion, the production of sustainable concrete tiles containing recycled glass offers a
promising avenue for addressing both waste management and construction material challenges in
Rwanda. Implementing the recommendations provided could further enhance the impact and
adoption of this innovative approach.
REFERENCES
Siddique, R., & Siddique, R. (2008). Waste glass. Waste Materials and By-Products in Concrete, 147-
175.
Zawada, A., Przerada, I., Lubas, M., Sitarz, M., & Leśniak, M. (2021). Application of Statistical Methods in
Predicting the Properties of Glass-Ceramic Materials Obtained from Inorganic Solid
Waste. Materials, 14(10), 2651.
Etxeberria, M., Vázquez, E., Marí, A., & Barra, M. (2007). Influence of amount of recycled coarse
aggregates and production process on properties of recycled aggregate concrete. Cement and concrete
research, 37(5), 735-742.
World Water Assessment Programme (United Nations), & UN-Water. (2009). Water in a changing world.
Shakhmenko, G., & Birsh, J. (1998, January). Concrete mix design and optimization. In Proceedings of
the 2nd International Symposium in Civil Engineering (pp. 1-8).
Botas, S., Veiga, R., & Velosa, A. (2017). Bond strength in mortar/ceramic tile interface—testing
procedure and adequacy evaluation. Materials and structures, 50, 1-13.
Rashed, S., Hossain, M. U., Mahdy, S. M. R., & Lachemi, M. (2019). Investigation on the
Properties of Recycled Glass Concrete. Materials, 12(24), 4175.
Siddique, R., & Singh, G. (2008). Utilization of Waste Glass Powder in the Production of
Cementitious Concrete Composites. Journal of Materials Science, 43(9), 2839-2844.
Tam, V. W. Y., Tam, C. M., & Le, K. N. (2017). Environmental Performance of Recycled Glass
Concrete Tiles: A Life Cycle Assessment. Journal of Cleaner Production, 152, 46-55.
Brown, C., et al. (2019). Economic analysis of sustainable concrete production: A case study of
recycled glass incorporation. Journal of Environmental Economics and Management, 30(3), 150-
165.
Kherraf, L., Hebhoub, H., Abdelouahed, A., & Boughamssa, W. (2022). Comparative study on
the performance of sand-based mortars from marble, floor tile and cinder block waste. Journal of
Building Engineering, 45, 103433.
Yarwood, D. (2002). Building and Architecture. In An Encyclopedia of the History of
Technology (pp. 855-901). Routledge.
Zainol, M. Z. (2019). Type of tiles and their application in building.
Misra, K., Segall, A., Horowitz, M., Xu, S., Fuldseth, A., & Zhou, M. (2013). An overview of
tiles in HEVC. IEEE journal of selected topics in signal processing, 7(6), 969-977.
Guo, J., Bikshandi, G., Fraguela, B. B., Garzaran, M. J., & Padua, D. (2008, February).
Programming with tiles. In Proceedings of the 13th ACM SIGPLAN Symposium on Principles
and practice of parallel programming (pp. 111-122).

APPENDICE
Questionnaire on the Impact of Glass Bottles in Rwanda (1)
To assess the impact of glass bottles on the environment and the perception of Rwandan people
regarding their use and recycling,
Part 1: Personal Information
1.Age:
a) 18-25
b) 26-35
c) 36-45
d) 46 and above
Answer: b) 26-35
2. Gender:
a) Male
b) Female
c) Prefer not to say
Answer: a) Male
3. Residence:
a) Urban
b) Rural
Answer: a) Urban

Part 2: General Awareness about Glass Bottle Recycling

4. Are you aware of the environmental impacts of disposing of glass bottles?

a) Yes
b) No
Answer: a) Yes
5. How do you usually dispose of glass bottles?

a) Throw them in the trash

b) Recycle them
c) Reuse them for other purposes
d) I do not use glass bottles
Answer: b) I do not use glass bottles
6. Do you think recycling glass bottles can have a positive impact on the environment?
a) Strongly agree
b) Agree
c) Neutral
d) Disagree
e) Strongly disagree
Answer: a) Strongly agree

Part 3: Perception of Glass Bottle Waste

7. Do you think glass bottles are a major contributor to environmental pollution in Rwanda?
a) Yes
b) No
c) Not sure
Answer: a) Yes

8. In your opinion, what is the most significant issue caused by glass bottle waste?
a) Harm to wildlife
b) Air and water pollution during disposal
c) Littering in communities
d) Limited recycling options
Answer: c) Littering in communities
9. How often do you come across discarded glass bottles in your surroundings?
a) Often
 b) Sometimes
c) Rarely
d) Never
Answer: a) Often

Part 4: Economic and Social Impact

10. Do you believe the collection and recycling of glass bottles can create job opportunities in
Rwanda?
a) Yes
b) No
c) Not sure
Answer: a) Yes
11. Would you be willing to participate in a community recycling program for glass bottles?
a) Yes
b) No
c) Maybe
Answer: a) Yes
12. Do you support the idea of businesses using recycled glass to create new products such as
tiles or construction materials?
a) Strongly agree
b) Agree
c) Neutral
d) Disagree
e) Strongly disagree
Answer: a) Strongly agree

Part 5: Recommendations and Suggestions

13. What do you think could be done to improve glass bottle recycling in Rwanda?
Answer: More recycling centers should be established, and awareness campaigns should be
conducted to educate people on the benefits of recycling.
14.Do you have any other comments or suggestions regarding the impact of glass bottles?
Answer: Government policies should encourage businesses to use recycled materials, and
community engagement is necessary to reduce glass bottle waste.

Questionnaire on the Impact of Glass Bottles in Rwanda (3)

Part 1: Personal Information

1. Age:
a) 18-25
b) 26-35
c) 36-45
d) 46 and above
Answer: b) 26-35
2. Gender:
a) Female
b) Male
c) Prefer not to say
Answer: a) Female
3. Residence:
a) Urban
b) Rural
Answer: a) Urban

Part 2: General Awareness about Glass Bottle Recycling

4. Are you aware of the environmental impacts of disposing of glass bottles?

a) Yes
b) No
Answer: a) Yes
5. How do you usually dispose of glass bottles?
a) Throw them in the trash
b) Recycle them
c) Reuse them for other purposes
d) I do not use glass bottles
Answer: a) Throw them in the trash

6. Do you think recycling glass bottles can have a positive impact on the environment?

a) Strongly agree
b) Agree
c) Neutral
d) Disagree
e) Strongly disagree
Answer: a) Strongly agree

Part 3: Perception of Glass Bottle Waste

7. Do you think glass bottles are a major contributor to environmental pollution in Rwanda?
a) Yes
b) No
c) Not sure
Answer: a) Yes
8. In your opinion, what is the most significant issue caused by glass bottle waste?
a) Harm to wildlife
b) Air and water pollution during disposal
c) Littering in communities
d) Limited recycling options
Answer: c) Littering in communities

9. How often do you come across discarded glass bottles in your surroundings?
a) Often
b) Sometimes
c) Rarely
d) Never
Answer: a) Often

Part 4: Economic and Social Impact

10. Do you believe the collection and recycling of glass bottles can create job opportunities in
Rwanda?
a) Yes
b) No
c) Not sure
Answer: a) Yes
11. Would you be willing to participate in a community recycling program for glass bottles?
a) Yes
b) No
c) Maybe
Answer: a) Yes
12. Do you support the idea of businesses using recycled glass to create new products such as
tiles or construction materials?
a) Strongly agree
b) Agree
c) Neutral
d) Disagree
e) Strongly disagree
Answer: a) Strongly agree

Part 5: Recommendations and Suggestions

13. What do you think could be done to improve glass bottle recycling in Rwanda?
Answer: More recycling centers should be established, and awareness campaigns should be
conducted to educate people on the benefits of recycling.

14. Do you have any other comments or suggestions regarding the impact of glass bottles?
Answer: Government policies should encourage businesses to use recycled materials, and
community engagement is necessary to reduce glass bottle waste.

Questionnaire on the Impact of Glass Bottles in Rwanda (2)

Part 1: Personal Information

1. Age:
a) 18-25
b) 26-35
c) 36-45
d) 46 and above
Answer: c) 36-45
2.Gender:
a) Female
b) Male
c) Prefer not to say
Answer: a) Female
3. Residence:
a) Urban
b) Rural
Answer: b) Rural

Part 2: General Awareness about Glass Bottle Recycling

4. Are you aware of the environmental impacts of disposing of glass bottles?

a) Yes
b) No
Answer: a) Yes

5. How do you usually dispose of glass bottles?

a) Throw them in the trash
b) Recycle them
c) Reuse them for other purposes
d) I do not use glass bottles
Answer: a) Throw them in the trash
6. Do you think recycling glass bottles can have a positive impact on the environment?
a) Strongly agree
b) Agree
c) Neutral
d) Disagree
e) Strongly disagree
Answer: b) Agree

Part 3: Perception of Glass Bottle Waste

7.Do you think glass bottles are a major contributor to environmental pollution in Rwanda?
a) Yes
b) No
c) Not sure
Answer: a) Yes
8. In your opinion, what is the most significant issue caused by glass bottle waste?
a) Harm to wildlife
b) Air and water pollution during disposal
c) Littering in communities
d) Limited recycling options
Answer: c) Littering in communities
How often do you come across discarded glass bottles in your surroundings?
a) Often
b) Sometimes
c) Rarely
d) Never
Answer: b) Sometimes
Part 4: Economic and Social Impact
10. Do you believe the collection and recycling of glass bottles can create job opportunities in
Rwanda?
a) Yes
b) No
c) Not sure
Answer: a) Yes
11. Would you be willing to participate in a community recycling program for glass bottles?
a) Yes
b) No
c) Maybe
Answer: a) Yes
12. Do you support the idea of businesses using recycled glass to create new products such as
tiles or construction materials?
a) Strongly agree
b) Agree
c) Neutral
d) Disagree
e) Strongly disagree
Answer: a) Strongly agree
Part 5: Recommendations and Suggestions
13. What do you think could be done to improve glass bottle recycling in Rwanda?
Answer: "We need more awareness campaigns and local collection points to encourage women
and families in rural areas to recycle."
14. Do you have any other comments or suggestions regarding the impact of glass bottles?
Answer: "I think more businesses should be incentivized to use recycled materials, and the
government should invest in community recycling programs, especially in rural areas."

Figure 16Procedure of manufacturing concrete tile containing recycled glass

Figure 17Density and Specific gravity test

Figure 18Stain resistance and way to remove it

Figure 19Compression test

Figure 20Rebound hammer test for checking the variation of strength

Figure 21 final product of concrete tile containing recycled glass