Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, 10 (1981) 113--124 113

Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, Amsterdam -- Printed in Belgium

THE KARI KARI CALDERA, BOLIVIA, AND THE CERRO RICO STOCK

P.W. FRANCIS', M.C.W. BAKER 1 and C. HALLS =

1Department of Earth Sciences, The Open University, Milton Keynes MK7 6AA (Great
Britain)
2Department of Mining Geology, Imperial College, London SW7 (Great Britain)
(Received April 22, 1980; revised and accepted December 18, 1980)

ABSTRACT

Francis, P.W., Baker, M.C.W. and Halls, C., 1981. The Kari Kari caldera, Bolivia, and the
Cerro Rico stock. J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res., 10: 113--124.

The rocks comprising the Kari Kari massif southeast of the city of Potosi, Bolivia,
consist entirely of welded ignimbrites. It is argued that the massif constitutes the resur-
gent centre of a 20-m.y.-old resurgent caldera. Plutonic rocks are exposed in the south,
but volcanic rocks of the caldera rim are exposed in the north, and indicate a shallower
erosion level there. The volcanic rocks consist of a coarse moat deposit, consistitag of
angular fragments of basement material and juvenile clasts, overlain by an extensive
garnet-bearing ignimbrite. A plant-fossil-bearing lacustrine deposit was laid down in a
lake within the caldera. The Cerro Rico stock, noted for its silver-tin mineralisation,
may be a late intrusion along the caldera ring fractures.

INTRODUCTION

The igneous rocks forming the prominent mountain massif southeast of

t h e c i t y o f P o t o s i in Bolivia h a v e l o n g b e e n r e g a r d e d as c o n s t i t u t i n g a n in-
trusive " b a t h o l i t h " . M o s t o f t h e early w o r k o n t h e s e ro~'ks is s u m m a r i s e d
b y Rivas a n d C a r r a s c o ( 1 9 6 8 ) . T h e p e t r o l o g y a n d g e o c h e m i s t r y of t h e r o c k s
o f t h e Kari Kari m a s s i f itself w e r e d e s c r i b e d in detail b y Wolf ( 1 9 7 3 ) , w h o
r e c o g n i s e d t h e e x t r u s i v e n a t u r e o f m a n y o f t h e r o c k s in t h e massif, b u t did
n o t i d e n t i f y t h e i r p y r o c l a s t i c n a t u r e n o r d e s c r i b e t h e i r origin. T h e Cerro
R i c o s t o c k o n t h e o u t s k i r t s o f Potosi has b e e n t h e site o f intensive silver a n d
tin m i n i n g since t h e 1 6 t h c e n t u r y , a n d w a s a c o n t r o l l i n g f a c t o r in t h e colo-
nial h i s t o r y o f S o u t h A m e r i c a . I t has o f t e n figured in t h e l i t e r a t u r e o f t h e
e c o n o m i c g e o l o g y (e.g. T u r n e a u r e , 1 9 7 1 ) , b u t its igneous setting has r a r e l y
b e e n discussed.
O u r a t t e n t i o n was first d r a w n t o t h e Kari Kari m a s s i f b y its striking ap-
p e a r a n c e on L A N D S A T i m a g e r y (Fig. 1, right); b y s o m e p o i n t s of similarity
with t h e C e r r o G a l a n c a l d e r a in n o r t h w e s t A r g e n t i n a (Francis et al., 1 9 7 8 )
a n d b y t h e c o m p r e h e n s i v e r a d i o m e t r i c w o r k o f G r a n t et al. ( 1 9 7 7 ) . T h e
0377-0273/81/0000--0000/$02.50 ©1981 Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company
114

structure is elliptical in plan with its greatest diameter of 32 km oriented

parallel to the regional tectonic trend. The rocks of the "batholith" were
first dated by Wolf (1973) at 23 m.y., but more extensive recent studies of
many specimens by Grant et al. (1977) have suggested an age of ca. 20.8
m.y. The basement rocks in the area are a thick sequence of Ordovician and
Silurian sediments, which are strongly folded and overlain by epi-continen-
tal Cretaceous red beds. These are locally overlain by a thin deposit of younger
sediments which include lacustrine deposits containing plant fossils of prob-

I I I

co

~t

65o45'W 65040' 65°35

Huakachi Ignimbrite ~ Kari Kari'Batholith

Cerro Rico Stock ~ Agua Dulce F. . . . tion (Andesite lavas)

CaracolesFormation (Volcaniclasticsediments) ~ Cretaceous Red Beds

Ignimbrite ~ UndifferentiatedSilurian
Canteria Formation
Moat Deposit ~ Undifferentiated Ordovician

Kumurana Granodiorite

Fig. 1. Geological m a p (left) a n d L A N D S A T image (right) t o t h e s a m e scale of t h e Kari

Kari caldera c o m p l e x . T h e m a p is b a s e d o n s h e e t s 6 4 3 4 a n d 6 4 3 5 o f t h e 1 : 1 0 0 , 0 0 0
geological m a p o f Bolivia published b y the D e p a r t a m e n t o Nacional de Geologia, La Paz,
Bolivia 1962. Only geological units referred t o in the t e x t are shown.
 115

ably Miocene age (Rivas and Carrasco, 1968). The youngest rocks in the area
are extensive ignimbrites forming part of the Frailes plateau, a prominent
feature of the Eastern Cordillera of the Bolivian Andes. One o f these covers
the southern slopes of the Cerro Rico (Fig. 1, left) and has been dated at
11.7 m.y. (Grant et al., 1977).
Although the Kari Kari massif has n o t previously been identified as the
centre of a large caldera complex, the close links between the rocks of the
massif and the associated volcanic rocks have long been known. On the basis
of the occurrence of a distinctive red garnet in both the rocks of the
" b a t h o l i t h " and the surrounding volcanic rocks, Turneaure and Marvin (1947)
concluded that " t h e volcanic and intrusive rocks are related in time and could
have been derived from the same original magma". Further compelling evi-
dence was provided by Grant et al. (1977) who dated all the principal igneous
rocks in the area and showed that all of those associated with the Kari Kari
massif were indistinguishable in age, nine samples yielding ages between 20.1
and 21.7 m.y. Evernden et al. (1977) also carried out radiometric work in the
area, and reached the same conclusions, except with regard to the Cerro Rico
stock.
Fig. 1 (left) summarises the principal rock units associated with the caldera.
The oldest rocks are volcanic, and have been grouped together as the Agua
Dulce Formation by Turneaure and Marvin (1947). They are typically por-
phyritic andesites and dacitic lavas, associated with smaller quantities of
pyroclastic materials, and appear to be the eroded relics of several large
composite volcanoes. In the case of Cerro Fara Chita, the form of the orig-
inal volcano can still be discerned from the distribution and orientation of
the remaining lava flows. Eruption of these andesitic lavas seems to have been
the precursor to the later voluminous siliceous volcanism.

THE CENTRE OF THE KARI KARI CALDERA

The rocks of the Kari Kari massif are well exposed in a range of heavily
glaciated mountains reaching over 5000 m in altitude, although an extensive
mantle of moraine debris obscures their marginal outcrops in m a n y places.
In the field, it is easy to see why the rocks have previously been mapped as
a " b a t h o l i t h " . They are homogeneous, crystalline, igneous rocks, exposed
over far too large an area (300 km ~) to represent any ordinary kind of lava
flow. They also appear to show plutonic features, such as large screens of
volcanic rocks of the Agua Dulce Formation, resembling roof pendents, and
m a n y xenoliths of c o u n t r y rock, including both Agua Dulce lavas and dark,
fine-grained Paleozoic sediments. Wolf (1973) carried o u t detailed petro-
graphic and analytical studies of the host rocks and the xenoliths, but con-
cluded that the host rocks were "garnet-bearing quartz latites" with "fluidal
textures".
Closer examination reveals that the rocks of the massif are n o t intrusive
into the c o u n t r y rocks, and that their petrographic texture is unambiguously
116

that of welded ignimbrite. The characteristic eutaxitic texture, which is present

in all parts of the massif, is illustrated in thin section in Fig. 2. The rock con-
sists of whitish fiamme 3.5 cm long in a finer-grained grey matrix. The fiamme
themselves consist of phenocrysts of rather altered plagioclase and biotite in
a microcrystalline, non-glassy background. The fluid, streaked-out character
of the fiamme is clear, and they show sharp contacts against the rock matrix.
The matrix itself consists of fresher (but much fractured) plagioclase pheno-
crysts (ca. An30), biotite and occasional red garnet in a fine-grained, re-
crystallised background. Wolf (1973) provided many petrographic details
of different varieties of the rocks of the massif, including modal analyses.
Rivas and Carrasco (1968) have stated that garnet occurs only in the mar-
ginal facies of the " b a t h o l i t h " but we have found that it is present elsewhere,
albeit often only in small, sparse crystals, and that no distinct marginal
facies is present.
Although none of the original glass shards is preserved in the rock matrix,
we consider that there is no d o u b t that the whitish fiamme represent flat-
tened pumice clasts, and that the matrix represents the devitrified glass
shards and dust characteristic of pyroclastic flows. The depth of erosion
within the mountains suggests that a great thickness of the deposit is present,
perhaps 1000 m, and since it appears to be homogeneous throughout, we
consider that a deposit of this thickness and extent is most likely to have

Fig. 2. Photomicrograph of thin section of a typical specimen of welded ignimbrite from

central part of Kari Kari massif, showing characteristic eutaxitic texture. Groundmass
is recrystallised glass shards and dust. Cross polars 10 x.
 117

accumulated within the walls of a large caldera. The thickness of the deposit
itself m a y have ensured the slow cooling of its lower portions, and thus the
loss b y recrystallization of the original glassy textures.
In the extreme south of the Kari Kari massif a srhall, genuinely intrusive
granodiorite is present. Its contact relationships with the ignimbrites are not
known, b u t Grant et al. (1977) have shown that their radiometric ages are
indistinguishable. This intrusion, known as the Kumurana granodiorite, is
characterized by plagioclase, quartz and biotite in a well-crystallized inter-
locking texture. Wolf (1973) provides detailed petrographic and analytical
data for the granodiorite.
Since they are seen in association with contemporaneous plutonic rocks
in the south, and volcanic rocks in the north, it seems clear that the ignim-
brites of the Kari Kari massif represent an in-filled caldera in which the depth
of erosion increases from north to south. The elevations of the highest parts
of the massif relative to the country rocks indicate that uplift, or resurgence,
of the caldera floor has taken place. An implication of this is that the Kari
Kari massif is underlain by a platform of country rocks representing the
original caldera floor and b y a batholith of which the Kumurana granodiorite
m a y form a small part. The floor underlying the caldera fill may be seen near
the Andacaba mine, where the contact between the ignimbrites and Palaeozoic
c o u n t r y rocks dips inwards at a shallow angle.
Although the rocks of the Kari Kari massif closely resemble those found
in the resurgent centres of other large calderas, such as those described by
Smith and Bailey (1968), many problems of detail remain to be resolved. For
example, it has n o t been possible to identify individual flows or flow units.
More important, the nature of the thin, steeply inclined screens of volcanic
rocks which are conspicuous within the ignimbrite is n o t clear. These screens,
which were initially interpreted as r o o f pendents, m a y be up-faulted slices
of the underlying c o u n t r y rock, pushed upwards during resurgence of the
caldera floor. Our field w o r k to date has been of a reconnaissance nature;
more detailed follow-up work should resolve these points.

THE VOLCANIC ROCKS OF THE CALDERA

Our interpretation of the rocks of the Kari Kari massif as an accumulation
of devitrified welded ignimbrites occupying the resurgent centre of the large
caldera is greatly strengthened b y the fact that t h e volcanic rocks of the cal-
dera walls are well preserved on its northern flanks. Most striking of these
is a " m o a t " deposit, a term which has been used to describe exceptionally
coarse brecciated deposits within ,the margins of structures such as the Emory
Cauldron (Elston et al., 1975). The 'Karl Kari m o a t deposit is a minimum of
350 m thick, and is best exposed 3 km northeast of Potosi, where it forms
a prominent crag. The deposit was first mapped by Turneaure and Marvin
(1947), w h o included it within their "Canteria Formation". It consists of an
unbedded, chaotic mixture of angular blocks of all sizes up to 2 m, set in a
fine-grained tuffaceous matrix. The most c o m m o n blocks are andesitic lavas,
118

apparently derived from the Agua Dulce Formation, rounded cobbles of

quartzite, fine-grained palaeozoic pelitic sediments derived from the sub-
volcanic basement, and juvenile clasts.
The juvenile clasts are consistently the largest and most abundant. They
resemble large blocks of slightly hydrothermally altered, poorly vesiculated
pumice and are characterized by phenocrysts of biotite, altered plagioclase
feldspar and garnet set in a glassy groundmass. Although not welded and
flattened, the composition of these clasts is closely similar to that of the
pale-coloured " f i a m m e " within the ignimbrites of the main massif. The size
of the juvenile blocks appears to increase both upwards and through the
deposit, and laterally towards the contact with the main massif. The coarse-
ness o f this deposit, the high proportion of basement-derived lithics in it
and its stratigraphic position immediately beneath the canteria ignimbrite
all combine to suggest that the deposit may be a co-ignimbrite lag-fall deposit,
of the sort described b y Wright and Walker (1977). These deposits are inter-
preted by Wright and Walker as resulting from collapse of an eruption column,
and as characteristic of the source regions of ignimbrites.
Gully sections provide almost continuous exposures between the " m o a t "
deposit and the ignimbrites of the resurgent centre of the caldera, but the
geological relationships are extremely complex. No simple contact is present,
but there is a complex transition zone in which 3--5 m thick, internally
fractured blocks of andesitic lavas and baked Palaeozoic sediments are inter-
mixed with a deformed and altered facies of the moat deposit, and are cut
by apparently intrusive screens of a fresh, fine-grained facies of the main
ignimbrite. Although not studied in detail, these intrusive ignimbrite screens
may be related to the ring-dykes from which the main volume of pyroclastic
material is presumed to have been erupted.

THE C A N T E R I A IGNIMBRITE

The " m o a t " deposit is overlain by an extensive red to purple weathering

non-welded ignimbrite, which we have named the Canteria ignimbrite. It
resembles the ignimbrites of the main massif, except that it is unwelded and
also contains garnet. It resembles the " m o a t " deposit in the range of com-
positions of its included lithic fragments, b u t they are markedly smaller
in size (maximum ca. 5 cm) and form a much smaller proportion (less than
10%) of the total volume. The juvenile c o m p o n e n t is identical to that in the
" m o a t " deposit, but has a slightly more vesicular texture. The matrix con-
sists of fragmented phenocrysts, glass shards and dust. The presence of garnet
in both the pumice clasts and in the matrix, coupled with the distinctively
altered nature of the ignimbrite enables it to be immediately recognized,
even when seen in contact with other, younger ignimbrites. Radiometric
dates on this ignimbrite are indistinguishable from those of the main massif
(Grant et al., 1977).
Where it is observed overlying the " m o a t " deposit, the Canteria ignimbrite
is well exposed and forms a 5- to 10-m high crag, a b o u t 4 km from the Kari
 119

Kari massif, which may correspond roughly with the rim of the original cal-
dera (Fig. 3). The most extensive outcrops of the ignimbrite are more thin1
15 km from the massif, and are located west of the city of Potosi. Here
thicknesses of up to 20 m are present, infilling valleys in the pre-existing
topography of eroded Palaeozoic rocks. The westernmost limits of the ig-
nimbrites are concealed beneath the thick cover of younger Frailes ignim-
brites, which form a plateau some 800 m thick built up of numerous in-
dividual flows, the youngest of which has been dated by Grant et al. (1977)
at 7 m.y. No exposures of the Caracoles ignimbrite are known on the less
accessible eastern flanks of the Kari Kari massif.

Fig. 3. Moat deposit of Kari Kari caldera (centre) and overlying Canteria ignimbrite (right).
Both m o a t deposit and ignimbrite dip regularly away from centre of massif, which is off
picture to left.

THE CARACOLES FORMATION

This curious sedimentary formation was first recognised by Turneaure

and Marvin (1947), and is well developed in one area, only on the flanks of
the Cerro Rico, where a m a x i m u m thickness of 300 m is exposed. If it were
n o t for the fact that it is cut both by the Cerro Rico stock and some of its
associated mineralized veins, little would be known about this formation,
which is best exposed in underground workings.
The base of the formation is defined by the Pailaviri Conglomerate
(Turneaure and Marvin, 1947; Evans, 1940), a coarse conglomerate consisting
120

of fragments of Canteria and Agua Dulce Formations, but n o t of the distinc-

tive welded ignimbrites from the centre of the caldera, in a tuffaceous matrix.
The conglomerate is separated by a lens of coarse volcanic breccia from the
main thickness of the Caracoles Formation. This is of interest for two reasons:
first, it consists of thinly bedded, fine-grained pale-grey silts, clays and oc-
casional coarser beds containing detrital grains of volcanic origin, and second,
it contains many horizons rich in plant fossils, mainly small leaves and twigs.
The lithology of the sediments, together with their fossil flora strongly
suggest a lacustrine environment for their deposition. This in turn suggests
that the Kari Kari caldera once contained a lake, as many other large calderas
c o m m o n l y do (Smith and Bailey, 1968). This lacustrine deposit is older than
the Cerro Rico stock, and younger than the Canteria formation, but its fossil
flora has not yielded a well-defined age. Estimates have ranged from Pliocene
(Berry, 1939) to Miocene (Alhfeld and Branisa, 1960). The latter age seems
to be most widely accepted.

THE CERRO RICO STOCK

The youngest igneous event associated with the evolution of the caldera
appears to have been the intrusion of the renowned Cerro Rico stock. The
stock is exposed on the summit of Cerro Rico {4824 m, Fig. 4) and in the
extensive underground workings. It is oval in plan, with a maximum diameter
of 1.5 km, and narrows downwards. The upper part is a silicified rhyolitic
p o r p h y r y in which original feldspar phenocrysts are n o w represented only
by angular euhedral cavities. At deeper levels, intrusive relationships are
clearly seen against the country rocks. These include the Palaeozoic sediments
of the basement, and the largely lacustrine sediments of the Caracoles for-
mation (Turneaure and Marvin, 1947).
It has long been accepted that the Cerro Rico stock, in c o m m o n with the
intrusive rocks at the centre of many of the Bolivian tin-silver deposits is
sub-volcanic. This view was postulated by Evans (1940), and refined and
developed by Sillitoe et al. (1975) and Grant et al. (1980) who interpret the
mineral deposits associated with dacitic stocks as " p o r p h y r y tin deposits".
We suggest that the Cerro Rico stock represents the eroded r o o t of a
rhyodacitic dome which was extruded along the caldera ring fractures. Such
domes are c o m m o n features of large resurgent calderas such as those of
Valles and Silverton (Smith and Bailey, 1968). Other domes may have been
present around the Kari Kari caldera, but are n o t preserved owing to the
greater depths of erosion in the southern part of the structure.
The principal uncertainty in this interpretation concerns the age of the
intrusion, which has been the subject of disagreement between Grant et al.
(1977) and Evernden et al. (1977). Radiometric dates have yielded an age
of 13.5 + 0.3 m.y. (Grant et al., 1977), substantially younger than any of
the other igneous rocks associated with the caldera. As Grant et al. (1977,
1979) have pointed out, the stock is heavily altered, and the whole-rock
 121

Fig. 4. Cerro Rico, Potosi. Spoil tips cover a l m o s t the entire surface. Ignimbrites of caldera
rim are exposed in i m m e d i a t e foreground, and sediments of Caracoles Formation beneath
chapel on low hill in middle distance. Rhyodacites of the Cerro Rico stock are exposed
on the summit.

measurements m a y thus yield the age of mineralization rather than of in-

trusion, which implies an older age for the intrusion itself. Grant et al., how-
ever, also argued that the intrusion of the stock probably t o o k place less
than a million years before the mineralization, as did the stocks in other
mineralized areas t h e y have studied in Bolivia.
Since potassium-argon whole rock dates on heavily altered rocks are often
misleading, it is necessary to examine other sources of evidence for the age
of the Cerro Rico stock. Unfortunately, these are meagre. The youngest
rocks cut b y the stock are those of the Caracoles Formation, whose age is
also uncertain. The only unit younger than the stock is the Huakachi ignim-
brite, part of the Frailes Formation, which is well exposed on the southern
flanks of the Cerro Rico and overlies it. Field relationships demonstrate that
the Huakachi ignimbrite was deposited on a deeply eroded topography. The
ignimbrite has been dated at 11.7 + 0.22 m.y. (Grant et al., 1977), and is
completely fresh. It seems unlikely that the intrusion, alteration, exposure
and erosion o f the underlying s t o c k could all have taken place within the
brief period suggested b y the radiometric dates. These radiometric data
support the suggestion of Evernden et al. (1977), made on the basis of geo-
logical correlations, that the stock is of the same age as the main Kari Kari
massif, and the andesites of the Agua Dulce Formation.
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Taking both the radiometric data and geological setting into account, we
consider that the stock is distinctly younger than the main massif, b u t is
genetically related to it. Dacitic domes emplaced along ring fractures are
characteristically the youngest of all rocks associated with the evolution of
large calderas (Smith and Bailey, 1968) b u t in general they follow the main
caldera-forming events in less than a million years. The extrusive Cerro Rico
stock m a y have taken place rather longer after the formation of the caldera.

EVOLUTION OF THE C A L D E R A COMPLEX

The following history for the Kari Karl caldera is suggested:

(1) An early episode of andesitic volcanism.
(2) Intrusion of a large b o d y of siliceous magma at shallow level.
(3) Doming and fracturing of rocks above the intrusion.
(4) Eruption of voluminous pyroclastic flows from ring fractures.
(5) Formation of a 30-km-diameter caldera by collapse along ring fractures,
possibly followed by further eruptions of pyroclastic flows which accumulate
in the centre of the caldera.
(6) Following cessation of the principal igneous activity, lacustrine volcano-
clastic sediments of the Caracoles Formation are deposited within the caldera.
(7) Continued intrusion of magma, causing resurgence of centre.
(8) Interval of u n k n o w n duration; intrusion of Kumurana granodiorite.
(9) Intrusion of rhyodacitic domes along the caldera ring fractures, of
which the Cerro Rico stock is the only known relic.
{10) Late-stage hydrothermal activity, responsible for alteration of many
pyroclastic rocks, and the mineralization of the Cerro Rico stock.
(11) Waning hydrothermal activity continues to the present day -- h o t
springs are present at three points around the northern and eastern flanks
of the batholith.
While we consider that the geological evidence demonstrates that there is
a direct link between the formation of the Kari Kari caldera and the intrusion
of the Cerro Rico stock, in other areas of rhyolitic volcanism the links between
mineralisation and caldera formation are less direct. In such areas, the ring
fractures and related zones of weakness created during an early cycle of cal-
dera collapse and resurgence have evidently provided a structural framework
governing the emplacement of later mineralisation associated with a mag-
matic episode not genetically related to that which produced the caldera.
For example, Mid to Late Tertiary base and precious metal vein deposits in
the San Juan Mountains of Colorado are considered by Lipman et al. (1976)
to have been structurally localised by calderas of mid-Tertiary age and sim-
ilar phenomena have also been described b y Ashley (1974) from the epither-
mal gold-silver district in Nevada and by Elston (1978) in New Mexico.
Although the area around Potosi has been of interest for decades because
of its economic importance, much remains to be learned about the igneous
rocks and their volcanic relationships. Future work on the Kari Kari caldera
 123

a n d o t h e r i g n e o u s c e n t r e s in t h e E a s t e r n Cordilleras o f Bolivia s h o u l d p r o v i d e
a b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e s t r u c t u r a l a n d volcanic c o n t r o l o f t h e ore b o d i e s
in this i m p o r t a n t m e t a l l o g e n e t i c p r o v i n c e .

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

F i e l d w o r k in t h e P o t o s i a r e a w o u l d h a v e b e e n i m p o s s i b l e w i t h o u t t h e
g e n e r o u s h e l p o f t h e Servicio G e o l o g i c o de Bolivia ( G e o b o l ) . F i e l d w o r k in
t h e A n d e s is f i n a n c e d b y t h e N a t u r a l E n v i r o n m e n t R e s e a r c h Council. R.S.
T h o r p e a n d I. F e r r i d a y p r o v i d e d v a l u a b l e c o m m e n t s o n t h e m a n u s c r i p t .

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Conf., Las Cruces County, pp. 283--291.
Evans, D.L., 1940. Structure and mineral zoning in the Pailaviri section, Potosi, Bolivia.
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rocks. Econ. Geol., 72: 1042--1061.
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