Hydraulics

Engr. JWC Vertudazo

Module 2: PRINCIPLES OF HYDROSTATICS

1. UNIT PRESSURE
Pressure is the force per unit area exerted by a liquid or gas on a body or surface, with the force acting at
right angles to the surface uniformly in all directions.
𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆, 𝑭
𝒑 =
𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂, 𝑨

2. PASCAL’S LAW
Imagine poking a balloon. The pressure spreads evenly in all directions, pushing against every part of the
balloon's surface. That's the essence of Pascal's Law:
“When a pressure is applied to an enclosed fluid, it is transmitted undiminished throughout the fluid in all
directions and acts perpendicular to the walls of the container.”

In simpler terms, if you squeeze a fluid in one place, it's like squeezing the entire fluid at once! Every point
within the fluid experiences the same pressure increase, regardless of shape or volume.

3. ABSOLUTE AND GAGE PRESSURES

Imagine diving deep into the ocean. As you descend, the pressure surrounding you increases because of
the weight of the water above. This is absolute pressure, the total pressure exerted on a system by all
sources, including atmospheric pressure. Think of it as the "true" pressure, taking everything into account.

On the other hand, gage pressure is like having a blindfold on in the pressure world. It tells you the
difference between the surrounding pressure and the reference pressure chosen for your measurement.
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In most cases, the reference pressure is atmospheric pressure, meaning a gage pressure reading of 0
indicates no pressure difference from the air around you. Think of it as the "relative" pressure, focusing on
the change or deviation from the chosen reference.

Feature Absolute Pressure Gage Pressure

Reference Absolute zero (no pressure) Atmospheric pressure
Value Always positive or zero Can be positive, negative, or zero
Examples Pressure at the bottom of the ocean Air pressure in a tire

Gage pressures are pressures above or below the atmosphere and can be measured by pressure gages or
manometers.
1. For small pressure differences, a U-tube manometer is used.
2. For higher pressure differences, a Bourdon gauge is used.

Atmospheric pressure is the pressure at any one point on the earth’s surface from the weight of the air
above it.
A vacuum is a space that has all matter removed from it. A vacuum can also be described as a region of
space where the pressure is less than the normal atmospheric pressure of 760 mm (29.9 in) of mercury. It
is oftenly used to denote a pressure less than the atmospheric or a negative gage pressure.

Under normal conditions at sea level

patm = 2166 lb/ft2 = 14.7 psi = 29.9 in of mercury = 760 mm Hg = 101.325 kPa
Absolute pressure is the pressure above the absolute zero (vacuum).
𝒑𝒂𝒃𝒔 = 𝒑𝒈𝒂𝒈𝒆 + 𝒑𝒂𝒕𝒎
NOTE: In our discussions, unless otherwise specified, the term pressure signifies gage pressure.

Mercury Barometer
A mercury barometer is an accurate and relatively simple way to measure changes in atmospheric
pressure. At sea level, the weight of the atmosphere forces mercury 760 mm (29.9 in) up a calibrated glass
tube. Higher elevations yield lower readings because the atmosphere is less dense there, and the thinner
air exerts less pressure on the mercury.
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4. VARIATIONS IN PRESSURE
Consider any two points (1 & 2) whose difference in elevation is h, to lie in the ends of an elementary
prism having a cross sectional area a and a length of L. Since this prism is at rest, all forces acting on it
must be in equilibrium. Note: Free liquid surface refers to liquid surface subject to zero gauge pressure or
with atmospheric pressure only.

With reference to the figure above,

W = γV = γaL
ΣFx = 0
F2 – F1 = W sin θ
p2a – p1a = γaL sin θ
p2 – p1 = γL sin θ but L sin θ = h
𝒑𝟐 – 𝒑𝟏 = 𝜸𝒉
Therefore, the difference in pressure between any two points in a homogeneous fluid at rest is equal to
the product of the unit weight of the fluid (γ) to the vertical distance (h) between the points.

Also,
𝒑𝟐 = 𝒑𝟏 + 𝜸𝒉
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This means that any change in pressure at point 1 would cause an equal change in point 2. Therefore
pressure applied at any point in a liquid at rest is transmitted equally and undiminished to every other point
in the liquid.

Assuming that point 1 lie on the free liquid surface, then the gage pressure p1 is zero and the equation
becomes
𝒑 = 𝜸𝒉
This means that the pressure at any point “h” below a free liquid surface is equal to the product of the unit
weight of the fluid and h.

If points 1 and 2 lie on the same elevation, such that h = 0, the equation becomes
𝒑𝟏 = 𝒑𝟐
This means that the pressure along the same horizontal plane in a homogeneous fluid at rest is equal.

Pressure Below Layers of Different Fluids

Consider the tank shown to be filled with liquids of different densities and with air at the top under a
gage pressure of pA, the pressure at the bottom of the tank is:
𝒑𝒃𝒐𝒕𝒕𝒐𝒎 = ∑ 𝜸𝒉 + 𝒑𝑨 = 𝜸𝟏 𝒉𝟏 + 𝜸𝟐 𝒉𝟐 + 𝜸𝟑 𝒉𝟑 + 𝒑𝑨

5. PRESSURE HEAD
Pressure head is the height “h” of a column of homogeneous liquid of unit weight γ that will produce an
intensity of pressure p.
𝒑
𝒉=
𝜸
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Sample Problems
1. If a depth of liquid of 1 m causes a pressure of 7 kPa, what is the specific gravity of the liquid?
𝑝 = 𝛾ℎ
7 = (𝑠𝑔 × 9,81)(1)
𝑠𝑔 = 0.714
2. What is the pressure 12.5 m below the ocean? Use sg = 1.03 for saltwater.
𝑝 = 𝛾ℎ = 1.03(9.81)(12.50 = 126.3 𝑘𝑃𝑎
3. If the pressure 23 m below a liquid is 338.445 kPa, determine its unit weight, mass density and specific
gravity.
a. unit weight
𝑝 = 𝛾ℎ
338.445 = 𝛾(23)
𝛾 = 14.715 𝑘𝑁/𝑚3
b. mass density
𝛾 = 𝜌𝑔
𝛾 14.715(10)3
𝜌= = = 1500 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
𝑔 9.81
c. specific gravity
𝜌𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 1500
𝑠𝑔 = = = 1.5
𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 1000
4. If a pressure at a point in the ocean is 60 kPa, what is the pressure 27 meters below this point?
𝑝2 = 𝑝1 + 𝛾ℎ = 60 + 1.03(9.81)(27) = 332.82 𝑘𝑃𝑎
5. If the pressure in the air space above an oil (sg = 0.75) surface in a closed tank is 115 kPa absolute,
what is the gage pressure 2 m below the surface.
𝑝 = 𝑝𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 + 𝛾ℎ
This equation is for gage pressures only.
𝑝𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 𝑝𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒 + 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚 ; 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 101.325 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝑝𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 𝑝𝑎𝑏𝑠 − 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 115 − 101.325 = 13.675 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝑝 = 13.675 + 0.75(9.81)(2) = 28.39 𝑘𝑃𝑎
6. Find the absolute pressure in kPa at a depth of 10 m below the free surface of oil of sg = 0.75 if the
barometric reading is 752 mmHg.
𝑝𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 𝑝𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒 + 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚
𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 𝛾𝐻𝑔 ℎ𝐻𝑔 = 13.6(9.81)(0.752) = 100.329 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝑝𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 0.75(9.81)(10) + 100.329 = 173.9 𝑘𝑃𝑎
7. A pressure gage 6 m above the bottom of the tank containing a liquid reads 90 kPa. Another gage
height 4 m reads 103 kPa. Determine the specific weight of the liquid.
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𝑝2 = 𝑝1 + 𝛾ℎ
103 − 90 = 𝛾(2)
𝛾 = 6.5 𝑘𝑁/𝑚3
8. An open tank contains 5.8 m of water covered with 3.2 m of kerosene (γ = 8 kN/m3). Find the pressure
at the interface and at the bottom of the tank.

a) pressure at the interface

p = γh = 8(3.2) = 25.6 kPa
b) pressure at the bottom
p = Σγh = 9.81(5.8) + 8(3.2) = 82.498 kPa
9. If the atmospheric pressure is 95.7 kPa and the gage attached to the tank reads 188 mmHg vacuum,
find the absolute pressure within the tank.
𝑝𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝑝𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒
𝑝𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 𝛾𝐻𝑔 ℎ𝐻𝑔 = 13.6(9.81)(0.188) = 25.08 𝑘𝑃𝑎 𝑚𝑚 𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑢𝑚 = −25.08 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝑝𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 95.7 − 25.08 = 70.62 𝑘𝑃𝑎 𝑎𝑏𝑠
10. In the figure shown, if the atmospheric pressure is 101.03 kPa and the absolute pressure at the
bottom of the tank is 231.3 kPa, what is the specific gravity of olive oil?

Gage pressure at the bottom of the tank

p = 231.3 – 101.03 = 130.27 kPa
p = Σγh
130.27 = 13.6(9.81)(0.4) + sgolive(9.81)(2.9) + 9.81(2.5) + 0.89(9.81)(1.5)
sgolive = 1.38
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11. If air had a constant specific weight of 12.2 N/m3 and were incompressible, what would be the height
of the atmosphere if the atmospheric pressure (sea level) is 102 kPa?
h = p/γ = 102(103)/12.2 = 8360.66 m
12. (CE Board May 1994) Assuming specific weight of air to be constant at 12 N/m3, what is the
approximate height of Mount Banahaw if a mercury barometer at the base of the mountain reads 654 m
and at the same instant, another barometer at the top of the mountain reads 480 mm.

pbot = ptop + γh
13.6(9810)(0.480) = 13.6(9810)(0.48) + 12h
h = 1934.53 m
13. Convert 760 mm of mercury to (a) oil of sg = 0.82 and (b) water
p = γh
13.6(9.81)(0.760) = 0.82(9.81)hoil  hoil = 12.605 m of oil
13.6(9.81)(0.760) = (9.81)hwater  hwater = 10.34 m of water
14. The figure shown shows a setup with a vessel containing a plunger and a cylinder. What force F is
required to balance the weight of the cylinder if the weight of the plunger is negligible?

𝑝2 = 𝑝1 + 𝛾ℎ
𝐹 𝐹
𝑝2 = = = 309.6𝐹
𝑎 0.00323
𝑊 44
𝑝2 = = = 136.22 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝐴 0.323
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136.22 = 309.6F + 0.78(9.81)(4.6)

F = 0.326 kN = 326 N
15. The fuel gage for a gasoline (sg = 0.68) tank in a car reads proportional to its bottom gage. If the tank
is 30 cm deep accidentally contaminated with 2 cm of water, how many centimeters of gasoline does the
tank actually contain when the gage erroneously reads “FULL”?

For the tank full of gasoline

p = γh = 0.68(9.81)(0.3) = 2.00124 kPa
p = Σγh
2.00124 = 9.81(0.02) + 0.68(9.81)y
y = 0.2706 m = 27.06 cm

6. MANOMETERS
Manometers are simple yet versatile instruments used in fluid mechanics to measure pressure and
pressure differences. They work by balancing the pressure of a fluid column against the unknown
pressure being measured. They are often preferred for their simplicity, affordability, and ease of use.
There are two main types of manometers:
 Open manometers: These measure the pressure difference between a point and the atmosphere.
They typically consist of a U-shaped tube filled with a liquid (such as mercury or water) with one
end open to the atmosphere and the other connected to the point where the pressure is being
measured. The difference in the height of the liquid columns in the two arms of the U-tube is
proportional to the pressure difference.

Open manometer
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 Differential manometers: These measure the pressure difference between two points. They are
similar to open manometers, but both ends of the U-tube are connected to the points where the
pressure is being measured. The difference in the height of the liquid columns in the two arms of
the U-tube is proportional to the pressure difference between the two points.

Differential manometer
Manometers have a wide range of applications in fluid mechanics, including:
 Measuring the pressure of liquids and gases in pipes, tanks, and other vessels
 Monitoring the performance of pumps, compressors, and other fluid machinery
 Measuring the flow rate of fluids in pipes
 Testing the integrity of pipelines and other fluid systems
The specific type of manometer used will depend on the application and the required accuracy. For
example, open manometers are often used for measuring low pressures, while differential manometers
are often used for measuring higher pressures or pressure differences.

Sample Problems
1. (CE Board Nov. 2000) For the tank shown in the figure, h1 = 3 m and h3 = 4 m. Determine the value of
h2.

𝑝1 + ∑ 𝛾ℎ = 𝑝2
0 + 0.84(9.81)ℎ2 + 9.81(3) − 9.81(4) = 0
ℎ2 = 1.19 𝑚
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2. (CE Board May 1992) In the figure shown, what is the static pressure in kPa in the air chamber?

𝑝1 + ∑ 𝛾ℎ = 𝑝2
0 + 9.81(5) – 9.81(3) – 0.80(9.81)(4) = p3
p3 = -11.772 kPa
3.. For the manometer shown, determine the pressure at the center of the pipe.

poil + Σγh = 0
poil – 0.80(9.81)(1.5) – 13.55(9.81)(1) = 0
poil = 144.6975 kPa

Additional examples attached at the end of this module handout.

7. BOYLE’S LAW
Boyle's law, also known as the Boyle-Mariotte law, is a fundamental principle in gas mechanics that
describes the relationship between the pressure and volume of a confined gas at constant temperature.
Simply put, it states that the pressure of a gas is inversely proportional to its volume, provided the
temperature remains constant.
Imagine a fixed amount of gas trapped in a container with a movable piston. When you push the piston in,
decreasing the volume of the container, the gas molecules have less space to move around. This increases
the frequency of collisions between the molecules and the container walls, resulting in a higher pressure.
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Conversely, pulling the piston out and increasing the volume gives the gas molecules more space to move,
leading to a decrease in pressure.

Boyle's law experiment with piston and container

Boyle's law can be mathematically expressed as:
P₁V₁ = P₂V₂
where:
 P₁ is the initial pressure of the gas
 V₁ is the initial volume of the gas
 P₂ is the final pressure of the gas
 V₂ is the final volume of the gas
This equation indicates that the product of pressure and volume remains constant when the temperature
is held fixed.

Examples attached at the end of this module handout.