GE 114- ETHICS

Module 3
THE ACT
Module Overview

Moral Philosophers attempt to determine how one ought to act in the

course of their life by prescribing action on what one has to do. But the ultimate
ethical questions which have been particularly prominent in the history of ethics
are: What makes actions moral, meaning good or bad, right or wrong? and Why
should one behave in accordance with an ethical theory?

Module Outcomes

By the end of this module, we hope to achieve the following objectives:

 Identify and articulate each stage of moral development;

 Recall immediate responses to moral dilemmas;

 Differentiate responses based on reason and those based on feelings;

 Capture and analyze feelings in personal moral experiences;

 Compare reasonable and emotional responses;

 Able to make reason and impartial decision;

 Check real-life cases against the 7-step model, a model that uses reason
and impartiality;

 Differentiate knowing and actually executing a good moral decisions.

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Lesson 1
Stages of Moral Development
Learning Outcomes

By the end of this lesson you should be able to:

o Identify each stage of moral development;

o Articulate each stage of moral development;
o Check personal growth against the stages of moral development.

Time Frame: 1 Week

Introduction

Lawrence Kohlberg ‘s Stages of Moral Development – adapted from General

Psychology with Drug Education book by Virgie S. Otig and Winston B. Gallinero,
M.A.

A 20th century developmental psychologist and moral philosopher,

Lawrence Kohlberg was the director of Harvard’s Center for Moral Education. His
researched was focused on the moral development of children particularly on
how they develop a sense of what is right or wrong, as well as justice. He
believed, that by observation, children move through a definite stages of moral
development.

He studied morality using a very controversial technique. He would be

asking his participants, both children and adult, to try to solve moral dilemmas in
short stories and to think out loud so Kohlberg could follow their reasoning.
However, he is not interested with their specific answers to the dilemma but he
just wanted to know how the person got to his or her answer.

Activity (Let’s Get Started)

Read Heinz Dilemma after which you have to identify and clarify the
dilemma. To do this, you must clarify your own notions of justice. This might also
be your first opportunity to think about issues, which you have heard but not
really thought about.

In Europe a woman was near death from a special kind of cancer. There was one
drug that doctors thought might save her. It was a form of radium that a druggist in the
same town had recently discovered. The drug was expensive to make, but the druggist
was charging ten times what the drug cost to make. He paid $200 for the radium and
charged $2,000 for a small dose of the drug. The sick woman’s husband, Heinz, went to

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everyone he knew to borrow the money, but he could only get together about $1,000,
which is half of what it cost. He told the druggist that his wife was dying and asked him to
sell it cheaper or let him pay later. But the druggist said, “No, I discovered the drug and
I’m going to make money on it.” So Heinz became desperate and began to consider
breaking into the man’s store to steal the drug for his wife.

Analysis (Let’s Think About it!)

Now think about the following questions:
 Should Heinz steal the drug? Why and why not?
 If Heinz doesn’t love his wife, should he steal the drug for her? Why or why
not?
 Why should people do everything they can to save another’s life?
 Is it against the law for Heinz to steal? Does that make it morally wrong?
Why or why not?
 Why should people generally do everything they can to avoid breaking the
law? How does this relate to Heinz’s case?

Abstraction (Let’s Explore!)

Here’s a summary of Kohlberg’s findings in terms of age appropriate
morality in relation to Heinz’s dilemma.

His research in psychology showed that our conception of justice (what is

right) changes and develops overtime as we interact with the environment.

Students at the pre-conventional level approach a moral problem from the

interests of the individuals involved in a situation. Their concerns will be whether
Heinz will be punished for stealing and whether he will be able to live without his
wife.

At the conventional level, students approach a moral problem as a

member of society and take into account what the group or society expects an
individual to do within its moral norms. The students’ considerations at this level
will focus on 1) whether a loving husband would do whatever he could to save
his wife, 2) whether he could get help from the authorities and what happen to
society if all its members broke the laws. The concern is to protect society as well
as one’s own interests.

For post-conventional level, a moral problem is considered from the

society’s perspective. The person at this level sees beyond the current laws and
norms of society and thinks about the principles upon which a just society can be
based. Relating to Heinz’s dilemma, the person at the post-conventional level will
consider whether the attempts to save a life would be interpreted as breaking the

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law. What kind of system could both prevent the loss of innocent life and protect
the druggist’s right to property is another consideration for decision.

Outline of Kohlberg’s classification of moral stages:

Level Stage Social Orientation

Pre-conventional 1 Obedience and Punishment
2 Individualism, Instrumentalism & Exchange
Conventional 3 “Good boy/girl”
4 Law and order
Post-conventional 5 Social Contract
6 Principled conscience

The first level of moral thinking is found generally at the elementary school
level. In the first stage of this level, people behave accordingly to socially
acceptable norms because they are told to do so by some authority figure such
as parents or teacher. Their obedience is compelled by the threat or application
of punishment. The second stage is characterized by the idea that right behavior
means to act according to one’s own best interest.

The second level of moral thinking is generally found in the society. The
first stage of this level (stage 3) is characterized by an attitude which seeks to do
what will gain the approval of others while the second stage (stage 4) is one
oriented to abide the law and to respond to the obligations of duty.

The third level of moral thinking is not reached by the majority of adults.
Stage 5 is an understanding of social mutuality and a genuine interest in the
welfare of others. On The last stage (stage 6) is based on respect for universal
principle and the demands of individual conscience.

Kohlberg believed that individuals could only progress through these

stages one stage at a time, meaning they could not “jump” stages. For example,
they could not move from an orientation of selfishness to the law and order stage
without passing through the good boy/girl stage. They could only come to
understand of a moral rationale one stage above their own. According to
Kohlberg, it was important to present them with moral dilemmas for discussion
which would help them to see the reasonableness of a “higher stage” morality
and encourage their development in that direction.

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Application

Learner Worksheet 8
Student Name: ______________________________ Score: ____________

Course/ Year/ Section: _______________________________

Using Kohlberg’s stages of Moral Development, draw a chart of your life’s journey
to show incipient moments in your lives and where you are right now in your
moral development.

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Submitting Your Work. If you do not have Internet Connectivity, neatly detach this page
from your module and submit via University Drop Box or by courier/ mail together with
your other Learner Activity Worksheets once you reach the prescribed Learning
Checkpoint. If you have Internet connectivity, you may answer directly on the online
version of this worksheet through the University Virtual Environment.

Closure
Well done! You have just finished Lesson 1 of this module.

If you have questions or need to make clarifications take note of them in

the space provided below to ask your Course Professor through direct messaging
or through the University Virtual Environment (UVE).

Notes from this Lesson

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Now that you have completed Lesson 1, let us move on to the next lesson
in this module. You may now move on to the next lesson.

Lesson 2 Requirements of Ethics

Reason and Impartiality
Learning Outcomes

By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

 Know about making very difficult and possibly life-altering decisions;

 Understand impartiality and reason;
 Decide what to do and be able to choose what action to take;
 Make a rational, impartial decision.

Time Frame: 1 Week

Introduction

You might be wondering, “Why should human beings be moral? Why should I do what is
right?”

Here are some compelling reasons:

a. It is enlightened self-interest – “I will be better off”
b. It is the traditional law – “Because some authority says so”
c. It is responsibility – “It is expected of me”
d. It is what is fair and equitable – “It is about fairness and justice”

But most of all,

e. People have shared human needs, goals, desires, and/or objectives, and
these are better met when people treat each other in a manner that
promotes what is right and good.

- (Thiroux and Krasemann,2009)

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Activity
Read the short article below and reflect on the guide questions that follow.
During an exam you saw your friend (who is sitting next to you) secretly
open the notebook to look for an answer on one of the test questions. Your
teacher noticed that your classmate was doing something suspicious. The
teacher called your classmate and asked if your classmate was cheating.
Surreptitiously, your classmate closed the notebook and answered, “No”. Your
teacher did not trust your classmate’s answer so the teacher asked you.
Analysis
 What will you say for your decision to be moral?
 How will your answer affect your friend, your teacher, and the rest of your
classmates? What about you as a person?
 How is impartiality a requirement for morality?
Abstraction
Is reason aa requirement for morality?
A relevant definition of reason to our topic is “the power of the mind to
think, understand, and form judgments by a process of logic” (Merriam-Webster,
2017). However, one of the most influential philosophers in the history of Western
Philosophy, Immanuel Kant, argued that reason alone is the basis for morality,
and once the person understood this basic requirement for morality, one would
see that acting morally is the same as acting rationally. The definition of morality
alone shows that a person must decide what to do as Kant pointed out. You, as a
person, are able to think and reflect on different actions and then choose what
action to take. Implicitly, moral decision means one is not force to act in a
particular manner but acted by the power of the will.
Is impartiality a requirement for morality?
How impartiality is related to morality, one must know the importance and
understand what impartiality is. It is a broad concept, but it is also identified as a
core value in professional code of ethics. Impartiality is commonly understood as
a principle of justice. It denotes that decision should be “based on objective
criteria rather than on the basis of bias, prejudice, or preferring to benefit one
person over another for improper reasons” (Jollimore, 2011); impartiality stresses
that everyone ought to be given equal importance and not favour one class
(people, animals, or things) in capricious way.
In this particular scenario, impartiality is put to a test. During an exam, you
saw your friend sitting next to you secretly open a notebook to look for an answer
on one of the test questions. Your teacher noticed that your classmate was doing
something suspicious. The teacher called on your classmate if there was
cheating. Surreptitiously closing the notebook, your classmate answered “no”.

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However, your teacher did not trust the response of your classmate so turning to
you, your teacher ask you. For your decision to be moral, according to Dr. James
Rachels, you should think how your answer will affect your friend, your teacher,
the rest of your classmates, and how it will affect you as a person. An impartial
choice involves basing your decision on how all the persons in the situation will
be affected, and not to the advantage of a particular party that you favour.

Thus, for the question “are reason and impartiality a requirement for
morality, Dr. James Rachels (2004) said morality “at the very least is the effort to
guide one’s action based on the most logical choice (reason) while giving equal
importance to the interests of each person affected by one’s decision
(impartiality).

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Application (Let’s Do It!)

Learner Worksheet 9
Student Name: ______________________________ Score: ____________

Course/ Year/ Section: _______________________________

Discuss briefly your understanding of contributory elements to your moral

character. How is character developed?

Contributory Elements How character develops

Family

School

Peer

Media

Neighborhood

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Closure
Well done! You have just finished Lesson 2 of this module.

If you have questions or need to make clarifications take note of them in

the space provided below to ask your Course Professor through direct messaging
or through the University Virtual Environment (UVE).

Notes from this Lesson

Now that you have completed Lesson 2, let us move on to the next lesson
in this module.

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Lesson 3
Feelings and Reason

Learning Outcomes

By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

o Decide which one to use in making moral decision: reason or feeling;

o Differentiate responses based on reason or feeling.

Time Frame: 1 Week

Introduction

Philosopher, historian, economist, and essayist Avid Hume (1711-1776)

famously placed himself in opposition to most moral philosophers, both ancient
and modern. He argued to regulate actions using reason and that reason has
dominion over feelings or emotions. He is best known in ethics for asserting
these four theses:

1. Reason alone cannot be a motive to the will, but rather is the “slave of
the passions”.
2. Moral distinctions are not derived from reasons.
3. Moral distinctions are derived from the moral sentiments: feelings of
approval (esteem, praise) and disapproval (blame) felt by the
spectators who contemplate a character trait or action.
4. While some virtues and vices are natural, others (including justice) are
artificial.

Max Scheler, an important German Ethical Philosopher distinguished for

himself for his contribution in phenomenology, ethics, and philosophical
anthropology who sought to know what comprised the structures of
consciousness, including that of mental acts such as feelings, thinking, resolve,
as well as the inherent objects or correlates of these mental acts such as values,
concepts, and plans (Frings, 2013). Scheler presented four strata of feeling,
claiming these strata or levels are constant and it follows and exact order of
importance, calling these levels as “stratification model of emotive life”.

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On the opposite side of the discussion about the role of feelings in making
moral decisions are those who argued on the use of reason over feelings.
Philosopher Professor Dr. James Rachels asserted that in moral reasoning, one
could not rely on feelings no matter how powerful these feelings may be. Feelings
can be irrational and merely a product of one’s prejudice, selfishness or cultural
conditioning. The morally right thing to do is one that is supported by rational
arguments and these arguments is reasonable if:
a. The facts are correct.
b. The moral principles are correctly applied.
c. Each individual’s well-being is treated equally important

Activity

Read the short article and explain your notion on the questions.

Your teacher announced there would be a long test next meeting. After
school, you saw a at the mall. You knew she was absent when your teacher had
announced the test. However, you did not go out of your way to inform your
classmate about the test.

Analysis
 Why you did not go out of your way to inform your classmate about
the test as announced by your teacher?
 What is the role of feeling in decision-making based on your answer
in the first question?

Abstraction
Feelings can be obstacles to making the right decisions because of its
non-deliberate nature. Nondeliberate is doing something without thinking through.
It is not intentional, unplanned or without conscious effort.
Emotions notoriously play favourites since it operates on a principle called
“the law of concern” where emotions give focus only on matters of personal
interest. It draws its perspective from personal interest and addresses subjective
concerns and takes action primarily to satisfy such concerns. A highly partial
perspective is interested only in the immediate situation, which mean no rational
explanations from a broader perspective are relevant.
Emotion is problematic since it rises up for arbitrary reasons. Aspects or
situation that have nothing to do in moral situations could rile up your emotion,
and this emotion will certainly influence your subsequent moral judgment.
Although several studies point out the negative effects of emotion in
making decisions, contemporary research on how emotions facilitate reasoning is
also catching up. Several studies suggest that emotions are the foundation of all
cognitive and behavioural processes; and emotional responses often guide a

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person in making beneficial choices without any conscious reasoning

(Arnold,1960; Damasio, 2003).
There are at least three (3) ways that negative feelings help in making the
right decisions:
 It signals the need to adjust behavior – Psychologists
acknowledged that emotions serve as a red flag when these signal
that something is happening and that it needs attention (Arnold,
1960). Sometimes you get the feeling that “something is wrong”
when you make an incorrect judgment. This red flag aspect in
emotions help in making better decisions.
 It can help us learn from our mistakes – we are all familiar with
feelings of regret, shame, guilt, disappointment, and sadness as a
result from acting contrary to what we believe as morally right.
Studies, however, have shown that negative feelings are integral
part to our ability to learn. The surge of negative emotions triggers
“counterfactual thinking” (Smallman and Roese, 2009).
Counterfactual thinking is a psychological concept about the human
tendency to create possible or alternative scenarios other than what
had actually happened. This analysis of what went wrong when you
replayed a situation in your mind repeatedly, thinking about how
you could have done better or how you should have reacted instead
present an opportunity to reflect and prepare oneself in making a
different, and possibly better choice in the future. This idea,
supported by evidence that focus on the action rather than on
shortcomings or weakness, can result in making better choices in
similar encounters in the future (Roese, 1994; McMullen and
Markman, 2000).

 Emotional responses can be reshaped as time pass by – the idea

that behaviour can be changed is a hallmark in Psychology. What is
important is the idea that emotional responses can be deliberately
altered. The psychological state of “mindfulness”, where one gives
active and open attention to personal thoughts and feelings show
that, with some effort, emotional reactions can be brought in accord
with one’s belief and goals.

Apparently, emotions are powerful and unavoidable. Upsurge of

feelings is natural. However, it should no control behaviour nor
should it prevent reason. What one does with feelings is what
makes an individual ethical or unethical.

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Application

Learner Worksheet 10

Name of Student __________________________________Score ___________

Course/Year/Section _______________

Direction: Give your intrinsic response to the following moral dilemmas.

Moral dilemma Response

end-of-life support case, unplugging of

life support, involving a dying parent

Payment of facilitation fee to a custom

office by a finance employee

The use of official car to bring one’s

children to school everyday

Submitting Your Work. If you do not have Internet Connectivity, neatly detach this page
from your module and submit via University Drop Box or by courier/ mail together with
your other Learner Activity Worksheets once you reach the prescribed Learning
Checkpoint. If you have Internet connectivity, you may answer directly on the online
version of this worksheet through the University Virtual Environment.

Closure

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Well done! You have just finished Lesson 3 for this module.

If you have questions or need to make clarifications take note of them in

the space provided below to ask your Course Professor through direct messaging
or through the University Virtual Environment (UVE).

Notes from this Lesson

Lesson 4

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The 7 (Seven) – Step of Moral Reasoning

Model
Learning Outcomes

By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

o Distinguish feature of a moral dilemma typically arising to an individual or

group;

o Differentiate knowing and actually executing a good moral decision;

o Check real-life cases against the 7-step model, model that uses reason
and impartiality

Time Frame: 1 Week

Introduction

Most ethical decisions lie in a gray area. There are times one is facing with
a situation where there are no clear-cut or obvious choices; meaning, the
situation cannot be determined by simple quantitative analysis data. Ethical
decision-making requires interpretation of the situation, application of one’s
values, and estimating the consequences of the action. In real life, such
situations do not only involve between right and wrong; good or bad. Oftentimes,
it is about choosing between good and better or bad and worse.

Knowing this, how would you make ethical decisions? Ethical decision-
making is a process of evaluating and choosing among alternatives in a manner
that is consistent with the moral principles (University of California, 2004).
Making ethical choices requires the ability to make distinctions between
competing options. Here are seven steps to help one make a better decision, as
introduced by Scott B. Rae.

Activity

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Here is a sample case study for you to analyse.

Here is a case study:

Jen and her messenger husband Lito, along with their

three young children, live as informal settlers in a compound in
Halaan City, Jen works as the stay-out house help for Ms.
Carla, who is the administrative assistant of Mayor Balasic of
Halaan City. One day, Ms. Carla approached Jen to offer her a
source for extra money. What Ms. Carla wants Jen to do is to
sign up as a ghost employee in a city hall projects Ms. Carla is
overseeing. Ms. Carla tells Jen she does not have to do
anything except to put her signature in an employee contract.
Ms. Carla will give Jen half of the expected Php8,000 monthly
allowance for the six-month long project. Jen, who is an active
member of her local parish, is now feeling conflicted. Ms. Carla
wants her to sign soon.

(Adapted from 2nd Gen CHED-GET, XU Training)

Analysis
o What must Jen do, and why?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________

Abstraction
The 7-step model for ethical decision-making
1. Gather the facts
2. Identify the stakeholder
3. Articulate the dilemma
4. List the alternatives
5. Compare the alternatives with the principles
6. Weigh the consequences
7. Make a decision

Gather the facts

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Do not jump to conclusions. Ask questions (who, what, where, when, how
and why). There may be instances when facts are hard to find or are not
available because of the uncertainty that surround ethical issues. Nevertheless,
gather as many facts as you can. Clarify what assumptions you are making.
Identify the Stakeholders
Identify all the persons involved and will be affected in an ethical situation.
Who are the primary stakeholders? Who are the secondary stakeholders? Why
are they stakeholders in the issue? Get the proper perspective. Try to see the
situation through the eyes of the people affected.
Articulate the Dilemma
Once you have gathered the facts and identified the stakeholders, it is
important that you express the ethical dilemma. What are the competing values?
The purpose of articulating the dilemma is to make sure that one understands the
situation and the moral conflict an individual is facing. Awareness and
comprehension are important in making the right decision, especially when there
are lives that will be affected.
List the Alternatives
Think creatively about potential actions, as there may be choices you
neglected. This will help ensure that you have not been pushed back into a
corner. For example, you may already have solution A and solution B. Try to
brainstorm and come up with solution C that might satisfy the interests of the
primary parties involved.
Compare the Alternatives with the Principles
In decision-making, specify the relevant values that you want to uphold in
making your decision. Then compare whether your alternative actions are in line
with your values. Identifying the values and comparing your action with these
values are important because it will help identify if your alternative action is illegal
or unethical, thus making this action easy to discard.
Why is it important to have a system in making decisions? In
systematically considering your set of values, the risk of overlooking important
principles and considerations is reduced. Hence, the chance of doing something
you will regret in the future is also reduced.
Weigh the Consequences
When considering the effects of your actions, filter your choices to
determine if your options will violate ethical values. Determine how all the
stakeholders will be affected by your decision.
Make a Decision
Remember, deliberation cannot go on forever. You must avoid “paralysis
by analysis” or the state of over-analysing (or over-thinking) a situation so that a

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decision or action is never taken.\, in effect paralysing the outcome. There is no

easy, painless decision to a moral dilemma.

Application

Learner Worksheet 11
Student Name: ______________________________ Score: ____________

Course/ Year/ Section: _______________________________

Now, what if you are in this situation:

You are a junior executive for a firm. As was your habit, you are still in the
office working while most of your officemates have gone home. Soon, you find
yourself in need of a file for your presentation; so you texted your officemate,
Michael, your fellow junior executive, to ask if he has a copy. Several minutes
have passed, but your officemate did not reply. You called his mobile phone. But
you only got the automated voice saying the number cannot be reached.
Then you recalled that a few days ago, you unintentionally saw his
password when he logged into his office computer. Since you absolutely need the
file now (or else your project presentation will fail), you decided to log into his
computer without asking permission. As soon as gained access, you see that he
left his email open. Something in the email caught your eye, so you read it. You
see, based on what you have read, your office mate is making anomalous
transaction in the company’ s name.
You thought about reporting your officemate but you realize that you will
have to admit violating company regulations on logging into someone else’s
computer. Even if you report your officemate anonymously, the investigation will
ultimately lead back to you and the fact that you invaded your officemate’s
privacy. If you confront your officemate about the illegal transactions, you will
have to admit that you logged into his computer without permission. However, if
you decide not to do anything, you will have to carry the burden in your
conscience and continue working with your officemate although you know about
the illegal transaction he is doing. You will have to live with the knowledge that
the company is losing money because of your officemate’s dishonest

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transactions, and that you did not do anything to stop him just because you knew
about it by invading his privacy.
Questions to answer:
1. What will you do?
2. How would you arrive at the best decision facing this dilemma?
3. Using Scott B. Rae’s 7-step model, resolve the dilemma and decide the
best option to arrive at the right moral decision.
‘
Submitting Your Work. If you do not have Internet Connectivity, neatly detached this
page from your module and submit via University Drop Box or by courier/ mail together
with your other Learner Activity Worksheets once you reach the prescribed Learning
Checkpoint. If you have Internet connectivity, you may answer directly on the online
version of this worksheet through the University Virtual Environment.

Closure

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Well done! You have just finished the last lesson for this module.

If you have questions or need to make clarifications take note of them in

the space provided below to ask your Course Professor through direct messaging
or through the University Virtual Environment (UVE).

Notes from this lesson

Module Summary
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In this module, it addresses the role of feelings in moral decisions and the
disadvantages of over-reliance on feelings. It also tackled how we make reason
and impartial decisions. Sometimes reason alone is not enough in carrying out
moral decisions. The morally right thing to do is one that is supported by rational
arguments which mean that the facts are correct, the moral principles are
correctly applied and each individual’s well-being is treated equally important.
Emotions are powerful and avoidable, and upsurge of feelings is natural.
However, it should not control the behaviour nor should it prevent reason
because what we do with our feelings is what makes us ethical or unethical.

Check your work and prepare for submission and assessment. The
succeeding page will give you instructions on completing your requirements for
this module.

Learning Checkpoint
Module Assessment
Now that you have completed the third module, it is time to submit your
learning output and take the module assessment.

A checklist is provided for you below.

☐ Learning Worksheets 8-11

o For students with no Internet Connectivity use the University

Drop Box/ Courier/ Mail for submission. Neatly detach only the
Learner Worksheets from this module.

o For students with Internet Connectivity answer the Learning

Activities through the University Virtual Environment (UVE)
platform.

☐ Module Assessment

o For students with no Internet Connectivity, contact your Course

Professor to make arrangements on taking the Module
Assessment (Quiz).

o Take the quiz on the University Virtual Environment (UVE)

platform.

END OF MODULE 3
If you have completed all the items on the checklist,
you may move on to the next module.
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