ORAL COMMUNICATION

Chapter 1. Communication

Communication
Communication is a process that involves the
exchange and the development of ideas to achieve a
particular goal or purpose. The experience of
communication – that is, the delivery, processing, and
reciprocation of messages – distinguishes humans as
the most intelligent beings on Earth.
Scholars trace the English term “communication” to
the Latin term communicare, which means “to share”
or “to be in relation with.” This suggests that
communication is an act that brings people together,
or an experience shared by individuals who
subsequently establish relationships and communities.
Other experts highlight the Latin noun
communicatio, which means “sharing” or
“imparting.” From this perspective, communication
involves an exchange or transaction of goods.
Therefore, from an etymological standpoint,
communication may be understood as both a common
experience and a product transaction.

The Communication Process

Several models of communication have been
formulated by scholars through the years. In essence
though, communication may be understood as a
process that involves these five basic elements.
1. Sender: This is the person that initiates the process.
The sender delivers or transmits ideas to the receiver.
2. Receiver: This is the person that decodes the
message transmitted by the sender.
3. Message: This is the idea encoded by the sender.
The message entails both (A) the content (or the ideas)
that the speaker wishes to transmit and (B) the
formulation or structure of the ideas.
4. Medium: This is the channel through which the
message is delivered. The medium may be oral,
written, or even nonverbal. Specific guidelines are
followed when using particular medium for the
communication process.
5. Feedback: This is the response to the message. The
feedback confirms that the message has been correctly
interpreted. By extension, feedback validates that the
communication process has been effective.

Communication Process Model

Example:
1. Daphne loves Rico, her suitor, as a friend.
2. She thinks of how to tell him using their native
language.
3. She tells him, “Rico, I love you as a friend.”
4. Rico hears what Daphne says.
5. He tries to analyze what she means based on the
content and their relationship, and he is heartbroken.
6. He frowns and does not say something, because he
is in pain.

Features of an Effective Communication

In their pioneer book Effective Public Relations,
Professors Broom, Cutlip, and Center (2012) list the
7Cs of Effective Communication. This list is widely
used today, especially in public relations advertising.
1.Completeness – complete communication is
essential to the quality of the communication
process in general.
2.Conciseness – it does not mean keeping the
message short, but making it direct or straight to
the point. Example: eliminate insignificant or
redundant information.
3.Consideration – to be effective, the speaker
should always consider relevant information about
his/her receiver such as mood, background, race,
preference, education, status, and needs. This will
help build rapport.
4.Concreteness – effective communication happens
when the message is concrete and supported by
facts, figures, and real-life examples.
5.Courtesy – showing courtesy in communication
like respecting culture, values, and beliefs of
his/her receivers.
6.Clearness – clearness in communication implies
the use of simple and specific words.
7.Correctness – correctness in grammar eliminates
negative impact on the audience and increases
credibility and effectiveness of the message.
 Coherent – (extra from Ma’am Myls’ ppt) All points
are connected and relevant to the main topic, and
the tone and flow of the text is consistent.

Function of Communication
There are five functions of communication:
1.Control – Communication functions to control
behavior.
2.Social Interaction – Communication allows
individuals to interact with others.
3.Motivation – Communication motivates or
encourages people to live better.
4.Emotional Expression – Communication
facilitates people’s expression of their feelings and
emotions.
5.Information Dissemination – Communication
functions to convey information.

Barriers to Communication
There are instances when miscommunication and
misunderstanding occur because of certain barriers. To
become an effective communicator, you should
recognize these barriers that hinder the
communication process. This will enable you to control
the situation, reset conditions, and start anew. The
table below presents some barriers to effective
communication with corresponding solutions.
1.Sender-oriented Barriers
 Poor structure of message – this happens when
the sender fails to organize properly the ideas in
his or her message. The receiver then becomes
confused as to the sender's true content or intent.
 Noise – in the context of oral communication, this
refers to sounds that impede the transmission of
ideas. In the context of nonverbal communication,
noise may also refer to facial expressions or bodily
gestures that distract the receiver from
understanding the message.
 Faulty choice of words – this occurs when the
sender uses terms that are suggestive or
ambiguous in meaning. This blurs the true content
of the sender's message. Also, the sender may use
terms that understate or exaggerate the idea. Or
the terms may be too difficult for the receiver (if
his or her vocabulary is very limited.)
 Inappropriate quantity of information – here,
the sender reveals too little or too much
information. In the case of the former, the receiver
will struggle to fill in the gaps of the message. In
the case of the latter, the receiver will not be able
to process the ideas efficiently.
2.Receiver-oriented Barriers
 Poor retention of ideas – this happens when the
receiver fails to remember points from the
sender's message. If the receiver does not retain
ideas well, he or she will get lost in the flow of the
sender's ideas.
 Inattentive listening – this happens when the
receiver pays little or no attention to the sender's
message. This may be because the receiver is not
interested in what the sender is saying, or the
receiver is thinking of other things while the
sender is speaking. Inattentive listening may be
caused by resistance to change or difference in
position (as with leaders refusing to listen to
subordinates).
 Tendency to evaluate – here, the receiver
judges the validity of the sender's message even
 before the sender finishes communicating. In this
case, the receiver does not pay attention to the
rest of the sender's message because the receiver
has already rendered judgment. Hasty evaluation
may be caused by the receiver's attitudes,
prejudices, or knowledge that is in conflict with the
sender's message.

Chapter 2. Intercultural Communication

Intercultural Communication
Intercultural communication refers to the
interpersonal interaction between members of different
groups, which differ from each other in respect of
knowledge shared by their members and in respect of
their linguistic forms of symbolic behavior. -Miric, 2008

High Context and Low Context

Edward T. Hall is the anthropologist who
introduced the concept of high-context and low-context
cultures in his 1976 book Beyond Culture. Hall's model
is a leading theoretical framework for understanding
intercultural communication. Hall's model describes
how cultures can be categorized based on the
messages their members prefer to use:
 High-context communication: Most of the
information is already understood by the listener,
and very little is explicitly transmitted in the
message.
 Low-context communication: Most of the
information is explicitly coded in the message.
Factors Affecting Intercultural Communication
1.Gender – “characteristics of women, men, girls
and boys that are socially constructed”. It is
different from sex, which is biological.

Gender-related communication styles differ from

culture to culture:
 Western cultures: hugging is acceptable;
maintaining eye contact is a sign of respect
 Middle East cultures: public display of
affection is taboo; men and women are not
supposed to have eye contact
 Latin American cultures: prolonged eye
contact may mean rudeness

 Non-binary individuals – do not subscribe to the

male-female dichotomy. They usually prefer the
pronouns they or them

2.Age – age-related communication reflects culture.

 Philippines: po and opo; pagmamano

 Turkey: kissing the right hand of elders
 Korea: adding yo in the statement

 Ageism or discrimination based on age, should be

avoided.

3.Social Status - is the standing or state in the

society determined by background, education,
income, and social habits that may affect the way
we communicate with others.

Two Elements of Social Class

  Ascribed Social Class: determined by birth.
 Achieved Social Class: result of talent and
hard work, among others.

Types of Social Class

According to Karl Marx, the two main social
classes in capitalism are the bourgeoisie and the
proletariat.
 Bourgeoisie – is the capitalist class that owns
the means of production, such as factories,
land, banks, and transportation. The
bourgeoisie controls the production and selling
of products.
 Proletariat – is the working class that sells
their labor power to the bourgeoisie. The
proletariat are at the mercy of the capitalists
and are characterized by low-income laborers.

Respect for social status can be seen in different

ways:
 deferring to someone in a higher position
 using formal language when addressing them

4.Religion – conflicts may arise if people have

opposing or different religious views. Openness
may lead to mutual respect and understanding

Examples of how religion influences culture:

 Christianity: following the Ten
Commandments
 Buddhism: anger is considered a poison
 Islam: forbids eating pork (haram)
 Hinduism: cows are sacred
Chapter 3. Models of Communication

Models of Communication
Models of communication provide us with a visual
representation of the different aspects of a
communication situation. Since communication is a
complex process, it’s often challenging to determine
where a conversation begins and ends. That is where
models of communication come in — to simplify the
process of understanding communication. Some
models are more detailed than others, but even the
most elaborate ones cannot perfectly represent what
goes on in a communication encounter.

Understanding communication models can help us:

 Think about our communication situations more
deliberately,
 Learn from our previous experiences, and
 Better prepare for future communication situations.

Linear Model of Communication

 Communication is considered one way process.
 The message signal is encoded and transmitted
through channel in presence of noise.
 The sender is more prominent in linear model of
communication.
 Applied in mass communication like television,
radio, etc.

1.Aristotle’s Linear Model off Communication -

Aristotle’s model of communication is also known
 as the “rhetorical triangle” or as the “speaker-
audience-message” model. It consists of three
main elements: the speaker, the audience, and the
message. The oldest communication model that
dates back to 300 BC, Aristotle’s model was
designed to examine how to become a better and
more persuasive communicator.

The Rhetorical Triangle - is a model for

persuasive communication based on the ideas of
Aristotle, a Greek philosopher, about what makes
an argument effective
 Ethos: The appeal to credibility, or establishing the
speaker or writer's trustworthiness.
 Pathos: The appeal to emotion, or using language
to stir emotions in the audience.
 Logos: The appeal to reason, or using logic, data,
statistics, or facts to support the message.

Criticisms on Aristotle’s Model of Communication

 There is no concept of feedback, it is one way from
speaker to audience.
 There is no concept of communication failure like
noise and barriers.
 This model can only be used in public speaking.
2.Shannon-Weaver Model of Communication –
Shannon and Weaver were mathematicians, who
developed their work during the Second World War
in the Bell Telephone Laboratories. They aimed
to discover which channels are most effective for
communicating. It was first published in 1948 in
the paper A Mathematical Theory of
Communication by C. E. Shannon and W. Weaver.
The model is more technological than other linear
models and deals with concepts like encoding and
decoding. Concept of noise helps in making the
communication effective by removing the noise or
problem causing noise.

Communication is taken as quantifiable in Shannon

Weaver model. Also known as the "Mathematical
Theory of Communication" or "mother of all
models", is a communication model that describes
how information flows from a sender to a receiver.

3.Berlo’s Model of Communication – in 1960,

David K. Berlo, wrote a book entitled El Proceso de
la Comunicación or the process of communication.
In his book he stressed the importance of the
perception of the source in the "eye" of the
receiver and also the channel(s) by which the
message is delivered. In this book Berlo quoted
Aristotle, saying that "the prime goal of
communication was persuasion an attempt to sway
other men to the speaker's point of view".

Berlo’s S-M-C-R communication model is a

linear model of communication that suggests
communication is the transfer of information
between 4 basic steps or key elements.

Source
The source or the sender carefully puts their
thoughts into words and transfers the message to
the receiver. So, how does the sender transfer the
information to the receiver according to Berlo’s
SMC-R communication model? With the help of:
 Communication skills — First and foremost,
the source needs good communication skills to
ensure the communication will be effective.
The speaker should know when to pause, what
to repeat, how to pronounce a word, etc.
 Attitude — Secondly, the source needs the
right attitude. Without it, not even a great
speaker would ever emerge as a winner. The
source needs to make a lasting impression on
the receiver(s).
  Knowledge — Here, knowledge does not refer
to educational qualifications but to the clarity
of the information that the source wants to
transfer to the receiver.
 Social system — The source should be
familiar with the social system in which the
communication process takes place. That
would help the source not to offend anyone.
 Culture — Last but not least, to achieve
effective communication, the source needs to
be acquainted with the culture in which the
communication encounter is taking place. This
is especially important for cross-cultural
communication.

Message
The speaker creates the message when they
transform their thoughts into words. Here are the
key factors of the message:
 Content — Simply put, this is the script of the
conversation.
 Elements — Speech alone is not enough for
the message to be fully understood. That is
why other elements have to be taken into
account: gestures, body language, facial
expressions, etc.
 Treatment — The way the source treats the
message. They have to be aware of the
importance of the message so that they can
convey it appropriately.
 Structure — The source has to properly
structure the message to ensure the receiver
will understand it correctly.
 Code — All the elements, verbal and
nonverbal, need to be accurate if you do not
 want your message to get distorted and
misinterpreted.

Channel
To get from the source to the receiver, the
message goes through the channel. Berlo’s S-M-C-
R communication model identifies all our senses
are the channels that
help us communicate with one another.

1. Our sense of hearing lets us know that someone

is speaking to us.
2. Through our sense of taste, we gather
information about the spiciness of a sauce we are
eating.
3. Our sense of sight allows us to decipher traffic
signs while driving.
4. We decide whether we like a certain perfume or
not by smelling it.
5. By touching the water we feel whether it is too
cold for a swim.

Receiver
A receiver is a person the source is speaking to —
the destination of the conveyed message. To
understand the message, the receiver should
involve the same elements as the source. They
should have similar communication skills,
attitudes, and knowledge, and be acquainted with
the social system and culture in which they
communicate.

Criticism on Berlo’s Model of Communication

 It is a linear model of communication. So it
does not give credits to the feedback.
  Needs people to be on the same level for
communication to occur but not true in real life.
 It does not mention communication
interference or "noise".
 It does not include the barriers of the
communication.

Interactive Model of Communication

 As more dynamic models, interactive
communication models refer to two-way
communication with feedback.
 However, feedback within interactive
communication models is not simultaneous, but
rather slow and indirect.

1.Osgood-Schramm Model Of
Communication – the Osgood-Schramm
model is a circular model of communication, in
which messages go in two directions between
encoding and decoding. As such, this model is
useful for describing synchronous,
interpersonal communication, but less suitable
for cases with little or no feedback.
Interestingly, in the Osgood-Schramm
communication model, there is no difference
between a sender and a receiver. Both parties
are equally encoding and decoding the
messages. The interpreter is the person trying
to understand the message at that moment.
Furthermore, the Osgood-Schramm
communication model shows that information
is of no use until it is put into words and
conveyed to other people.
 The Osgood-Schramm communication model
proposes 4 main principles of communication:
1.Communication is circular. — Individuals
involved in the communication process are
changing their roles as encoders and
decoders.
2.Communication is equal and reciprocal.
— Both parties are equally engaged as
encoders and decoders.
3.The message requires interpretation. —
The information needs to be properly
interpreted to be understood.
4.As shown in the Osgood-Schramm
communication model diagram below, this
model proposes 3 steps in the process of
communication:
- Encoding,
- Decoding, and
- Interpreting

Transactional Model of Communication

 Transactional communication models view
communication as a transaction, meaning that it is
a cooperative process in which communicators co-
 create the process of communication, thereby
influencing its outcome and effectiveness.
 In other words, communicators create shared
meaning in a dynamic process.
 Aside from that, transactional models show that we
do not just exchange information during our
interactions, but create relationships, form cross-
cultural bonds, and shape our opinions.
 In other words, communication helps us establish
our realities.
These models also introduced the roles of:
 Social,
 Relational, and
 Cultural contexts.