ECOSYSTEMS

Robinson Q. Fabito

Lessons:

 Organization of Life
 Ecosystem Structure
 Energy Flow in Ecosystems
 Nutrient Cycles
 Module 2 – Ecosystems 25

What is about this module?

This module will discuss the about ecosystems. Ecosystems are specific
areas of the environment that develop as a result of the interaction between the
earth's four spheres. They are characterized by a unique collection of living
organisms which have adapted to their surrounding non-living environment. This
module will help us understand how organisms are grouped and organized
according to levels, how ecosystems are form and classified, how energy flow to
maintain equilibrium, and how chemicals go through cycles to balance the
ecosystem as a whole. The sizes of ecosystems vary. It is important to remember,
however, that over time most of earth's ecosystems have been influenced in some
way by the activities of humans, so there are very few ecosystems which remain
in their purely natural state. As you will read and comprehend this concepts that
will be presented, take note of the human impacts that plays a vital role in the
different ecological processes and interactions

This module includes the following lessons:

 Lesson 1: Organization of Life
 Lesson 2: Ecosystem Structure
 Lesson 3: Energy Flow in Ecosystems
 Lesson 4: Nutrient Cycles

Throughout each lesson, you will be using the 3E’s model which stands as
Explore - introduces the topic with surfacing of your prior knowledge, Explain -
processes your prior knowledge through thorough discussion with concrete
examples, and Evaluate - present various exercises where you can apply the
concepts that you learned from the module.

In order to give you a clearer instruction on how you will do each part of the
module, the following icons are provided:

This serves as the introduction of the module. It discusses what you

expect to learn and achieve in every lesson.

This is an introductory part or the EXPLORE of a particular lesson

where preparatory activity related to the lesson is given.

This is the EXPLAIN part that will tell you that you are going to read
carefully and understand the concepts that will be presented in each
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lesson. This is important for you to be able to do the tasks that will
be given after.

This icon shows that you are in the EVALUATE or transfer part of the
lesson. Read carefully the given directions in each task and answer it
to the best that you can.

This section will give you the highlighted key points as summary of
the concepts discussed in all lessons throughout this module.

This will tell you that you need to take the summative test which will
try to measure your understanding of the presented concepts.

This signals that you have to do a performance task or an authentic

assessment to test the extent of your gained knowledge in this
module.

This shows the references that were used in this module for the
development and discussion of each lesson.

In accomplishing the tasks provided in each lesson, you are reminded to

CHEAT.

C – critical thinker as you are to answer all the task provided to the best
that you can.

H – honest in answering all the questions on your own without copying from
other’s work.

E – enjoy this whole new experience of learning this pandemic. If needed,

once in a while, take a break so not to stress you much in going through
this module.

A – acquire the necessary skills and learnings to maximize your experience

in this modular approach of teaching-learning process of the new
normal.

T – time-specific in finishing all the tasks that will be provided so as not to

stay long in a given lesson and that you can move to the next. You are
only given three weeks to finish one module.
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Lesson 1 Organization of Life

At the end of the lesson, you will be able to, on your own:
1. describe the different levels of organization from the simplest to the most
complex
2. explain the importance of each level to achieve ecological balance

Explore

Surely, majority if not all have already experience cooking something on their own.
Can you remember the time when you cooked “Pancit Canton”? Try to remember
the steps you did and answer the following questions.

What was the first step or procedure that you did in cooking Pancit Canton? Why?
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What was the last procedure that you did? Why?

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Why do we need to follow procedures in cooking food like the Pancit Canton?
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Explain

Levels of Organization of Living Things

Living things are highly organized and structured, following a hierarchy
that can be examined on a scale from small to large. The atom is the smallest and
most fundamental unit of matter. It consists of a nucleus surrounded by
electrons. Atoms form molecules which are chemical structures consisting of at
least two atoms held together by one or more chemical bonds. Many molecules
that are biologically important are macromolecules, large molecules that are
typically formed by polymerization. An example of a macromolecule is
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deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), which contains the instructions for the structure
and functioning of all living organisms.

From Organelles to Biospheres

Macromolecules can form aggregates within a cell that are surrounded by
membranes; these are called organelles.
Organelles are small structures that exist within cells. Examples of these
include: mitochondria and chloroplasts, which carry out indispensable functions.
Mitochondria produce energy to power the cell while chloroplasts enable green
plants to utilize the energy in sunlight to make sugars. All living things are made
of cells, and the cell itself is the smallest fundamental unit of structure and
function in living organisms. Some organisms consist of a single cell and others
are multicellular. Cells are classified as prokaryotic or eukaryotic. Prokaryotes
are single-celled or colonial organisms that do not have membrane-bound nuclei;
in contrast, the cells of eukaryotes do have membrane-bound organelles and a
membrane-bound nucleus.

In larger organisms, cells combine to make tissues, which are groups of

similar cells carrying out similar or related functions. Organs are collections of
tissues grouped together performing a common function. Organs are present not
only in animals but also in plants. An organ system is a higher level of
organization that consists of functionally related organs. Mammals have many
organ systems. For instance, the circulatory system transports blood through the
body and to and from the lungs; it includes organs such as the heart and blood
vessels. Furthermore, organisms are individual living entities. For example, each
tree in a forest is an organism. Single-celled prokaryotes and single-celled
eukaryotes are also considered organisms and are typically referred to as
microorganisms.

All the individuals of a species living within a specific area are collectively
called a population. For example, a forest may include many mango trees. All of
these mango trees represent the population of mango trees in this forest. Different
populations may live in the same specific area. For example, the forest with the
mango trees includes populations of flowering plants and also insects and
microbial populations. A community is the sum of populations inhabiting a
particular area. For instance, all of the trees, flowers, insects, and other
populations in a forest form the forest’s community. The forest itself is an
ecosystem. An ecosystem consists of all the living things in a particular area
together with the abiotic, non-living parts of that environment such as nitrogen
in the soil or rain water. At the highest level of organization, the biosphere is the

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collection of all ecosystems, and it represents the zones of life on earth. It includes
land, water, and even the atmosphere to a certain extent. Taken together, all of
these levels comprise the biological levels of organization, which range from
organelles to the biosphere.

Cells are the most basic building blocks of life. All living things are composed of
cells. New cells are made from preexisting cells, which divide in two. Who you are
has been determined because of two cells that came together inside your mother’s
womb. The two cells containing all of your genetic information (DNA) fused to
begin the development of a new organism. Cells divided and differentiated into
other cells with specific roles that led to the formation of the body’s numerous
organs, systems, blood, blood vessels, bones, tissues, and skin. While all cells in
an individual contain the same DNA, each cell only expresses the genetic codes
that relate to that cell’s specific structure and function.

As an adult, you are made up of trillions of cells. Each of your individual

cells is a compact and efficient form of life and self-sufficient, yet interdependent
upon the other cells within your body to supply its needs. There are hundreds of
types of cells. Each individual cell conducts all the basic processes of life. It must
take in nutrients, excrete wastes, detect and respond to its environment, move,
breathe, grow, and reproduce. Many cells have a short life span and have to be
replaced continually. For example, cells that line the intestines or the enterocytes
are replaced every 2-4 days, and skin cells are replaced every few weeks.

Although a cell is defined as the “most basic” unit of life, it is structurally and
functionally complex. A human cell typically consists of a flexible outer cell
membrane (also called a plasma membrane) that encloses cytoplasm, a water-
based cellular fluid, together with a variety of functioning units called organelles.
The organelles are like tiny organs constructed from several macromolecules
bonded together. A typical animal cell contains the following organelles:

 Nucleus: houses genetic material (DNA)

 Mitochondria: often called the powerhouse of

the cell, generates usable energy for the cell from
energy-yielding nutrients

 Ribosomes: assemble proteins based on genetic

code

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 Endoplasmic reticulum: processes and packages proteins and lipids

 Golgi apparatus (golgi body): distributes macromolecules like proteins and

lipids around the cell

 Lysosomes: digestive pouches which break down macromolecules and

destroy foreign invaders

A tissue is a group of many similar cells that share a

common structure and work together to perform a
specific function. There are four basic types of human
tissues: connective, which connects tissues;
epithelial, which lines and protects organs; muscle,
which contracts for movement and support; and
nerve, which responds and reacts to signals in the
environment.

An organ is a group of similar tissues arranged in a

specific manner to perform a specific physiological
function. Examples include the brain, liver, and heart.
An organ system is a group of two or more organs that
work together to perform a specific physiological
function. Examples include the digestive system and
central nervous system.

There are eleven distinct organ systems in the human body. Assigning
organs to organ systems can be imprecise since organs that “belong” to one system
can also have functions integral to another system. In fact, many organs
contribute to more than one system. And most of these organ systems are involved
in nutrition-related functions within the body. For example, the cardiovascular
system plays a role in nutrition by transporting nutrients in the blood to the cells
of the body. The endocrine system produces hormones, many of which are
involved in regulating appetite, digestive processes, and nutrient levels in the
blood. Even the reproductive system plays a role in providing nutrition to a
developing fetus or growing baby.

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Notes:
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Major Organ Major Organ

Organ System Major Functions Organ System
Components Components
Heart, Heart,
Transport oxygen,
blood/lymph blood/lymph
Cardiovascular nutrients, and Cardiovascular
vessels, blood, vessels, blood,
waste products
lymph lymph
Mouth, Mouth,
esophagus, esophagus,
stomach, stomach,
Digestion and
Digestive intestines, Digestive intestines,
absorption
salivary glands, salivary glands,
pancreas, liver pancreas, liver
and gallbladder and gallbladder
Produce and
Endocrine glands Endocrine glands
release hormones,
Endocrine (e.g., thyroid, Endocrine (e.g., thyroid,
regulate nutrient
ovaries, pancreas) ovaries, pancreas)
levels
White blood cells, White blood cells,
Defend against
Immune lymphatic tissue, Immune lymphatic tissue,
foreign invaders
marrow marrow
Protection, body
Skin, nails, hair, Skin, nails, hair,
Integumentary temperature Integumentary
sweat glands sweat glands
regulation
Skeletal, smooth, Skeletal, smooth,
Muscular and cardiac Body movement Muscular and cardiac
muscle muscle
Interpret and
Brain, spinal cord, respond to Brain, spinal cord,
Nervous Nervous
nerves stimuli, appetite nerves
control
Reproduction and
Reproductive Gonads, genitals sexual Reproductive Gonads, genitals
characteristics
Lungs, nose, Gas exchange Lungs, nose,
Respiratory mouth, throat, (oxygen and Respiratory mouth, throat,
trachea carbon dioxide) trachea
Structure and
Bones, tendons, Bones, tendons,
Skeletal support, calcium Skeletal
ligaments, joints ligaments, joints
storage
Kidneys, bladder, Waste excretion, Kidneys, bladder,
Urinary/Excretory Urinary/Excretory
ureters water balance ureters

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An organism is the highest level of organization—a

complete living system capable of conducting all of
life’s biological processes. In multicellular organisms,
including humans, all cells, tissues, organs, and
organ systems of the body work together to maintain
the life and health of the organism.

A population is a group of organisms of the same species

that live in the same area at the same time. Population
ecologists study the size, density, and structure of
populations and how they change over time.

Community: A biological community consists of all the populations of different

species that live in a given area. Community ecologists focus on interactions
between populations and how these interactions shape the community.

Ecosystem: An ecosystem consists of all the biotic and abiotic factors that
influence that community. Ecosystem ecologists often focus on flow of energy and
recycling of nutrients.

Biosphere: The biosphere is planet Earth, viewed as an ecological system.

Ecologists working at the biosphere level may study global patterns—for example,
climate or species distribution—interactions among ecosystems, and phenomena
that affect the entire globe, such as climate change.

Notes:
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Evaluate!
Name: _________________________ Date: __________
Year & Section: _________________ Score: _________
A. Direction: Encircle the letter of your choice that best identifies what is being
asked for.
1. It a structure made up of different tissues working together
a. organ b. cell c. tissue d. organelle
2. An individual living thing capable of growing and reproducing.
a. tissue b. cell c. organism d. plant
3. A group of cells having the similar function
b. cell b. tissue c. prokaryotic d. animal
4. It is considered as the basic unit of life.
a. organ b. cell c. tissue d. organelle
5. When liver, stomach, and intestines are group together, what level of
organization can be formed?
a. organ b. population c. tissue d. organ system
6. Blood, heart, blood vessels: when grouped, it can form what specific
system?
a. nervous b. integumentary c. cardiovascular d. endocrine
7. Which of the following shows the correct order of organization?
a. tissues-cells-organs-organ systems-organism
b. cell-tissue-organs-organ systems-organism
c. organism-cells-tissues-organ systems-organism
d. tissues-cells-organs-organ systems-organism
8. When two or more populations live together in a given area, what
organization has been illustrated?
a. population b. community c. ecosystem d. biosphere
9. Which of the following is the most complex level of organization in living
things?
a. population b. community c. ecosystem d. biosphere
10. All of the following is an example of an organism except:
a. grass b. chicken c. bacteria d. muscles

B. Direction: Do what is asked.

1. Show the correct sequence of the organization of life from simplest to the
most complex level. Make use of your own diagram and give example in
each level. You can write or show your answer below or at the back of this
page. (22pts.)

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Lesson 2 Ecosystem Structure

At the end of the lesson, you will be able to, on your own:
1. describe the structure and function of an ecosystem

Explore
Observe your surroundings. List at least 10 things that you see and
classify them whether living thing or non-living thing.

Things that you see around Classified as…

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

Explain

What is an Ecosystem?
The ecosystem is the structural and functional unit of ecology where the
living organisms interact with each other and the surrounding environment. In
other words, an ecosystem is a chain of interaction between organisms and their
environment. The term “Ecosystem” was first coined by A.G.Tansley, an English
botanist, in 1935.

The concept of ecosystem was first put forth by A.G. Tansley (1935).
Ecosystem is the major ecological unit. It has both structure and functions. The
structure is related to species diversity. The more complex is the structure the
greater is the diversity of the species in the ecosystem. The functions of ecosystem
are related to the flow of energy and cycling of materials through structural
components of the ecosystem.

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According to Woodbury (1954), ecosystem is a complex in which habitat,

plants and animals are considered as one interesting unit, the materials and
energy of one passing in and out of the others.

According to E.P. Odum, the ecosystem is the basic functional unit of

organisms and their environment interacting with each other and with their own
components. An ecosystem may be conceived and studied in the habitats of
various sizes, e.g., one square metre of grassland, a pool, a large lake, a large tract
of forest, balanced aquarium, a certain area of river and ocean.

All the ecosystems of the earth are connected to one another, e.g., river
ecosystem is connected with the ecosystem of ocean, and a small ecosystem of
dead logs is a part of large ecosystem of a forest. A complete self-sufficient
ecosystem is rarely found in nature but situations approaching self-sufficiency
may occur.

Types of Ecosystem
An ecosystem can be as small as an oasis in a desert, or as big as an ocean,
spanning thousands of miles. There are two types of ecosystem: Terrestrial
Ecosystem and Aquatic Ecosystem.

1. Terrestrial ecosystems are exclusively land-based ecosystems. There are

different types of terrestrial ecosystems distributed around various
geological zones. They are as follows:
 Forest Ecosystems
 Grassland Ecosystems
 Tundra Ecosystems
 Desert Ecosystem
 Forest Ecosystem

A forest ecosystem consists of several plants,

animals and microorganisms that live in coordination
with the abiotic factors of the environment. Forests
help in maintaining the temperature of the earth and
are the major carbon sink.

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In a grassland ecosystem, the vegetation is

dominated by grasses and herbs. Temperate
grasslands, savanna grasslands are some of the
examples of grassland ecosystems.

Tundra ecosystems are devoid of trees and

are found in cold climates or where rainfall is
scarce. These are covered with snow for most of the
year. The ecosystem in the Arctic or mountain tops
is tundra type.

Deserts are found throughout the world. These are

regions with very little rainfall. The days are hot and the
nights are cold.

Aquatic ecosystems are ecosystems present in a body of water. These can be

further divided into two types, namely Freshwater Ecosystem and Marine
Ecosystem

The freshwater ecosystem is an aquatic ecosystem that includes lakes, ponds,

rivers, streams and wetlands. These have no salt content in contrast with the
marine ecosystem.

The marine ecosystem includes seas and oceans. These have a more substantial
salt content and greater biodiversity in comparison to the freshwater ecosystem.

Structure of Ecosystem:
The structure of an ecosystem is
basically a description of the organisms
and physical features of environment
including the amount and distribution
of nutrients in a particular habitat. It
also provides information regarding the
range of climatic conditions prevailing
in the area.

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From the structure point of view, all ecosystems consist of the following
basic components: Abiotic components and Biotic components.

1. Abiotic Components
Ecological relationships are manifested in physicochemical environment.
Abiotic component of ecosystem includes basic inorganic elements and
compounds, such as soil, water, oxygen, calcium carbonates, phosphates and a
variety of organic compounds.
It also includes such physical factors and ingredients as moisture, wind
currents and solar radiation. Radiant energy of sun is the only significant energy
source for any ecosystem. The number of non-living components, such as carbon,
phosphorus, nitrogen, etc. that are present at any given time is known as standing
state or standing quantity.

2. Biotic Components
The biotic components include all living organisms present in the
environmental system. From nutrition point of view, the biotic components can
be grouped into two basic components:
a. Autotrophic components, and
b. Heterotrophic components

The autotrophic components include all green plants which fix the radiant
energy of sun and manufacture food from inorganic substances. The
heterotrophic components include non-green plants and all animals which take
food from autotrophs. So biotic components of an ecosystem can be described into
three:
1. Producers (Autotrophic components),
2. Consumers, and
3. Decomposers or reducers and transformers

The amount of biomass at any time in an ecosystem is known as standing

crop which is usually expressed as fresh weight, dry weight or as free energy in
terms of calories/meter.

Producers (Autotrophic elements):

The producers are the autotrophic elements, chiefly green plants. They use
radiant energy of sun in photosynthetic process whereby carbon dioxide is
assimilated and the light energy is converted into chemical energy. The chemical
energy is actually locked up in the energy rich carbon compounds. Oxygen is
evolved as by-product in the photosynthesis.

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This is used in respiration by all living things. Algae and other hydrophytes
of a pond, grasses of the field, trees of the forests are examples of producers.
Chemosynthetic bacteria and carotenoid bearing purple bacteria that also
assimilate CO2 with the energy of sunlight but only in the presence of organic
compounds also belong to this category.

The term producer is misleading one because in an energy context,

producers produce carbohydrate and not energy. Since they convert or transduce
the radiant energy into chemical form, E.J. Kormondy suggests better alternative
terms ‘converters’ or ‘transducers’. Because of wide use, the term producer is still
retained.

Consumers:
Those living members of ecosystem which consume the food synthesized by
producers are called consumers. Under this category, all kinds of animals that
are found in an ecosystem are included.

There are different categories of consumers, this includes:

(a) Consumers of the first order or primary consumers,
(b) Consumers of the second order or secondary consumers,
(c) Consumers of the third order or tertiary consumers, and
(d) Parasites, scavengers and saprobes.

Primary consumers:
These are purely herbivorous animals that are dependent for their food on
producers or green plants. Insects, rodents, rabbit, deer, cow, buffalo, goat are
some of the common herbivores in the terrestrial ecosystem, and small
crustaceans, molluscs, etc. in the aquatic habitat. Elton (1939) named herbivores
of ecosystem as “key industry animals”. The herbivores serve as the chief food
source for carnivores.

Secondary consumers:
These are carnivores and omnivores. Carnivores are flesh eating animals
and the omnivores are the animals that are adapted to consume herbivores as
well as plants as their food. Examples of secondary consumers are sparrow, crow,
fox, wolves, dogs, cats, snakes, etc.

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Tertiary consumers:
These are the top carnivores which prey upon other carnivores, omnivores
and herbivores. Lions, tigers, hawk, vulture, etc. are considered as tertiary or top
consumers.
Besides different classes of consumers, the parasites, scavengers and saprobes
are also included in the consumers. The parasitic plants and animals utilize the
living tissues of different plants and animals. The scavengers and saprobes utilize
dead remains of animals and plants as their food.

Decomposers and transformers:

Decomposers and transformers are the living components of the
ecosystem and they are fungi and bacteria. Decomposers attack the dead
remains of producers and consumers and degrade the complex organic
substances into simpler compounds. The simple organic matters are then
attacked by another kind of bacteria, the transformers which change these
organic compounds into the inorganic forms that are suitable for reuse by
producers or green plants. The decomposers and transformers play very
important role in maintaining the dynamic nature of ecosystems.

Functions of Ecosystem
The functions of the ecosystem are as follows:
1. It regulates the essential ecological processes, supports life systems and
renders stability.

2. It is also responsible for the cycling of nutrients between biotic and abiotic
components.

3. It maintains a balance among the various trophic levels in the ecosystem.

4. It cycles the minerals through the biosphere.

5. The abiotic components help in the synthesis of organic components that

involves the exchange of energy.

Important Ecological Concepts

1. Food Chain
The sun is the ultimate source of energy on earth. It provides the energy
required for all plant life. The plants utilize this energy for the process of
photosynthesis, which is used to synthesize their food.

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During this biological process, light energy is converted into chemical

energy and is passed on through successive levels. The flow of energy from a
producer, to a consumer and eventually, to an apex predator or a detritivore is
called the food chain.

Dead and decaying matter, along with organic debris, is broken down into
its constituents by scavengers. The reducers then absorb these constituents. After
gaining the energy, the reducers liberate molecules to the environment, which can
be utilized again by the producers.

2. Ecological Pyramids
An ecological pyramid is the graphical
representation of the number, energy, and biomass
of the successive trophic levels of an ecosystem.
Charles Elton was the first ecologist to describe the
ecological pyramid and its principals in 1927. The
biomass, number, and energy of organisms ranging
from the producer level to the consumer level are
represented in the form of a pyramid; hence, it is
known as the ecological pyramid.

The base of the ecological pyramid comprises the producers, followed by

primary and secondary consumers. The tertiary consumers hold the apex. In some
food chains, the quaternary consumers are at the very apex of the food chain. The
producers generally outnumber the primary consumers and similarly, the primary
consumers outnumber the secondary consumers. And lastly, apex predators also
follow the same trend as the other consumers; wherein, their numbers are
considerably lower than the secondary consumers.

3. Food Web
Food web is a network of interconnected food chains. It comprises all the
food chains within a single ecosystem. It helps in understanding that plants lay
the foundation of all the food chains. In a marine environment, phytoplankton
forms the primary producer.
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Evaluate!
Name: _________________________ Date: __________
Year & Section: _________________ Score: _________
A. Direction: Encircle the letter of your choice that best identifies what is being
asked for.
1. An organism that makes its own food is called a _____.
a. producer b. consumer c. scavenger d. decomposer
2. Lion and tigers are classified as what type of consumers?
a. omnivores b. carnivores c. scavengers d. herbivores
3. Grass, dog, cat, and mouse: which of the following is an example of a
producer? a. grass b. dog c. cat d. mouse
4. Which of the following is NOT an abiotic factor?
a. decomposer b. light intensity c. wind d. temperature
5. Plants are classified as _____.
a. producers b. herbivores c. consumers d. omnivores
6. The ultimate source of almost all the energy in most ecosystems is _____.
a. carbohydrates b. water c. sunlight d. carbon
7. An organism that cannot make its own food and depend their nutrient
intake from other organisms is called _____.
a. heterotroph b. autotroph c. chemotroph d. producer
8. Organisms like fungi and bacteria obtain nutrients by breaking down dead
and decaying plants and animals. They are classified as _____.
a. decomposers b. scavengers c. omnivores d. producers
9. A bird stalks, kills, and then eats an insect. Based on its behavior, which
ecological terms describe the bird?
a. herbivore, decomposer c. carnivore, consumer
b. producer, heterotroph d. autotroph, herbivore
10. A snake that eats a frog that has eaten an insect that fed on a plant is a
a. first-level producer c. second-level producer.
b. first-level consumer d. third-level consumer.

B. Direction: Make your own simple food chain starting from producers down to
decomposers. Draw, label, and put your output on the space provided below. (10pts.)

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Lesson 3 Energy Flow in Ecosystems

At the end of the lesson, you will be able to, on your own:
1. discuss how energy flow and maintain ecosystem balance

Explore

When you are hungry, you feel weak and lack energy to do things that you
supposed to do.

What do you usually do to satisfy your hunger and regain energy?

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What do you think is with in foods that will help us regain the energy?
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How do you think is energy passed from the food to us?

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Explain

Energy Flow
The chemical energy of food is the main source of energy required by all
living organisms. This energy is transmitted to different trophic levels along the
food chain. This energy flow is based on two different laws of thermodynamics:

 First law of thermodynamics, that states that energy can neither be

created nor destroyed, it can only change from one form to another.

 Second law of thermodynamics, that states that as energy is transferred

more and more of it is wasted.

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Energy Flow in Ecosystem

The energy flow in the ecosystem is
one of the major factors that support the
survival of such a great number of
organisms. For almost all organisms on
earth, the primary source of energy is solar
energy. It is amusing to find that we receive
less than 50 per cent of the sun’s effective
radiation on earth. When we say effective
radiation, we mean the radiation, which
can be used by plants to carry out
photosynthesis.

Most of the sun’s radiation that falls on the earth is usually reflected back
into space by the earth’s atmosphere. This effective radiation is termed as the
Photosynthetically Active Radiation (PAR).

Overall, we receive about 40 to 50 percent of the energy having

Photosynthetically Active Radiation and only around 2-10 percent of it is used by
plants for the process of photosynthesis. Thus, this percent of PAR supports the
entire world as plants are the producers in the ecosystem and all the other
organisms are either directly or indirectly dependent on them for their survival.

The energy flow takes place via the food chain and food web. During the
process of energy flow in the ecosystem, plants being the producers absorb
sunlight with the help of the chloroplasts and a part of it is transformed into
chemical energy in the process of photosynthesis.

This energy is stored in various organic products in the plants and passed
on to the primary consumers in the food chain when the herbivores consume
(primary consumers) the plants as food. Then conversion of chemical energy
stored in plant products into kinetic energy occurs, degradation of energy will
occur through its conversion into heat.

Then followed by the secondary consumers. When these herbivores are

ingested by carnivores of the first order (secondary consumers) further
degradation will occur. Finally, when tertiary consumers consume the carnivores,
energy will again be degraded. Thus, the energy flow is unidirectional in nature.

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Moreover, in a food chain, the energy flow follows the 10 percent law.
According to this law, only 10 percent of energy is transferred from one trophic
level to the other; rest is lost into the atmosphere. This is clearly explained in the
following figure and is represented as an energy pyramid.

Trophic level
The producers and consumers in the ecosystem can be arranged into
different feeding groups and are known as trophic level or the feeding level.

Producers: The producers (plants) represent the first trophic level. Producers are
organisms that create food from inorganic matter. The best examples of producers
are plants, lichens and algae, which convert water, sunlight and carbon dioxide
into carbohydrates. Producers are by definition autotrophs, which means they are
self-feeding. This group of organisms uses solar energy (photosynthesis) – or more
rarely inorganic chemical reactions (chemosynthesis) – to create food in the form
of energy-rich molecules such as carbohydrates. This process, the synthesis of
carbon dioxide into organic compounds, is called primary production and is
indirectly or directly connected to the survival of all life on Earth.

Herbivores (primary consumers) present the second trophic level. Herbivores use
plants as food which gives them energy. A large part of this energy is used up for
the metabolic functions of these animals such as breathing, digesting food,
supporting growth of tissues, maintaining blood circulation and body
temperature.

Primary carnivores (secondary consumers) represent the third trophic level. A

primary carnivore, like a cat, represents a carnivore that will only eat herbivores,
or plant eaters, such as a mouse.

Top carnivores (tertiary consumers) represent the last level. Top carnivores are
the carnivores occupying the top level of a food chain or the ecological pyramid.
They feed on other organisms but aren't fed upon by any predator or so. Eg. Lion.

Omnivores are animals that eat both plant- and animal-derived food. In Latin,
omnivore means to eat everything. Humans, bears, and chickens are example of
vertebrate omnivores; invertebrate omnivores include cockroaches and crayfish.

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Food Chain

There are basically three different types of food chains in the ecosystem. This
includes the following:

1. Grazing food chain (GFC) – This is the normal food chain that we observe
in which plants are the producers and the energy flows from the producers
to the herbivores (primary consumers), then to carnivores (secondary
consumers) and so on.

2. Saprophytic or Detritus food chain (DFC) – Detritus food chain is the type
of food chain that starts with dead organic materials. The dead organic
substances are decomposed by microorganisms. The organisms that feed
on dead organic matter or detritus, are known as detritivores or
decomposers. These detritivores are later eaten by predators. In the
detritus food chain, the excreted products by one organism is utilized by
another organism.

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Implications of Detritus Food Chain

 Detritus food chain is not limited to single habitat, as it is found in
several different locations like the bottom of lakes and oceans. These
locations are too dark to carry the process of photosynthesis.
Therefore, the ecosystems of the detritus food chain are rarely
dependent on solar energy.

 Detritus food chain has continuous energy flow compared to other

food chains. For instance, in the grazing food chain, there is a distinct
transfer of energy flow between different trophic levels.

 Energy for this type of food chain is from the dead and decomposed
matter known as detritus.

 This type of food chain acquires energy from detritus, utilizing the
detritus to its fullest, with minimum wastage.

 The detritus food chain helps in solving inorganic nutrients.

 Detritus food chain includes sub soil species that can be macroscopic
or microscopic in nature.

 Compared to other kinds of food chains, the detritus food chain has
much larger energy flow in a terrestrial ecosystem.

3. Parasitic food chain (PFC) – Parasitic food chain is a type of food chain
that starts from herbivore, but the food energy transfers from larger
organisms to smaller organisms,
without killing in case of a
predator. Thus, the larger
animals are known to be the
hosts and the smaller living
organisms which acquire
nutrition from the hosts are
known to be the parasites. In
this type of food chain, either
the producer or the consumer is
parasitized. Therefore, the food
passes on to smaller living
organisms.

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Implications of Parasite in a food chain

 A parasite is an organism that lives inside or on another living
organism in order to survive.

 A parasite in a food chain is capable of changing the flow of energy in

the food chain.

 All parasites are considered to be consumers. Therefore, parasites in

a food chain are related to organisms that the parasite can consume.
 Parasites in a food chain are overlooked mostly, but affect the flow of
energy in a food chain.

 The pyramid of numbers shows the total number of organisms in a

trophic level. In a parasitic food chain, the shape of the pyramid is
inverted. This is because the number of producers is low and primary
consumers (herbivores) have a greater number of organisms. After
this, we see secondary consumers like carnivores.

 In this pyramid, the majority of individual organisms are found at the

top trophic level. These individuals are known as hyperparasites.

 But the number of bacteria and fungi are found in large amounts in
a parasitic food chain.

Notes:
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Evaluate!
Name: _________________________ Date: __________
Year & Section: _________________ Score: _________
A. Direction: Encircle the letter of your choice that best identifies what is being
asked for.
1. What is the ultimate source of energy for food chains/food webs?
a. the sun b. producers c. fertilizer d. electricity
2. What is a producer?
a. organisms that make their own food
b. organisms that eat other organisms for energy
c. organisms that break down dead organisms
d. organisms that feed on both dead organisms and other living
organisms
3. What organisms are usually found at the bottom of an energy pyramid?
a. producer b. consumer c. decomposer d. scavenger
4. Which of the following organisms have the most available energy in an
energy pyramid?
a. producer b. consumer c. decomposer d. scavenger
5. Which of the following is an example of a decomposer in a food chain?
a. algae b. mushroom c. earthworm d. bird
6. Which organism is likely to be at the beginning of a food chain for a pond?
a. milkfish b. shrimp c. paramecium d. algae
7. An organism that eats both plants and animals are known as a
a. carnivore b. omnivore c. herbivore d. decomposer
8. If additional snakes are introduced into this ecosystem,
there will most likely be an immediate decrease in the
_________. a. hawk population b. rabbit population
b. wildflower population c. grass population
9. Which would be the appropriate term for an organism that
eats a producer?
a. scavenger b. decomposer
b. secondary consumer d. primary consumer
10. In an ecosystem, beetles eat grain, and lizards eat the beetles. Which
statement is true?
a. Beetles are carnivores. c. Beetles are producers.
b. Lizards are decomposers. d. Lizards are consumers.

B. Direction: At the back of this page, draw and illustrate samples of the three
types of food chains in the ecosystem namely Grazing, Saprophytic, and
Parasitic food chains forming a food web as a whole. (20pts.)
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Lesson 4 Nutrient Cycles

At the end of the lesson, you will be able to, on your own:
1. discuss the different chemical cycles occurring in the ecosystem
2. give the importance of each cycle in the balance of nature and survival
of living organism

Explore

Metamorphosis!
Direction: Draw a simple life cycle of a butterfly. Put your illustration on the space
provided inside the box below.

1. What are the different stages in the life cycle of a butterfly?

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2. How are the stages different from one another? Are they all the same?
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3. What do you think is the significance of such cycle to butterfly species and
to other organisms that are directly related to butterflies (i.e., flowering
plants, bees, flies)?
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Explain

The six most common elements associated with organic molecules include
carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, and sulfur taking a variety of
chemical forms and may exist for long periods in the atmosphere, on land, in
water, or beneath Earth’s surface. Geologic processes, such as weathering,
erosion, water drainage, and the subduction of the continental plates, all play a
role in the cycling of elements on Earth. Because geology and chemistry have
major roles in the study of these processes, the recycling of inorganic matter
between living organisms and their nonliving environment are called
biogeochemical cycles.

Hydrogen and oxygen are found in water and organic molecules, both of
which are essential to life. Carbon is found in all organic molecules, whereas
nitrogen is an important component of nucleic acids and proteins. Phosphorus is
used to make nucleic acids and the phospholipids that comprise biological
membranes. Lastly, sulfur is critical to the three-dimensional shape of proteins.

The cycling of these elements is interconnected. For example, the

movement of water is critical for the leaching of sulfur and phosphorus into rivers,
lakes, and oceans. Minerals cycle through the biosphere between the biotic and
abiotic components and from one organism to another.

The Water Cycle

The hydrosphere pertains to the liquid water
on the surface and beneath the surface or ice, and
as water vapor in the atmosphere. The human body
is about 60 percent water and human cells are more
than 70 percent water. Of the stores of water on
Earth, 97.5 percent is salt water. Of the remaining
water, more than 99 percent is groundwater or ice.
Thus, less than one percent of freshwater is present
in lakes and rivers. Many organisms are dependent
on this small percentage, a lack of which can have
negative effects on ecosystems. Humans, of course,
have developed technologies to increase water availability, such as digging wells
to harvest groundwater, storing rainwater, and using desalination to obtain
drinkable water from the ocean. Although this pursuit of drinkable water has been
ongoing throughout human history, the supply of fresh water continues to be a
major issue in modern times.
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The various processes that occur during the cycling of water include the following:
 evaporation and sublimation
 condensation and precipitation
 subsurface water flow
 surface runoff and snowmelt
 streamflow

The water cycle is driven by the Sun’s energy as it warms the oceans and
other surface waters. This leads to evaporation of liquid surface water and
sublimation of frozen water, thus moving large amounts of water into the
atmosphere as water vapor. Over time, this water vapor condenses into clouds as
liquid or frozen droplets and eventually leads to precipitation, which returns water
to Earth’s surface. Rain reaching Earth’s surface may evaporate again, flow over
the surface, or percolate into the ground. Most easily observed is surface runoff:
the flow of freshwater over land either from rain or melting ice. Runoff can make
its way through streams and lakes to the oceans.

In most natural terrestrial environments rain encounters vegetation before

it reaches the soil surface. A significant percentage of water evaporates
immediately from the surfaces of plants. What is left reaches the soil and begins
to move down. Surface runoff will occur only if the soil becomes saturated with
water in a heavy rainfall. Water in the soil can be taken up by plant roots. The
plant will use some of this water for its own metabolism and some of that will find
its way into animals that eat the plants, but much of it will be lost back to the
atmosphere through a process known as transpiration: water enters the vascular
system of plants through the roots and evaporates, or transpires, through the
stomata of the leaves. Transpiration and evaporation as a process of returning
water back to the atmosphere is combined and called as evapotranspiration.
Water in the soil that is not taken up by a plant and that does not evaporate is
able to percolate into the subsoil and bedrock where it forms groundwater.

Groundwater is a significant, subsurface reservoir of fresh water. It exists

in the pores between particles in dirt, sand, and gravel or in the fissures in rocks.
Groundwater can flow slowly through these pores and fissures and eventually
finds its way to a stream or lake where it becomes part of the surface water again.
Many streams flow not because they are replenished from rainwater directly but
because they receive a constant inflow from the groundwater below. Some
groundwater is found very deep in the bedrock and can persist there for millennia.
Most groundwater reservoirs, or aquifers, are the source of drinking or irrigation

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water drawn up through wells. In many cases these aquifers are being depleted
faster than they are being replenished by water percolating down from above. Rain
and surface runoff are major ways in which minerals, including phosphorus and
sulfur, are cycled from land to water.

The Carbon Cycle

Carbon is the second most abundant element in organisms, by mass.
Carbon is present in all organic molecules, and its role in the structure of
biomolecules is of primary importance. Carbon compounds contain energy, and
many of these compounds from dead plants and algae have fossilized over millions
of years and are known as fossil fuels. Since the beginning of the Industrial
Revolution the demand for Earth’s limited fossil fuel supplies has risen, causing
the amount of carbon dioxide in our atmosphere to drastically increase. This
increase in carbon dioxide is associated with climate change and is a major
environmental concern worldwide.

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The carbon cycle is most easily studied as two interconnected subcycles:

Biological Carbon Cycle dealing with rapid carbon exchange among living
organisms and Biogeochemical Carbon Cycle dealing with the long-term cycling
of carbon through geologic processes.

1. Biological Carbon Cycle

Organisms are connected in many ways; this includes the exchange
of carbon between heterotrophs and autotrophs by way of atmospheric
carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is the basic building block that
autotrophs use to build high-energy compounds such as glucose. The
energy harnessed from the Sun is used by these organisms to form the
covalent bonds that link carbon atoms together. These chemical bonds store
this energy for later use in the process of respiration. Most terrestrial
autotrophs obtain their carbon dioxide directly from the atmosphere, while
marine autotrophs acquire it in the dissolved form.

Carbon is passed from producers to higher trophic levels through

consumption. For example, when a goat eats grass, it obtains some of the
organic molecules originally made by the plant’s photosynthesis. Those
organic compounds can then be passed to higher trophic levels, such as
humans, when we eat the goat. At each level, however, organisms are
performing respiration, a process in which organic molecules are broken
down to release energy. As these organic molecules are broken down,
carbon is removed from food molecules to form CO2, a gas that enters the
atmosphere. Thus, CO2 is a byproduct of respiration. Recall that CO 2 is
consumed by producers during photosynthesis to make organic molecules.
As these molecules are broken down during respiration, the carbon once
again enters the atmosphere as CO2. Carbon exchange like this potentially
connects all organisms on Earth. Like, the carbon in your DNA was once
part of plant; millions of years ago perhaps it was part of dinosaur.

2. Biogeochemical Carbon Cycle

The movement of carbon through land, water, and air is complex and
occurs much more slowly as compared to carbo exchange in organisms.
Carbon is stored for long periods in what are known as carbon reservoirs,
which include the atmosphere, bodies of liquid water, ocean sediment, soil,
rocks, and Earth’s interior.

The atmosphere is a major reservoir of carbon in the form of carbon

dioxide that is essential to the process of photosynthesis. The level of carbon

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dioxide in the atmosphere is greatly influenced by the reservoir of carbon in

the oceans. Carbon dioxide from the atmosphere dissolves in water and
reacts with water molecules to form ionic compounds. Some of these ions
combine with calcium ions in the seawater to form calcium carbonate
(CaCO3), a major component of the shells of marine organisms. These
organisms eventually die and their shells form sediments on the ocean floor.

On land, carbon is stored in soil as organic carbon as a result of the

decomposition of organisms or from weathering of terrestrial rock and
minerals. Deeper underground are fossil fuels, the anaerobically
decomposed remains of plants and algae that lived millions of years ago.
Fossil fuels are considered a non-renewable resource because their use far
exceeds their rate of formation. A non-renewable resource is either
regenerated very slowly or not at all. Another way for carbon to enter the
atmosphere is from land by the eruption of volcanoes and other geothermal
systems. Carbon sediments from the ocean floor are taken deep within
Earth by the process of subduction: the movement of one tectonic plate
beneath another.

The Nitrogen Cycle

Plants and phytoplankton are not equipped to take nitrogen from the
atmosphere. Nitrogen enters the living world through free-living and symbiotic
bacteria, which incorporate nitrogen into their organic molecules through
specialized biochemical processes. Certain species of bacteria are able to perform
nitrogen fixation, the process of converting nitrogen gas into ammonia (NH 3),
which spontaneously becomes ammonium (NH4+). Ammonium is converted by
bacteria into nitrites (NO2−) and then nitrates (NO3−). At this point, the nitrogen-
containing molecules can now be used by plants and other producers to make
organic molecules such as DNA and proteins.

The nitrogen that entered the

living systems will eventually be
converted from organic nitrogen
back into the atmosphere as
nitrogen gas through bacteria. The
process of denitrification is when
bacteria convert the nitrates into
nitrogen gas, thus allowing it to re-
enter the atmosphere.

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Combustion of fossil fuels and use of artificial fertilizers in agriculture can

alter the nitrogen cycle. Atmospheric nitrogen is associated with several effects on
Earth’s ecosystems including the production of acid rain and greenhouse gas
effects potentially causing climate change. A major effect from fertilizer runoff is
saltwater and freshwater eutrophication, a process whereby nutrient runoff
causes the overgrowth of algae, the depletion of oxygen, and death of aquatic
fauna.

Phosphorus Cycle
Phosphorus is an essential nutrient for living processes. It is a major
component of nucleic acids and phospholipids, and makes up the supportive
components of our bones. Phosphorus is often the limiting nutrient in freshwater
ecosystems.

Phosphorus occurs in nature as the phosphate ion (PO43-). In addition to

phosphate runoff as a result of human activity, natural surface runoff occurs
when it is leached from phosphate-containing rock by weathering, thus sending
phosphates into rivers, lakes, and the ocean. This rock has its origins in the ocean.
Phosphate-containing ocean sediments form primarily from the bodies of ocean
organisms and from their excretions. However, volcanic ash, aerosols, and mineral
dust may also be significant phosphate sources.

Phosphorus is also reciprocally exchanged between phosphate dissolved in

the ocean and marine organisms. The movement of phosphate from the ocean to
the land and through the soil is extremely slow, with the average phosphate ion
having an oceanic residence time between 20,000 and 100,000 years.

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Sulfur Cycle
Sulfur is an essential element for the molecules of living things. It is
involved in protein synthesis. Sulfur cycle occur within the ocean, land, and
atmosphere. Atmospheric sulfur is found in the form of sulfur dioxide (SO2), which
enters the atmosphere through decomposition of organic molecules, volcanic
activity and geothermal vents; and, from the burning of fossil fuels by humans.

On land, sulfur is deposited through runoff, direct fallout from the

atmosphere, rock weathering, and geothermal vents. Atmospheric sulfur is found
in the form of sulfur dioxide (SO2), and as rain falls through the atmosphere,
sulfur is dissolved in the form of weak sulfuric acid (H2SO4). Sulfur can also fall
directly from the atmosphere in a process called fallout. Also, as sulfur-containing
rocks weather, sulfur is released into the soil. These rocks originate from ocean
sediments that are moved to land by the geologic uplifting of ocean sediments.
Terrestrial ecosystems can then make use of these soil sulfates (SO 42-), which
enter the food web by being taken up by plant roots. When these plants decompose
and die, sulfur is released back into the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H 2S)
gas. Some ecosystems rely on chemoautotrophs using sulfur as a biological energy
source. This sulfur then supports marine ecosystems in the form of sulfates.

Human activities have played a major role in altering the balance of the
global sulfur cycle. The burning of large quantities of fossil fuels, especially from
coal, releases larger amounts of hydrogen sulfide gas into the atmosphere. As rain
falls through this gas, it creates the phenomenon known as acid rain, which
damages the natural environment by lowering the pH of lakes, thus killing many
of the resident plants and animals. Acid rain is corrosive rain caused by rainwater
and affects the man-made environment through the chemical degradation of
buildings.

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Evaluate!
Name: _________________________ Date: __________
Year & Section: _________________ Score: _________
A. Direction: Encircle the letter of your choice that best identifies what is being
asked for.
2. The energy that powers the water cycle comes from what source?
a. plants b. animals c. electrical outlets d. the sun
3. When moisture from clouds fall to the ground, we call it as _____.
a. condensation b. hibernation c. evaporation d. precipitation
4. When gas changes to a liquid, what process is involved?
a. condensation b. precipitation c. evaporation d. sublimation
5. As time goes by, and water goes through the water cycle again and again,
the amount of water on Earth__________.
a. increases b. decreases c. stays the same d. goes up & down
6. Freshwater from rain or melting ice may flow over land when the soil
becomes saturated. If this happens, what process is involved?
a. surface runoff c. transpiration
b. precipitation d. condensation
7. Plants also contribute in the cycling of water. They release water through
their stomata in the process called _____.
a. surface runoff c. transpiration
b. precipitation d. condensation
8. When humans burn fossil fuels, most of the carbon quickly enters the
atmosphere as _____.
a. carbon monoxide c. carbon dioxide
b. carboxylic acid d. carbonate
9. All of the following does not produce carbon dioxide EXCEPT:
a. Photosynthesis c. animal respiration
b. Combustion d. decaying plants
10. In biological carbon cycle, autotrophs take in what gas element?
a. carbon dioxide b. oxygen c. nitrogen d. carbon monoxide
11. How does the carbon in grass become part of a cow?
a. The cow eats the grass
b. Carbon from grass doesn't end up in a cow.
c. The carbon ends up in the cow’s food chain.
d. The cow breathes in carbon given out by the plant
12. When Carbon is transformed into chemical energy, what process has been
involved?
a. photosynthesis c. secondary production
b. respiration d. primary production
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13. In the food chain, which organisms release the carbon from dead organic
matter back into the environment?
a. autotrophs b. consumers c. scavengers d. decomposers
14. When nitrogen combines with other elements to make nitrogen into usable
compounds, the process is called _____.
a. nitrogen composition c. denitrification
b. ammonia d. nitrogen fixation
15. If the atmosphere is 78% nitrogen, why can’t we just get our nitrogen by
breathing?
a. We have no mechanism to break the triple bond of nitrogen between
the atoms.
b. Our lungs would be damaged by the N2.
c. We need Oxygen for cellular respiration.
d. The legumes take it up first.
16. _____ is the conversion of organic nitrogen into ammonia
a. Nitrogen Fixation c. Assimilation
b. Ammonification d. Denitrification
17. Which of the following organisms play an important role in Nitrogen
fixation in the soil?
a. reptiles b. algae c. mammals d. bacteria
18. Which process releases dinitrogen gas (N2) back into the atmosphere?
a. denitrification b. nitrogen fixation c. decay d. nitrification
19. Phosphorous is needed in organisms for the production of _____.
a. ADP and ATP. c. DNA & RNA
b. Cellular membranes. d. All of the above
20. Which of the following statements is true of the phosphorus cycle?
a. Phosphorus enters the atmosphere as phosphates.
b. The phosphorus cycle utilizes the processes of erosion, and
weathering.
c. Phosphates are used in carbohydrate and glucose storage.
d. The phosphorus cycle utilizes bacteria to breakdown phosphates and
make them available for plants
21. In the phosphorous cycle, decomposers’ role is to _____.
a. absorb phosphorous
b. release phosphorous into atmosphere
c. return phosphorous into the soil
d. combustion
22. Phosphorus is difficult for plants and animals to access in nature because
a. it reacts quickly with other elements, like oxygen.

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b. most phosphorus in the environment is bound to carbon, nitrogen,

and hydrogen.
c. it is typically found as a phosphate.
d. most phosphorus in the environment is stored in reservoirs.
23. Phosphorus does NOT travel through which of the following spheres?
a. lithosphere b. atmosphere c. biosphere d. geosphere
24. All of the following is part of the phosphorus cycle EXCEPT:
a. Phosphate is incorporated into sedimentary rocks
b. Phosphate bound to soil
c. Atmospheric phosphate
d. Phosphate is absorbed from the soil by plants
25. Sulfur can fall directly from the atmosphere through what process?
a. fallout b. nitrification c. ammonification d. acid rain
26. Sulfur is found in the atmosphere in the form of _____.
a. Sulfate b. sulfite c. sulfur dioxide d. sulfuric acid

B. Direction: Review the different biogeochemical cycles presented below. Choose

one and summarize the cycle through simplified diagram. Put your answer on the
space provided inside the box.
 Nitrogen Cycle (be sure to present nitrogen fixation, the role of nitrifying
bacteria, ammonification, assimilation, and denitrification)
 Carbon Cycle (be sure to present the relationship of photosynthesis and
respiration.)
 Phosphorus Cycle (be sure to include the fact that the phosphorus cycle
has no gaseous component and therefore is the longest cycling of all the
chemical cycles.)

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 Module 2 – Ecosystems 61

Summary

 Organ system is a higher level of organization that consists of functionally

related organs.
 Community is the sum of populations inhabiting a particular area.
 Cells are the most basic building blocks of life and that all living things are
composed of cells.
 Forest ecosystem consists of several plants, animals and microorganisms
that live in coordination with the abiotic factors of the environment.
 Ecological pyramid is the graphical representation of the number, energy,
and biomass of the successive trophic levels of an ecosystem.
 Food web is a network of interconnected food chains. It comprises all the
food chains within a single ecosystem.
 First law of thermodynamics states that energy can neither be created nor
destroyed, it can only change from one form to another.
 Second law of thermodynamics states that as energy is transferred more
and more of it is wasted.
 Producers are organisms that create food from inorganic matter.
 Herbivores use plants as food which gives them energy.
 Omnivores are animals that eat both plant- and animal-derived food. In
Latin, omnivore means to eat everything.
 Organism is the highest level of organization—a complete living system
capable of conducting all of life’s biological processes.
 Energy flow in the ecosystem is one of the major factors that support the
survival of such a great number of organisms.

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Culminating Activity
Eco-Gallery!
Direction: Promote the local ecotourism of your own locality or in the province of Abra as
a whole by designing a brochure featuring at least 5 tourist spots. The brochure should
include the pictures of the tourist destinations, their known names, and a short but
complete history and description of the place. Be guided with the criteria below:
Content – 50%
Creativity – 30%
Organization & Neatness – 20%

P.S Attach your final output here.

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Summative Test
Part I. Multiple Choice
Direction: Choose and encircle the letter of your choice that best answer the
following questions.
1. Pilo is studying the levels of structural organization of an animal’s body. Which
level would describe a dog’s tongue?
a. organ b. tissue c. organism d. organ system
2. Arteries are blood vessels that transport oxygen-rich blood and nutrients
throughout the body. What level of organization is an artery?
a. organ b. tissue c. cell d. organ system
3. Bernie bites an apple and then chews and swallows the food. Which of Bernie’s
organ systems work together to perform the function of biting, chewing, and
swallowing the apple?
a. digestive c. excretory and muscular
b. digestive, muscular, and nervous d. circulatory, excretory, & respiratory
4. The last level in the organization of life is _____.
a. Organ system b. community c. biosphere d. ecosystem
5. Cells when grouped together will form what level of organization?
a. organs b. organ systems c. tissues d. organisms
6. Lungs, trachea, larynx: all of these when grouped will form what system?
a. nervous b. respiratory c. circulatory d. digestive
7. Which of the following examples best describe a population?
a. 2 snakes b. 3 goats, 4 pigs c. 15 cows d. 10 trees, 3 monkeys
8. This kind of ecosystem is dominated by grasses and herbs.
a. desert b. tundra c. forest d. grassland
9. If an ecosystem is devoid of trees and are found in cold climates, this is an
example of _____.
a. desert b. tundra c. forest d. grassland
10. When a food chain starts from herbivore and the food energy transfers from
larger organisms to smaller organisms, without killing in case of a predator, what
type of food chain is described?
a. detritus b. parasitic c. grazing d. decomposition
11. A type of food chain that starts with dead organic materials. Followed by the
consumers.
a. detritus b. parasitic c. grazing d. decomposition
12. 20 birds of the same species living in a forest is a concrete example of _____.
a. habitat b. population c. community d. ecosystem
13. An ecosystem thrives with biotic and abiotic component parts. An example of
an abiotic component of an ecosystem is _____.
a. micro-bacteria b. fungus c. minerals d. decaying plants
14. A series of organisms interrelated in their feeding habits; the smallest being
fed upon by a larger one.
a. Food Necklace b. Food web c. Food Rope d. Food Chain

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15. Organisms in an ecosystem can be classified as producers or consumers. The

producers provide food for the consumers. An organism that consumes both
producers and other consumers is called _____.
a. herbivore b. omnivore c. carnivore d. prey
16. Food chains and food webs are models in science which visually show us the
different relationships within an ecosystem. The primary difference between the
food chain and the food web is _____.
a. a food chain shows how energy is stored
b. a food web shows how energy is used
c. a food chain is a combination of different food webs
d. a food web is a complex system of food chains
17. Along a food chain, the role of __________________________ is to help return or
recycle the primary chemical compounds of organisms back to the chain: carbon,
hydrogen, nitrogen, and other minor compounds.
a. producers (plants, trees) c. prey (deer, water buffaloes)
b. consumers (lions, tigers) d. decomposers (bacteria, fungus)
18. grass worm chicken human. In this chain, if grass absorbed
about 10,000 energy from the sun, how much energy will the 2 nd order trophic
level has applying the 10% law?
a. 1000 b. 100 c. 10 d. 1
19. Law of energy stating that “energy can never be created nor destroyed”.
a. first law b. second law c. third law d. none of the above
20. Which of the following decreases carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere?
a. cellular respiration c. Burning fossil fuels
b. Decomposition by bacteria d. Photosynthesis
21. Which of the following organisms have the least available energy in an energy
pyramid?
a. producer b. consumer c. decomposer d. scavenger
22. Which of the following is an example of a producer in a food chain?
a. algae b. mushroom c. earthworm d. bird
23. An organism that only eats animal is known as a _____.
a. carnivore b. omnivore c. herbivore d. decomposer
24. Carbon is an integral part of an ecosystem. It is cycled throughout the
ecosystem as it is used and then reused. It is necessary for all life to exist. Carbon
is used by plants in the process of
a. respiration b. photosynthesis c. transpiration d. decomposition
25. Another very important cycle is the Water Cycle. All living things need water
to live. This cycle has four main processes. The two processes that return water
to the earth are ...
a. evaporation and condensation c. transpiration and condensation
b. condensation and precipitation d. evaporation and transpiration
26. The process in which water, in the water cycle, goes through a phase change,
from a gas to a liquid, is called
a. evaporation b. transpiration c. condensation d. precipitation
27. Water vapor in the air gets cold and changes back into liquid, forming cloud
in the process of

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 Module 2 – Ecosystems 65

a. evaporation b. transpiration c. condensation d. precipitation

28. Nutrients in land areas are carried into bodies of water because of what know
process in the water cycle?
a. transpiration b. run-off c. condensation d. precipitation
29. Nitrogen is essential to life because
a. It is needed for building the proteins needed for cells.
b. It is the molecule around which all the molecules of life are built.
c. It is needed for making carbohydrates and lipids.
d. It is the most common element.
30. Nitrogen-fixing bacteria are important because
a. They turn nitrogen from the air into nitrogen compounds in the soil
b. They are essential for plants being able to carry out photosynthesis.
c. They break up dead plants and animals in the soil.
d. They release excess nitrogen from the soil into the atmosphere.

Part II
Direction: Supply the missing information needed in each of the given items below.
1. Below is a pyramid. Give the levels of organization by writing it from the
simplest level (at the bottom) to the most complex level (topmost). (2pts each)

2. Corn, frog, cricket, bird, snake, human, rat, chicken, goat: Given the following organisms,
make a simple food web showing their feeding behaviors. Write or show your diagram on
the box provided below.

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People and Earth’s Ecosystem Robinson Q. Fabito
 Module 2 – Ecosystems 66

References

Biology Discussions. “Ecosystem: It’s Structure and Functions”.

https://www.biologydiscussion.com/ecosystem/ecosystem-its-structure-
and-functions-with-diagram/6666

BJYU’s (2021). “Ecosystems”. https://byjus.com/biology/ecosystem/

Boundless Biology “Levels of Organization of Living Things”.

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-biology/chapter/themes-
and-concepts-of-biology

Callahan, Alice (2020). “Organization of Life”.

https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/nutritionscience/chapter/3a-
organization-of-life/

Khan Academy (2021). “Ecology”. https://www.khanacademy.org/science/high-

school-biology/hs-ecology/hs-introduction-to-ecology/a/hs-introduction-
to-ecology

Fisher, Matthew (2018). “Biogeochemical Cycles.”

https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/envirobiology/chapter/3-2-
biogeochemical-cycles/

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People and Earth’s Ecosystem Robinson Q. Fabito