CHAPTER 9

DISLOCATIONS AND STRENGTHENING MECHANISMS

PROBLEM SOLUTIONS

Basic Concepts
Characteristics of Dislocations

9.1 To provide some perspective on the dimensions of atomic defects, consider a metal specimen
that has a dislocation density of 103 mm2. Suppose that all the dislocations in 1000 mm3
(1 cm3) were somehow removed and linked end to end. How far would this chain extend? Now
suppose that the density is increased to 10 10 mm2 by cold working. What would be the chain
length of dislocations in 1000 mm3 of material?

Solution

The dislocation density is just the total dislocation length per unit volume of material (in this
case per cubic millimeters). Thus, the total length in 1000 mm3 of material having a density of
103 mm2 is just

(103 mm2 )(1000 mm3 ) = 106 mm = 103 m

Similarly, for a dislocation density of 10 10 mm2, the total length is

(1010 mm2 )(1000 mm3 ) = 1013 mm = 1010 m

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9.2 Consider two edge dislocations of opposite sign and having slip planes that are separated by
several atomic distances as indicated in the diagram. Briefly describe the defect that results
when these two dislocations become aligned with each other.

Solution

When the two edge dislocations become aligned, a planar region of vacancies will exist
between the dislocations as:

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9.3 Is it possible for two screw dislocations of opposite sign to annihilate each other? Explain your
answer.

Solution

It is possible for two screw dislocations of opposite sign to annihilate one another if their
dislocation lines are parallel. This is demonstrated in the figure below.

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9.4 For each of edge, screw, and mixed dislocations, cite the relationship between the direction of
the applied shear stress and the direction of dislocation line motion.

Solution

For the various dislocation types, the relationships between the direction of the applied shear
stress and the direction of dislocation line motion are as follows:
edge dislocation–parallel
screw dislocation–perpendicular
mixed dislocation–neither parallel nor perpendicular

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 Slip Systems

9.5 (a) Define a slip system.

(b) Do all metals have the same slip system? Why or why not?

Solution

(a) A slip system is a crystallographic plane, and, within that plane, a direction along which dislocation
motion (or slip) occurs.
(b) All metals do not have the same slip system. The reason for this is that for most metals, the slip
system will consist of the most densely packed crystallographic plane, and within that plane the most
closely packed direction. This plane and direction will vary from crystal structure to crystal structure.

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9.6 (a) Compare planar densities (Section 4.16 and Problem 4.57) for the (100), (110), and (111)
planes for FCC.
(b) Compare planar densities (Problem 4.58) for the (100), (110), and (111) planes for BCC.

Solution

(a) For the FCC crystal structure, the planar density for the (110) plane is given in Equation 4.13 as

1 0.177
PD110 (FCC)  
4R 2
2 R2

Furthermore, the planar densities of the (100) and (111) planes are calculated in Homework
Problem 4.57, which are as follows:

1 0.25
PD100 (FCC) = 2
 2
4R R

1 0.29
PD111 (FCC)  
2R 2
3 R2

(b) For the BCC crystal structure, the planar densities of the (100) and (110) planes were determined in
Homework Problem 4.58, which are as follows:

3 0.19
PD100 (BCC) = 2
 2
16R R

3 0.27
PD110 (BCC)  
8R 2
2 R2

Below is a BCC unit cell, within which is shown a (111) plane.

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 (a)

The centers of the three corner atoms, denoted by A, B, and C lie on this plane. Furthermore, the (111)
plane does not pass through the center of atom D, which is located at the unit cell center. The atomic
packing of this plane is presented in the following figure; the corresponding atom positions from the
Figure (a) are also noted.

(b)

Inasmuch as this plane does not pass through the center of atom D, it is not included in the atom count.
One sixth of each of the three atoms labeled A, B, and C is associated with this plane, which gives an
equivalence of one-half atom.
In Figure (b) the triangle with A, B, and C at its corners is an equilateral triangle. And, from
xy
Figure (b), the area of this triangle is . The triangle edge length, x, is equal to the length of a face
2
diagonal, as indicated in Figure (a). And its length is related to the unit cell edge length, a, as

x2  a 2  a 2  2a 2

or
xa 2

4R
For BCC, a  (Equation 4.4), and, therefore,
3

4R 2
x
3

Also, from Figure (b), with respect to the length y we may write

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 2
 x
y 2     x2
2

x 3
which leads to y = . And, substitution for the above expression for x yields
2

x 3 æç 4 R 2 ö÷æç 3 ö÷ 4R 2
y= =ç ÷ç ÷= 2
2 è 3 øè 2 ø

Thus, the area of this triangle is equal to

1 æ 1 öæ 4 R 2 ö æ 4 R 2 ö 8 R 2
AREA = x y = ç ÷çç ÷ç
֍
÷=
÷
2 è 2 øè 3 øè 2 ø 3

And, finally, the planar density for this (111) plane is

0.5 atom 3 0.11

PD111 (BCC)    2
8 R2 16 R 2 R
3

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9.7 One slip system for the BCC crystal structure is {110} 111 . In a manner similar to Figure 9.6b,
sketch a {110} -type plane for the BCC structure, representing atom positions with circles. Now,
using arrows, indicate two different 111 slip directions within this plane.

Solution

Below is shown the atomic packing for a BCC {110} -type plane. The arrows indicate two
different 111 -type directions.

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9.8 One slip system for the HCP crystal structure is { 0001} 1120 . In a manner similar to Figure
9.6b, sketch a { 0001} -type plane for the HCP structure and, using arrows, indicate three
different 1120 slip directions within this plane. You might find Figure 3.8 helpful.

Solution

Below is shown the atomic packing for an HCP { 0001} -type plane. The arrows indicate three
different 112 0 -type directions.

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9.9 Equations 9.1a and 9.1b, expressions for Burgers vectors for FCC and BCC crystal structures,
are of the form
a
b uvw
2
where a is the unit cell edge length. Also, since the magnitudes of these Burgers vectors may be
determined from the following equation:
a 2 2
b  (u  v  w2 )1/2 (9.10)
2
determine values of |b| for copper and molybdenum. You may want to consult Table 4.1.

Solution

For Cu, which has an FCC crystal structure, R = 0.1278 nm (Table 4.1) and a = 2 R 2 =

0.3614 nm (Equation 4.1); also, from Equation 9.1a, the Burgers vector for FCC metals is

Therefore, the values for u, v, and w in Equation 9.10 are 1, 1, and 0, respectively. Hence, the
magnitude of the Burgers vector for Cu is

a
b = u 2  v 2  w2
2

0.3614 nm
 (1)2  (1)2  (0)2  0.2555 nm
2

4R
For Mo which has a BCC crystal structure, R = 0.1363 nm (Table 4.1) and a  = 0.3147
3
nm (Equation-4.4); also, from Equation 9.1b, the Burgers vector for BCC metals is

Therefore, the values for u, v, and w in Equation 9.10 are 1, 1, and 1, respectively. Hence, the
magnitude of the Burgers vector for Mo is

0.3147 nm
b = (1)2  (1)2  (1) 2 = 0.2725 nm
2

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9.10 (a) In the manner of Equations 9.1a, 9.1b, and 9.1c, specify the Burgers vector for the simple
cubic crystal structure. Its unit cell is shown in Figure 4.2. Also, simple cubic is the crystal
structure for the edge dislocation of Figure 6.7, and for its motion as presented in Figure 9.1.
You may also want to consult the answer to Concept Check 9.1.
(b) On the basis of Equation 9.11, formulate an expression for the magnitude of the Burgers
vector, |b|, for simple cubic.

Solution

(a) This part of the problem asks that we specify the Burgers vector for the simple cubic crystal
structure (and suggests that we consult the answer to Concept Check 9.1). This Concept Check asks
that we select the slip system for simple cubic from four possibilities. The correct answer is
{100} 010 . Thus, the Burgers vector will lie in a 010 -type direction. Also, the unit slip distance is

a (i.e., the unit cell edge length, Figures 6.7 and 9.1). Therefore, the Burgers vector for simple cubic is

b = a 010

Or, equivalently

b = a 100

(b) The magnitude of the Burgers vector, |b|, for simple cubic is

b = a(12 + 02 + 02 )1 / 2 =a

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 Slip in Single Crystals

9.11 Sometimes cos  cos  in Equation 9.2 is termed the Schmid factor. Determine the magnitude of
the Schmid factor for an FCC single crystal oriented with its [100] direction parallel to the
loading axis.

Solution

We are asked to compute the Schmid factor for an FCC crystal oriented with its [100]
direction parallel to the loading axis. With this scheme, slip may occur on the (111) plane and in the
[11 0] direction as noted in the figure below.

The angle between the [100] and [11 0] directions, , may be determined using Equation 9.6

 u1u2  v1v2  w1w2 

  cos 1  
 (u12  v12  w12 ) (u22  v22  w22 ) 

where (for [100]) u1 = 1, v1 = 0, w1 = 0, and (for [11 0]) u2 = 1, v2 = 1, w2 = 0. Therefore,  is equal to

 
(1)(1)  (0)(  1)  (0)(0)
  cos 1  
 (1) 2  (0) 2  (0) 2  (1) 2  (1) 2  (0) 2  
    

 1 
 cos 1    45
 2

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Now, the angle  is equal to the angle between the normal to the (111) plane (which is the [111]
direction), and the [100] direction. Again from Equation 9.6, and for u1 = 1, v1 = 1, w1 = 1, and u2 = 1,
v2 = 0, and w2 = 0, we have

 
(1)(1)  (1)(0)  (1)(0)
  cos 1  
 (1) 2  (1) 2  (1) 2  (1) 2  (0) 2  (0) 2  
    

 1 
 cos 1    54.7
 3

Therefore, the Schmid factor is equal to

 1  1 
cos  cos  = cos (45) cos (54.7) =    = 0.408
 2  3 

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9.12 Consider a metal single crystal oriented such that the normal to the slip plane and the slip
direction are at angles of 43.1 and 47.9, respectively, with the tensile axis. If the critical
resolved shear stress is 22 MPa, will an applied stress of 50 MPa cause the single crystal to
yield? If not, what stress will be necessary?

Solution

This problem calls for us to determine whether or not a metal single crystal having a specific
orientation and of given critical resolved shear stress will yield. We are given that  = 43.1,  = 47.9,
and that the values of the critical resolved shear stress and applied tensile stress are 22 MPa and 50
MPa respectively. From Equation 9.2

 R =  cos  cos  = (50 MPa)(cos 43.1)(cos 47.9) = 24.5 MPa

Since the resolved shear stress (24.5 MPa) is greater than the critical resolved shear stress (22 MPa),
the single crystal will yield.

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9.13 A single crystal of aluminum is oriented for a tensile test such that its slip plane normal makes
an angle of 28.1 with the tensile axis. Three possible slip directions make angles of 62.4,
72.0, and 81.1 with the same tensile axis.
(a) Which of these three slip directions is most favored?
(b) If plastic deformation begins at a tensile stress of 1.8 MPa determine the critical resolved
shear stress for aluminum.

Solution

We are asked to compute the critical resolved shear stress for Al. As stipulated in the
problem,  = 28.1, while possible values for  are 62.4, 72.0, and 81.1.
(a) Slip will occur along that direction for which (cos  cos ) is a maximum, or, in this case, for the
largest cos . Cosines for the possible  values are given below.

cos(62.4) = 0.46
cos(72.0) = 0.31
cos(81.1) = 0.15

Thus, the slip direction is at an angle of 62.4 with the tensile axis.
(b) From Equation 9.4, the critical resolved shear stress is just

 crss   y (cos  cos  )max

 (1.8 MPa) cos (28.1) cos (62.4)   0.74 MPa

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9.14 Consider a single crystal of silver oriented such that a tensile stress is applied along a [001]
direction. If slip occurs on a (111) plane and in a [101] direction, and is initiated at an applied

tensile stress of 1.4 MPa, compute the critical resolved shear stress.

Solution

This problem asks that we compute the critical resolved shear stress for silver. In order to do
this, we must employ Equation 9.4, but first it is necessary to solve for the angles  and  which are
shown in the sketch below.

The angle  is the angle between the tensile axis—i.e., along the [001] direction—and the slip
direction—i.e., [101] . The angle  may be determined using Equation 9.6 as

 u1u2  v1v2  w1w2 

  cos 1  
 (u  v  w ) (u  v  w ) 
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
2
2
2
2
2

where (for [001]) u1 = 0, v1 = 0, w1 = 1, and (for [1 01]) u2 = –1, v2 = 0, w2 = 1. Therefore,  is equal to

 
 (0)(1)  (0)(0)  (1)(1) 
  cos 1
 (0) 2  (0) 2  (1) 2  (1)2  (0) 2  (1) 2  
    

 1 
 cos 1    45
 2

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Furthermore,  is the angle between the tensile axis—the [001] direction—and the normal to the slip
plane—i.e., the (111) plane; for this case this normal is along a [111] direction. Therefore, again using
Equation 9.6

 
(0)(1)  (0)(1)  (1)(1)
  cos 1  
 (0) 2  (0) 2  (1) 2  (1) 2  (1) 2  (1) 2  
    

 1 
 cos 1    54.7
 3

And, finally, using Equation 9.4, the critical resolved shear stress is equal to

 crss   y (cos  cos  )

 1  1 
= (1.4 MPa) cos(54.7) cos(45) = (1.4 MPa)    = 0.57 MPa
 3  2 

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9.15 A single crystal of a metal that has the FCC crystal structure is oriented such that a tensile stress
is applied parallel to the [110] direction. If the critical resolved shear stress for this material is
2.2 MPa, calculate the magnitude(s) of applied stress(es) necessary to cause slip to occur on the
(111) plane in each of the [1 10] , [10 1] and [01 1] directions.

Solution

In order to solve this problem it is necessary to employ Equation 9.4, but first we need to solve
for the for  and  angles for the three slip systems.
For each of these three slip systems, the  will be the same—i.e., the angle between the
direction of the applied stress, [110] and the normal to the (111) plane, that is, the [111] direction. The
angle  may be determined using Equation 9.6 as

 u1u2  v1v2  w1w2

  cos 1  
 (u  v  w ) (u  v  w ) 
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
2
2
2
2
2

where (for [110]) u1 = 1, v1 = 1, w1 = 0, and (for [111]) u2 = 1, v2 = 1, w2 = 1. Therefore,  is equal to

 
(1)(1)  (1)(1)  (0)(1)
  cos 1  
 (1) 2  (1) 2  (0) 2  (1) 2  (1) 2  (1) 2  
    

 2 
 cos 1    35.3
 6

Let us now determine  for the [11 0 ] slip direction. Again, using Equation 9.6 where u1 = 1, v1 = 1,
w1 = 0 (for [110]), and u2 = 1, v2 = –1, w2 = 0 (for [11 0]. Therefore,  is determined as

 
 (1)(1)  (1)(1)  (0)(0) 
[110][1 10]  cos 1
 (1) 2  (1) 2  (0)2  (1)2  (1) 2  (0)2  
    

= cos-1 0 = 90°

Now, we solve for the yield strength for this (111)– [11 0] slip system using Equation 9.4 as

 crss
y 
(cos  cos  )

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 2.2 MPa 2.2 MPa
  
cos (35.3) cos (90) 08) (0)

which means that slip will not occur on this (111)– [11 0] slip system.

Now, we must determine the value of  for the (111)– [101 ] slip system—that is, the angle
between the [110] and [101 ] directions. Again using Equation 9.6

 
(1)(1)  (1)(0)  (0)(1)
[110][10 1]  cos 1  
 (1) 2  (1) 2  (0)2  (1)2  (0)2  (1)2  
    

æ1 ö
= cos-1 ç ÷ = 60°
è2ø

Now, we solve for the yield strength for this (111)– [101 ] slip system using Equation 9.4 as

 crss
y 
(cos  cos  )

2.2 MPa 2.2 MPa

   5.39 MPa
cos (35.3) cos (60) 0816) (0.500)

And, finally, for the (111)– [011 ] slip system,  is computed using Equation 9.6 as follows:

 
(1)(0)  (1)(1)  (0)(1)
[110][01 1]  cos 1  
 (1) 2  (1) 2  (0)2  (0)2  (1)2  (1) 2  
    

æ1 ö
= cos-1 ç ÷ = 60°
è2 ø

Thus, since the values of  and for this (110)– [011 ] slip system are the same as for (111)– [101 ], so
also will y be the same—viz 5.39 MPa.

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9.16 (a) A single crystal of a metal that has the BCC crystal structure is oriented such that a tensile
stress is applied in the [010] direction. If the magnitude of this stress is 2.3 MPa, compute the
resolved shear stress in the [111] direction on each of the (110) and (101) planes.

(b) On the basis of these resolved shear stress values, which slip system(s) is (are) most
favorably oriented?

Solution

(a) This part of the problem asks, for a BCC metal, that we compute the resolved shear stress in the
[1 11] direction on each of the (110) and (101) planes. In order to solve this problem it is necessary to
employ Equation 9.2, which means that we first need to solve for the for angles  and  for the three
slip systems.
For each of these three slip systems, the  will be the same—i.e., the angle between the
direction of the applied stress, [010] and the slip direction, [1 11]. This angle  may be determined
using Equation 9.6

 u1u2  v1v2  w1w2 

  cos 1  
 (u12  v12  w12 ) (u22  v22  w22 ) 

where (for [010]) u1 = 0, v1 = 1, w1 = 0, and (for [1 11]) u2 = –1, v2 = 1, w2 = 1. Therefore,  is

determined as

 
(0)(1)  (1)(1)  (0)(1)
  cos 1  
 (0) 2  (1) 2  (0) 2  (1)2  (1)2  (1)2  
    

 1 
 cos 1    54.7
 3

Let us now determine  for the angle between the direction of the applied tensile stress—i.e., the [010]
direction—and the normal to the (110) slip plane—i.e., the [110] direction. Again, using Equation 9.6
where u1 = 0, v1 = 1, w1 = 0 (for [010]), and u2 = 1, v2 = 1, w2 = 0 (for [110]),  is equal to

 
(0)(1)  (1)(1)  (0)(0)
[010][110]  cos 1  
 (0) 2  (1) 2  (0) 2  (1) 2  (1) 2  (0) 2  
    

 1 
 cos 1    45
 2

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Now, using Equation 9.2

 R   cos  cos 

we solve for the resolved shear stress for this slip system as

 R (110) [111]  (2.3 MPa)  cos (54.7) cos (45)  (2.3 MPa) (0.578)(0.707)  0.940 MPa

Now, we must determine the value of  for the (101)– [1 11] slip system—that is, the angle
between the direction of the applied stress, [010], and the normal to the (101) plane—i.e., the [101]
direction. Again using Equation 9.6

 
(0)(1)  (1)(0)  (0)(1)
[010][101]  cos 1  
 (0) 2  (1) 2  (0) 2  (1) 2  (0) 2  (1) 2  
    

= cos-1 (0) = 90°

Thus, the resolved shear stress for this (101)-[111] slip system is

 R (101) [111]   (2.3 MPa)  cos (54.7) cos (90)  (2.3 MPa) (0.578)(0)  0 MPa

(b) The most favored slip system(s) is (are) the one(s) that has (have) the largest R value. Therefore,
the(101)-[111] is the most favored since its R (0.940 MPa) is greater than the R value for
(101)-[111] (viz., 0 MPa).

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9.17 Consider a single crystal of some hypothetical metal that has the FCC crystal structure and is
oriented such that a tensile stress is applied along a [102] direction. If slip occurs on a (111)
plane and in a [101] direction, compute the stress at which the crystal yields if its critical

resolved shear stress is 3.2 MPa.

Solution

This problem asks for us to determine the tensile stress at which a FCC metal yields when the
stress is applied along a [1 02] direction such that slip occurs on a (111) plane and in a [1 01]
direction; the critical resolved shear stress for this metal is 3.2 MPa. To solve this problem we use
Equation 9.4; however it is first necessary to determine the values of  and . These determinations are
possible using Equation 9.6. Now,  is the angle between [1 02] and [1 01] directions. Therefore,
relative to Equation 9.6 let us take u1 = –1, v1 = 0, and w1 = 2, as well as u2 = –1, v2 = 0, and w2 = 1.
This leads to
 u1u2  v1v2  w1 w2 
  cos 1  
 (u12  v12  w12 ) (u22  v22  w22 ) 

 
1 (1)(1)  (0)(0)  (2)(1) 
 cos  
 (1)  (0)  (2)  (1)  (0)  (1)  
2 2 2 2 2 2
 

 3 
 cos 1    18.4
 10 
 

Now for the determination of , the normal to the (111) slip plane is the [111] direction. Again using
Equation 9.6, where we now take u1 = –1, v1 = 0, w1 = 2 (for [1 02]), and u2 = 1, v2 = 1, w2 = 1 (for
[111]). Thus,
 
 (1)(1)  (0)(1)  (2)(1) 
  cos 1  
 (1)  (0)  (2)  (1)  (1)  (1)  
2 2 2 2 2 2
 

 3 
 cos 1    39.2
 15 

It is now possible to compute the yield stress (using Equation 9.4) as

 crss 3.2 MPa

y    4.35 MPa
cos  cos   3  3 
  
 10  15 

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9.18 The critical resolved shear stress for iron is 27 MPa. Determine the maximum possible yield
strength for a single crystal of Fe pulled in tension.

Solution

In order to determine the maximum possible yield strength for a single crystal of Fe pulled in
tension, we simply employ Equation 9.5 as

 y = 2 crss = (2)(27 MPa) = 54 MPa

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 Deformation by Twinning

9.19 List four major differences between deformation by twinning and deformation by slip relative to
mechanism, conditions of occurrence, and final result.

Solution

Four major differences between deformation by twinning and deformation by slip are as
follows: (1) with slip deformation there is no crystallographic reorientation, whereas with twinning
there is a reorientation; (2) for slip, the atomic displacements occur in atomic spacing multiples,
whereas for twinning, these displacements may be other than by atomic spacing multiples; (3) slip
occurs in metals having many slip systems, whereas twinning occurs in metals having relatively few
slip systems; and (4) normally slip results in relatively large deformations, whereas only small
deformations result for twinning.

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 Strengthening by Grain Size Reduction

9.20 Briefly explain why small-angle grain boundaries are not as effective in interfering with the slip
process as are high-angle grain boundaries.

Solution

Small-angle grain boundaries are not as effective in interfering with the slip process as are
high-angle grain boundaries because there is not as much crystallographic misalignment in the grain
boundary region for small-angle, and therefore not as much change in slip direction.

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9.21 Briefly explain why HCP metals are typically more brittle than FCC and BCC metals.

Solution

Hexagonal close packed metals are typically more brittle than FCC and BCC metals because
there are fewer slip systems in HCP.

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9.22 Describe in your own words the three strengthening mechanisms discussed in this chapter (i.e.,
grain size reduction, solid-solution strengthening, and strain hardening). Be sure to explain how
dislocations are involved in each of the strengthening techniques.

These three strengthening mechanisms are described in Sections 9.8, 9.9, and 9.10.

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9.23 (a) From the plot of yield strength versus (grain diameter) –1/2 for a 70 Cu–30 Zn cartridge brass,
Figure 9.15, determine values for the constants σ0 and ky in Equation 9.7.
(b) Now predict the yield strength of this alloy when the average grain diameter is 2.0  103
mm.

Solution

(a) Perhaps the easiest way to solve for 0 and ky in Equation 9.7 is to pick two values each of y and

d-1/2 from Figure 9.15, and then solve two simultaneous equations, which may be created. For example

d–1/2 (mm)–1/2 y (MPa)

4 75
12 175

The two equations are thus

75 =  0 + 4 k y

175 =  0 + 12 k y

Solution of these equations yield the values of

k y = 12.5 MPa (mm)1/2

0 = 25 MPa

(b) When d = 2.0  10–3 mm, d–1/2 = 22.36 mm–1/2, and, using Equation 9.7,

 y =  0 + k y d 1/2

= (25 MPa) + 12.5 MPa (mm)  (22.36 mm 1/2 ) = 305 MPa

1/2

 

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9.24 The lower yield point for an iron that has an average grain diameter of 6  10–2 mm is 135 MPa.
At a grain diameter of 8  10–3 mm, the yield point increases to 260 MPa. At what grain
diameter will the lower yield point be 205 MPa?

Solution

The best way to solve this problem is to first establish two simultaneous expressions of
Equation 9.7, solve for 0 and ky, and finally determine the value of d when y = 205 MPa. The data

pertaining to this problem may be tabulated as follows:

y d (mm) d–1/2 (mm)–1/2

135 MPa 6  102 4.08
260 MPa 8  103 11.18

The two equations thus become

135 MPa =  0 + (4.08) k y

260 MPa =  0 + (11.18) k y

Which yield the values, 0 = 63.17 MPa and ky = 17.6 MPa(mm)1/2. At a yield strength of 205 MPa

205 MPa = 63.17 MPa + 17.6 MPa (mm)1/2  d 1/ 2

or d–1/2 = 8.05 (mm)–1/2, which gives d = 1.5  10-2 mm.

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9.25 If it is assumed that the plot in Figure 9.15 is for noncold-worked brass, determine the grain size
of the alloy in Figure 9.19; assume its composition is the same as the alloy in Figure 9.15.

Solution

This problem asks that we determine the grain size of the brass for which is the subject of
Figure 9.19. From Figure 9.19a, the yield strength of brass at 0%CW is approximately 175 MPa. This
yield strength from Figure 9.15 corresponds to a d–1/2 value of approximately 12.0 (mm) –1/2. Thus, d =
6.9  10–3 mm.

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 Solid-Solution Strengthening

9.26 In the manner of Figures 9.17b and 9.18b, indicate the location in the vicinity of an edge
dislocation at which an interstitial impurity atom would be expected to be situated. Now briefly
explain in terms of lattice strains why it would be situated at this position.

Solution

Below is shown an edge dislocation and where an interstitial impurity atom would be located.
Compressive lattice strains are introduced by the impurity atom. There will be a net reduction in lattice
strain energy when these lattice strains partially cancel tensile strains associated with the edge
dislocation; such tensile strains exist just below the bottom of the extra half-plane of atoms (Figure
9.4).

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 Strain Hardening

9.27 (a) Show, for a tensile test, that

if there is no change in specimen volume during the deformation process (i.e., A0l0 = Adld).
(b) Using the result of part (a), compute the percent cold work experienced by naval brass (the
stress-strain behavior of which is shown in Figure 8.12) when a stress of 400 MPa is applied.

Solution

(a) From Equation 9.8

 A  Ad   Ad 
%CW =  0   100 = 1    100
 A0   A0 

Which is also equal to

æ l ö
ç1 - 0 ÷ ´ 100
è ld ø

since Ad/A0 = l0/ld, the conservation of volume stipulation given in the problem statement. Now, from
the definition of engineering strain (Equation 8.2)

or,

Substitution for l0/ld into the %CW expression above gives

(b) From Figure 8.12, a stress of 400 MPa corresponds to a strain of 0.13. Using the above expression

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9.28 Two previously undeformed cylindrical specimens of an alloy are to be strain hardened by
reducing their cross-sectional areas (while maintaining their circular cross sections). For one
specimen, the initial and deformed radii are 17 mm and 12 mm, respectively. The second
specimen, with an initial radius of 13 mm, must have the same deformed hardness as the first
specimen; compute the second specimen's radius after deformation.

Solution

In order for these two cylindrical specimens to have the same deformed hardness, they must
be deformed to the same percent cold work. For the first specimen

A0  Ad  r 2   rd2
%CW =  100 = 0  100
A0  r02

 (17 mm)2   (12 mm) 2

=  100 = 50.17%CW
 (17 mm)2

For the second specimen, the deformed radius is computed using the above equation and solving for rd

as

%CW
rd = r0 1 
100

50.17%CW
= (13 mm) 1  = 9.17 mm
100

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9.29 Two previously undeformed specimens of the same metal are to be plastically deformed by
reducing their cross-sectional areas. One has a circular cross section, and the other is
rectangular; during deformation the circular cross section is to remain circular, and the
rectangular is to remain as such. Their original and deformed dimensions are as follows:

Circular Rectangular
(diameter, mm) (mm)
Original dimensions 15.2 125 × 175
Deformed dimensions 11.4 75 × 200

Which of these specimens will be the hardest after plastic deformation, and why?

Solution

The hardest specimen will be the one that has experienced the greatest degree of cold work.
Therefore, all we need do is to compute the %CW for each specimen using Equation 9.8. For the
circular one

éA - A ù
d
%CW = ê 0 ú ´ 100
ë A0 û

  15.2 mm 2  11.4 mm  
2

      
       100  43.8%CW
2 2
  15.2 mm 
2

   
  2  

  15.2 mm 2  11.4 mm  
2

       
       100  43.8%CW
2 2
  15.2 mm 
2

   
  2  

For the rectangular one

 (125 mm)(175 mm)  (75 mm)(200 mm) 

%CW     100  31.4%CW
 (125 mm)(175 mm) 

Therefore, the deformed circular specimen will be harder.

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9.30 A cylindrical specimen of cold-worked copper has a ductility (%EL) of 25%. If its cold-worked
radius is 10 mm, what was its radius before deformation?

Solution

This problem calls for us to calculate the precold-worked radius of a cylindrical specimen of
copper that has a cold-worked ductility of 25%EL. From Figure 9.19c, copper that has a ductility of
25%EL will have experienced a deformation of about 11%CW. For a cylindrical specimen, Equation
9.8 becomes

 r 2   r 2 
%CW   0 2 d   100
  r0 

Since rd = 10 mm solving for r0 yields

rd 10 mm
r0    10.6 mm
%CW 11.0
1  1 
100 100

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9.31 (a) What is the approximate ductility (%EL) of a brass that has a yield strength of 275 MPa?
(b) What is the approximate Brinell hardness of a 1040 steel having a yield strength of 690
MPa?

Solution

(a) In order to solve this problem, it is necessary to consult Figures 9.19a and 9.19c. From Figure
9.19a, a yield strength of 275 MPa for brass corresponds to 10%CW. A brass that has been cold-
worked 10% will have a ductility of about 43%EL [Figure 9.19c].
(b) This portion of the problem asks for the Brinell hardness of a 1040 steel having a yield strength of
690 MPa. From Figure 9.19a, a yield strength of 690 MPa for a 1040 steel corresponds to about
10%CW. A 1040 steel that has been cold worked 10% will have a tensile strength of about 780 MPa
[Figure 9.19b]. Finally, using Equation 8.20

TS (MPa) 780 MPa

HB = = = 226
3.45 3.45

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9.32 Experimentally, it has been observed for single crystals of a number of metals that the critical
resolved shear stress τcrss is a function of the dislocation density ρD as

 crss   0  A  D

where τ0 and A are constants. For copper, the critical resolved shear stress is 2.10 MPa at a
dislocation density of 105 mm2. If it is known that the value of A for copper is 6.35  103
MPamm, compute the crss at a dislocation density of 107 mm2.

Solution

We are asked in this problem to compute the critical resolved shear stress at a dislocation
density of 107 mm–2. It is first necessary to compute the value of the constant  0 (in the equation

provided in the problem statement) from the one set of data as

 2.10 MPa  (6.35  103 MPa  mm)  

105 mm2  0.092 MPa

Now, the critical resolved shear stress may be determined at a dislocation density of 107 mm–2 as

t crss = t 0 + A r D

= (0.092 MPa) + (6.35  103 MPa  mm) 107 mm2 = 20.2 MPa

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 Recovery
Recrystallization
Grain Growth

9.33 Briefly cite the differences between recovery and recrystallization processes.

Solution

For recovery, there is some relief of internal strain energy by dislocation motion; however,
there are virtually no changes in either the grain structure or mechanical characteristics. During
recrystallization, on the other hand, a new set of strain-free grains forms, and the material becomes
softer and more ductile.

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9.34 Estimate the fraction of recrystallization from the photomicrograph in Figure 9.21c.

Solution

Below is shown a square grid onto which is superimposed the recrystallized regions from the
micrograph. Approximately 400 squares lie within the recrystallized areas, and since there are 672 total
squares, the specimen is about 60% recrystallized.

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9.35 Explain the differences in grain structure for a metal that has been cold worked and one that has
been cold worked and then recrystallized.

Solution

During cold-working, the grain structure of the metal has been distorted to accommodate the
deformation. Recrystallization produces grains that are equiaxed and smaller than the parent grains.

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9.36 (a) What is the driving force for recrystallization?
(b) For grain growth?

Solution

(a) The driving force for recrystallization is the difference in internal energy between the strained and
unstrained material.
(b) The driving force for grain growth is the reduction in grain boundary energy as the total grain
boundary area decreases.

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9.37 (a) From Figure 9.25, compute the length of time required for the average grain diameter to
increase from 0.03 to 0.12 mm at 600C for this brass material.
(b) Repeat the calculation at 700°C.

Solution

(a) At 600C (873 K), the time necessary for the average grain diameter to grow to increase from 0.03
to 0.12 mm is approximately 1200 min.
(b) At 700C (973 K), the time required for this same grain size increase is approximately 10 min.

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9.38 The average grain diameter for a brass material was measured as a function of time at 650°C,
which is tabulated below at two different times:

Time Grain Diameter

(min) (mm)
30 3.9 × 10–2
90 6.6 × 10–2
(a) What was the original grain diameter?
(b) What grain diameter would you predict after 150 min at 650°C?

Solution

(a) Using the data given and Equation 9.9 (taking n = 2), we may set up two simultaneous equations
with d0 and K as unknowns; thus

(3.9  102 mm)2  d02 = (30 min) K

(6.6  102 mm)2  d02 = (90 min) K

Solution of these expressions yields a value for d0, the original grain diameter, of

d0 = 0.01 mm,
5
and a value for K of 4.73  10 mm /min 2

(b) At 150 min, the diameter d is computed using a rearranged form of Equation 9.9 as

d= d02 + Kt

= (0.01 mm) 2 + (4.73 ´ 10-5 mm2 /min) (150 min) = 0.085 mm

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9.39 An undeformed specimen of some alloy has an average grain diameter of 0.045 mm. You are
asked to reduce its average grain diameter to 0.010 mm. Is this possible? If so, explain the
procedures you would use and name the processes involved. If it is not possible, explain why.

Solution

Yes, it is possible to reduce the average grain diameter of an undeformed alloy specimen from
0.045 mm to 0.010 mm. In order to do this, plastically deform the material at room temperature (i.e.,
cold work it), and then anneal at an elevated temperature in order to allow recrystallization and some
grain growth to occur until the average grain diameter is 0.010 mm.

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9.40 Grain growth is strongly dependent on temperature (i.e., rate of grain growth increases with
increasing temperature), yet temperature is not explicitly given as a part of Equation 9.9.
(a) Into which of the parameters in this expression would you expect temperature to be
included?
(b) On the basis of your intuition, cite an explicit expression for this temperature dependence.

Solution

(a) The temperature dependence of grain growth is incorporated into the constant K in Equation 9.9.
(b) The explicit expression for this temperature dependence is of the form

 Q 
K = K 0 exp   
 RT 

in which K0 is a temperature-independent constant, the parameter Q is an activation energy, and R and

T are the gas constant and absolute temperature, respectively.

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9.41 An uncold-worked brass specimen of average grain size 0.009 mm has a yield strength of 160
MPa. Estimate the yield strength of this alloy after it has been heated to 600C for 1000 s, if it is
known that the value of ky is 12.0 MPamm1/2.

Solution

In order to solve this problem, it is first necessary to calculate the constant 0 in Equation 9.7
as

 0   y  k y d 1/ 2

= 160 MPa  (12.0 MPa  mm1/2 )(0.009 mm)1/ 2  33.5 MPa

Next, we must determine the average grain size after the heat treatment. From Figure 9.25 at 600C
(873 K) after 1000 s (16.7 min) the average grain size of a brass material is about 0.20 mm. Therefore,
calculating  y at this new grain size using Equation 9.7 we get

 y =  0  k y d 1/2

= 33.5 MPa  (12.0 MPa  mm1/2 ) (0.020 mm)1/2 = 118 MPa

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 DESIGN PROBLEMS

Strain Hardening
Recrystallization

9.D1 Determine whether it is possible to cold work steel so as to give a minimum Brinell hardness of
225, and at the same time have a ductility of at least 12%EL. Justify your decision.

Solution

The tensile strength corresponding to a Brinell hardness of 225 may be determined using
Equation 8.20 as

TS(MPa) = 3.45 ´ HB = (3.45)(225) = 776 MPa

Furthermore, from Figure 9.19b, in order to achieve a tensile strength of 776 MPa, deformation of at
least 9%CW is necessary. Finally, if we cold work the steel to 9%CW, then the ductility is 17%EL
from Figure 9.19c. Therefore, it is possible to meet both of these criteria by plastically deforming the
steel.

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9.D2 Determine whether it is possible to cold work brass so as to give a minimum Brinell hardness of
120 and at the same time have a ductility of at least 20%EL. Justify your decision.

Solution

According to Figure 8.19, a Brinell hardness of 120 corresponds to a tensile strength of 440
MPa. Furthermore, from Figure 9.19b, in order to achieve a tensile strength of 440 MPa, deformation
of at least 26%CW is necessary. Finally, if we are to achieve a ductility of at least 20%EL, then a
maximum deformation of 23%CW is possible from Figure 9.19c. Therefore, it is not possible to meet
both of these criteria by plastically deforming brass.

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9.D3 A cylindrical specimen of cold-worked steel has a Brinell hardness of 250.
(a) Estimate its ductility in percent elongation.
(b) If the specimen remained cylindrical during deformation and its original radius was 5 mm,
determine its radius after deformation.

Solution

(a) From Figure 8.19, a Brinell hardness of 250 corresponds to a tensile strength of 860 MPa, which,
from Figure 9.19b, requires a deformation of 25%CW. Furthermore, 25%CW yields a ductility of
about 11%EL for steel, Figure 9.19c.
(b) We are now asked to determine the radius after deformation if the uncold-worked radius is 5 mm.
From Equation 9.8 and for a cylindrical specimen

 r 2   r 2 
%CW =  0 2 d   100
  r0 

Now, solving for rd from this expression, we get

25
= (5 mm) 1  = 4.33 mm
100

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9.D4 It is necessary to select a metal alloy for an application that requires a yield strength of at least
345 MPa while maintaining a minimum ductility (%EL) of 20%. If the metal may be cold
worked, decide which of the following are candidates: copper, brass, and a 1040 steel. Why?

Solution

For each of these alloys, the minimum cold work necessary to achieve the yield strength may
be determined from Figure 9.19a, while the maximum possible cold work for the ductility is found in
Figure 9.19c. These data are tabulated below.

Yield Strength Ductility

(> 345 MPa) (> 20%EL)
Steel Any %CW < 5%CW
Brass > 20%CW < 23%CW
Copper > 54%CW < 15%CW

Thus, both the 1040 steel and brass are possible candidates since for these alloys there is an overlap of
percents coldwork to give the required minimum yield strength and ductility values.

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9.D5 A cylindrical rod of 1040 steel originally 15.2 mm in diameter is to be cold worked by drawing;
the circular cross section will be maintained during deformation. A cold-worked tensile strength
in excess of 840 MPa and a ductility of at least 12%EL are desired. Furthermore, the final
diameter must be 10 mm. Explain how this may be accomplished.

Solution

First let us calculate the percent cold work and attendant tensile strength and ductility if the
drawing is carried out without interruption. From Equation 9.8

2 2
 d0  d 
   d 
%CW =  2   2   100
2
d 
 0
 2 

2 2
 15.2 mm   10 mm 
   
  2   2   100  56%CW
2
 15.2 mm 
 
 2 

At 56%CW, the steel will have a tensile strength on the order of 920 MPa [Figure 9.19b], which is
adequate; however, the ductility will be less than 10%EL [Figure 9.19c], which is insufficient.
Instead of performing the drawing in a single operation, let us initially draw some fraction of
the total deformation, then anneal to recrystallize, and, finally, cold-work the material a second time in
order to achieve the final diameter, tensile strength, and ductility.
Reference to Figure 9.19b indicates that 20%CW is necessary to yield a tensile strength of 840
MPa. Similarly, a maximum of 21%CW is possible for 12%EL [Figure 9.19c]. The average of these
extremes is 20.5%CW. Again using Equation 9.8, if the final diameter after the first drawing is d '0 ,

then

2
d' 
2
 10 mm 
 0  
 2   2 
20.5%CW  2
 100
 d '0 
 
 2 

And, solving the above expression for d '0 , yields

10 mm
d '0  = 11.2 mm
20.5%CW
1 
100

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9.D6 A cylindrical rod of copper originally 16.0 mm in diameter is to be cold worked by drawing; the
circular cross section will be maintained during deformation. A cold-worked yield strength in
excess of 250 MPa and a ductility of at least 12%EL are desired. Furthermore, the final diameter
must be 11.3 mm. Explain how this may be accomplished.

Solution

Let us first calculate the percent cold work and attendant yield strength and ductility if the
drawing is carried out without interruption. From Equation 9.8

2 2
 d0  d 
   d 
%CW   2   2   100
2
d 
 0
 2 

2 2
 16.0 mm   11.3 mm 
   
  2   2   100  50%CW
2
 16.0 mm 
 
 2 

At 50%CW, the copper will have a yield strength on the order of 330 MPa, Figure 9.19a, which is
adequate; however, the ductility will be about 4%EL, Figure 9.19c, which is insufficient.
Instead of performing the drawing in a single operation, let us initially draw some fraction of
the total deformation, then anneal to recrystallize, and, finally, cold work the material a second time in
order to achieve the final diameter, yield strength, and ductility.
Reference to Figure 9.19a indicates that 21%CW is necessary to give a yield strength of 250
MPa. Similarly, a maximum of 23%CW is possible for 12%EL [Figure 9.19c]. The average of these
two values is 22%CW, which we will use in the calculations. Thus, to achieve both the specified yield
strength and ductility, the copper must be deformed to 22%CW. If the final diameter after the first
drawing is d '0 , then, using Equation 9.8

2
 d '0 
2
 11.3 mm 
   
 2   2 
22%CW  2
 100
 d '0 
 
 2 

And, solving for d '0 from the above expression yields

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 11.3 mm
d '0  = 12.8 mm
22%CW
1
100

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9.D7 A cylindrical 1040 steel rod having a minimum tensile strength of 865 MPa, a ductility of at
least 10%EL, and a final diameter of 6.3 mm is desired. Some 8.0 mm diameter 1040 steel
stock, which has been cold worked 20% is available. Describe the procedure you would follow
to obtain this material. Assume that 1040 steel experiences cracking at 40%CW.

Solution

This problem calls for us to cold work some 1040 steel stock that has been previously cold
worked in order to achieve minimum tensile strength and ductility values of 865 MPa and 10%EL,
respectively, while the final diameter must be 6.3 mm. Furthermore, the material may not be deformed
beyond 40%CW. Let us start by deciding what percent coldwork is necessary for the minimum tensile
strength and ductility values, assuming that a recrystallization heat treatment is possible. From Figure
9.19b, at least 25%CW is required for a tensile strength of 865 MPa. Furthermore, according to Figure
9.19c, 10%EL corresponds a maximum of 30%CW. Let us take the average of these two values (i.e.,
27.5%CW), and determine what previous specimen diameter is required to yield a final diameter of 8.0
mm. For cylindrical specimens, Equation 9.8 takes the form

2 2
 d0   dd 
   2 
%CW   
2    100
2
 d0 
 
 2 

Solving for the original diameter d0 yields

dd 6.3 mm
d0 = = = 7.39 mm
%CW 27.5%CW
1 1
100 100

Now, let us determine its undeformed diameter realizing that a diameter of 7.94 mm
corresponds to 20%CW. Again solving for d0 using the above equation and assuming dd = 7.94 mm
yields

dd 8.0 mm
d0 = = = 8.94 mm
%CW 20%CW
1 1
100 100

At this point let us see if it is possible to deform the material from, 8.94 mm to 7.39 mm without
exceeding the 40%CW limit. Again employing Equation 9.8

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 2 2
 8.94 mm   7.39 mm 
    
%CW =  2   2   100 = 31.6%CW
2
 8.94 mm 
 
 2 

In summary, the procedure which can be used to produce the desired material would be as
follows: cold work the as-received stock to 7.39 mm, heat treat it to achieve complete recrystallization,
and then cold work the material again to 6.3 mm, which will give the desired tensile strength and
ductility.

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