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Modern principles

Laboratory, Institute of Biochemistry, University of


Cologne in Germany
The current model of atomic structure is the quantum mechanical
model.[13] Traditional chemistry starts with the study of elementary
particles, atoms, molecules,[14] substances, metals, crystals and other
aggregates of matter. Matter can be studied in solid, liquid, gas and
plasma states, in isolation or in combination. The
interactions, reactions and transformations that are studied in
chemistry are usually the result of interactions between atoms, leading
to rearrangements of the chemical bonds which hold atoms together.
Such behaviors are studied in a chemistry laboratory.
The chemistry laboratory stereotypically uses various forms
of laboratory glassware. However glassware is not central to
chemistry, and a great deal of experimental (as well as
applied/industrial) chemistry is done without it.

Solutions of substances in reagent bottles,


including ammonium hydroxide and nitric acid, illuminated in different colors
A chemical reaction is a transformation of some substances into one
or more different substances.[15] The basis of such a chemical
transformation is the rearrangement of electrons in the chemical
bonds between atoms. It can be symbolically depicted through
a chemical equation, which usually involves atoms as subjects. The
number of atoms on the left and the right in the equation for a
chemical transformation is equal. (When the number of atoms on
either side is unequal, the transformation is referred to as a nuclear
reaction or radioactive decay.) The type of chemical reactions a
substance may undergo and the energy changes that may accompany
it are constrained by certain basic rules, known as chemical laws.
Energy and entropy considerations are invariably important in almost
all chemical studies. Chemical substances are classified in terms of
their structure, phase, as well as their chemical compositions. They
can be analyzed using the tools of chemical analysis,
e.g. spectroscopy and chromatography. Scientists engaged in
chemical research are known as chemists.[16] Most chemists specialize
in one or more sub-disciplines. Several concepts are essential for the
study of chemistry; some of them are:[17]
Matter
Main article: Matter
In chemistry, matter is defined as anything that has rest
mass and volume (it takes up space) and is made up of particles. The
particles that make up matter have rest mass as well – not all particles
have rest mass, such as the photon. Matter can be a pure chemical
substance or a mixture of substances.[18]
Atom
Main article: Atom

A diagram of an atom based on the Rutherford model


The atom is the basic unit of chemistry. It consists of a dense core
called the atomic nucleus surrounded by a space occupied by
an electron cloud. The nucleus is made up of positively
charged protons and uncharged neutrons (together called nucleons),
while the electron cloud consists of negatively
charged electrons which orbit the nucleus. In a neutral atom, the
negatively charged electrons balance out the positive charge of the
protons. The nucleus is dense; the mass of a nucleon is approximately
1,836 times that of an electron, yet the radius of an atom is about
10,000 times that of its nucleus.[19][20]
The atom is also the smallest entity that can be envisaged to retain
the chemical properties of the element, such
as electronegativity, ionization potential, preferred oxidation
state(s), coordination number, and preferred types of bonds to form
(e.g., metallic, ionic, covalent).
Element

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