CURRENT ELECTRICITY. Ref.

AScurelOCR

Electric current is a flow of charged particles. In a metal the current is due to the
flow of electrons, but in an electrolyte it is due to the flow of ions.

Electrons have a negative charge and flow from negative to positive. Electricity was
investigated before electrons were discovered in 1897, and it was originally assumed
that an electric current was a flow of positive particles (from positive to negative).
The flow of positive particles is called conventional current and is still used to
describe the direction of current flow in electrical and electronic work.

The relationship between electric current and charge is , where ∆Q is the

charge that has flowed, I is the electric current and ∆t is the time that has
elapsed.

The unit of charge is the coulomb (C), the unit of electric current is the amp (A) and
the unit of time is the second (s).

The coulomb, C, is defined as the quantity of charge which passes any section of a
conductor in one second when a current of one ampere is flowing.
1C = 1As. Note; 1C=6.242 ´ 1018 electrons.

Electric current is measured using an ammeter (or milliammeter or micro ammeter),

and these are always placed in series with the circuit in which the current is flowing.

The elementary (smallest) charge is that of one electron and is . All

larger electrical charges are an exact multiple of the charge on one electron.

Kirchhoff’s first law

Kirchhoff’s first law states that the total current flowing into a junction is equal to the
total current flowing out of a junction. This is a consequence of the conservation of
charge. Charge cannot be lost or created as current flows around a circuit.

Kirchhoff’s first law may be stated as: the algebraic sum of the currents flowing into
a junction is zero.
Electron drift velocity
Charge carriers (eg. Electrons) actually move quite slowly round a circuit with what
is called a mean drift velocity. The drift velocity can be calculated as follows:

Conductor
Cross
sectional
area of
Electron drift A conductor
velocity, v

In one second, a volume of electrons equal to Av will have passed a section of the
conductor. If there are n electrons per unit volume, then the number of electrons
passing any section per second is nAv, and if the charge on each electron is e, then
the charge passing a section per second is nAve. Hence: .

In a conductor (eg metal), the number of charge carriers per unit volume is very high.
This means that the flow of electric current is not limited by the number of charge
carriers, but by the ease with which they can travel along the conductor. As the
temperature of the metal increases, the molecules in the metal have more thermal
energy and vibrate more. The vibrating molecules get in the way of the conduction
electrons and so the resistance of the conductor increases as the temperature increases.

In a semiconductor (eg silicon), the number of charge carriers per unit volume is
much less than in a metal and this is what limits the flow of electric current. As the
temperature of the semiconductor increases, more electrons break free from the
molecules and so are available to conduct electricity. Hence the resistance of a piece
of semiconductor decreases as the temperature increases.

In insulators there are very few, if any electrons available to conduct electricity.

Potential difference, pd, V

If a potential difference V, appears across a resistor then electrical energy is

converted into non-electrical energy ( heat ) when it drives a current through the
resistor. Positive charges are forced from high potential to low potential and vice
versa for negative charges.

Definition.
If electrical energy , W, is converted to non-electrical energy when a charge Q passes
through a component then the potential difference across that component ,V is
defined by:
Unit:
Definition of the volt, V
If the work done in causing one coulomb of charge electric charge to flow between
two points is one joule, then the pd between the points is one volt.

A voltmeter may be used to determine the p.d. across a component. The voltmeter is
connected in parallel with the component being measured.

Electromotive force, emf , E

A source of emf is a device which can convert non-electrical energy into electrical
energy. It can supply electrical energy to an electric circuit. It does this by
maintaining a potential difference between two points to which it is connected.
Example. A chemical cell causes positive charge to be forced from low potential to
higher potential and vice versa for negative charge.
Note; an open circuit across a source of emf prevents current from flowing, but the
emf still exists.

Definition.
If non electrical energy, W , is converted to electrical energy when a charge Q passes
through the source then the emf, E , of the source is defined by:
Unit:
Note. The distinction between emf and potential difference is often blurred in practice
and the term voltage used for either of them. ( CF distance, mileage )

Example. The chemical cell.

Resistance, R

The resistance of a conductor is defined by:

when: V = pd cross conductor, I = current through conductor
Unit of R is ohm, W

Definition of the ohm

A component has a resistance of one ohm if a current of one amp flows through it
when a pd of one volt is applied across it.

Ohm's law

The current through a conductor is directly proportional to the pd across it provided

there is no change in the physical conditions of the conductor.
Note: an ohmic conductor is a conductor that obeys Ohm's law!

I/V Characteristic for an ohmic conductor:-

I/V Characteristic for a filament lamp:

When no current flows, the

temperature of the filament is low
and so its resistance is low. As the
temperature increases, the
resistance of filament increases, so
the graph curves as shown. The lamp
behaves the same way whichever
direction the current is flowing in.

I/V Characteristic for an LED In the forward biased direction (top

right hand quartile of graph), the
diode conducts when the voltage
across it is more than about 2V. In
the reverse biased direction (bottom
left quartile of graph) the LED does
not conduct under normal
circumstances. However, if the
voltage is increased to a few
hundred volts, the diode “breaks
down” and conducts strongly, giving
a nearly vertical downwards line on
the graph.
LED’s (light emitting diodes) offer a compact light source with much higher
efficiency than filament lamps (filament lamps are sometimes known as incandescent
lamps).

Resistivity (r)

The electrical resistivity of a material is defined by:

when R = resistance of conductor

l = length of conductor
A = cross sectional area of conductor
r = resistivity of the material from which the conductor is made
Unit of r : Wm

The change in electrical resistance of conductors and semiconductors with

temperature are due to changes in the resisitivity of the materials with temperature.
(See the earlier sections on electron drift velocity and the characteristics of the
filament lamp).

Metals are said to have a positive temperature coefficient of resistance since their
resistance increases with temperature.

A thermistor is an electronic component that is designed to show a large variation in

resistance when its temperature changes. Most thermistors have a negative
temperature coefficient of resistance (ntc) since their resistance gets less as their
temperature increases.

Electrical Power
Power may be defined as the rate of doing work. The doer of work must "use" energy
at the same rate (or faster) so power may also be defined as the rate of change of
energy from one form to another.

Note: the following section in small print is not required for the AS Physics exam, but the equation in
the boxes are required.

If W is the energy being converted and P is the power then

from the definition of emf, E,

but E is constant so and

so
Note: from P = EI, so emf may be defined as the ratio of power generated to
current delivered.
If an emf drives a current through a resistance then energy conversion takes place.
From the definition of potential difference, V, and from above,

but V is constant so

so

Substituting ,

Substituting

Fuses

Fuses are fitted in electrical circuits to protect the wiring from excessive current and
to disconnect the earthed metal case of an appliance from the mains if there is a
serious fault within the appliance. A fuse consists of a thin piece of wire inside a
cartridge and the wire gets hot and melts (“blows”) if too much current flows. An
excessive current may cause a fire or melt insulation which can cause poisonous
fumes to be released. A fuse does not prevent people receiving an electric shock or
make the shock any less severe.

Fuses have a current rating and the rating of the fuse chosen should be slightly larger
than the highest current that the appliance should take when it is operating normally.
The power equations above are often used to calculate the correct fuse for an
application.

Electrical energy, W.

Energy can be found from and electrical power can be found using
. Hence, .

If SI units are used (amps, volts and seconds), then the energy is in joules.

Commercially, electricity is bought and sold in “units”. One unit is one kilowatt-hour.
This is the amount of electricity consumed by an appliance that is rated at one
kilowatt if it is switched on for one hour. To work out the number of units multiply
kilowatts by hours, and to find the cost of this electricity, multiply the number of
kilowatt-hours by the price of one “unit” of electricity. (There may also be a
“standing charge” to pay).

Kirchhoff’s 2nd Law

In any closed loop, the algebraic sum of the emf's is equal to the algebraic sum of the
products of current and resistance.

Algebraic sum of emf's

Algebraic sum of products of current and

resistance

Note if , I will be negative (i.e. flow in the opposite direction)

Resistors in Series

The sum of the voltages across each resistor is equal to the voltage across the
combination:

Also the same current flows through each resistor as flows through the combination.

Resistors in Parallel
 The sum of the individual currents is equal to the
total current:

Also the same potential difference, V, appears

across each resistor and the combination:

Note: For 2 resistors in parallel

Internal Resistance (Source Resistance)

In practice all devices which will drive a current round a circuit (eg batteries,
dynamos etc.) themselves present a resistance to the flow of current. This resistance is
called the internal resistance. Hence the source of emf uses some energy to drive a
current through itself. The energy is usually converted to heat within the source. The
current flowing through the internal resistance will give rise to a p.d. across it.

Note: pd across
terminals of
source is called
the terminal pd

Hence the energy equation for the circuit shown when a charge Q flows round it is:
non electrical energy = electrical energy + electrical energy
converted to electrical converted to heat in converted to heat in
energy external resistance internal resistance

i.e.

Hence
v is sometimes
or called the “lost
volts”
 or
The Potential Divider
A potential divider may be formed from two resistors

Either or both resistors may be made variable to give a variable output voltage or this
can be achieved using a "potentiometer"(pot):

Light dependent resistors (LDR’s)

The resistance of an LDR gets less as the light falling on it gets brighter.

Applications of potential divider circuits

LDR’s can be used in potential dividers as light sensor circuits:
In the first circuit, V out will increase with increasing light level and in the second
circuit V out will decrease with increasing light levels.

Thermistors can be used in potential divider circuits as temperature sensor circuits:

The first circuit will give an output voltage that falls when the temperature increases
and the second circuit will give an output voltage that increases as the temperature
increases.

Data loggers
Data loggers are a convenient way to measure, record and display the characteristics
of electrical components and circuits.