Block 2: Plane analytic geometry

BLOCK Plane analytic geometry

2 Introduction
In this block, we will study the main parts of plane and analytic
geometry. We will start by elementary problems of plane analytic
geometry, then, the relative position of two straight lines will be
examined and we will spend enough time in studying quadric curves by
reducing the general equation to canonical form by means of
orthogonal transformations and orthogonal invariants. The complete
classification of quadric curves will be given.

What is in this block?

This block is in 4 sections
Section 2.1 Elementary problems
Section 2.2 Straight line
Section 2.3 Quadric curves in canonical form
Section 2.4 General equation of a quadric curve

Estimated study time

You will need between 15 and 25 hours.

Learning objectives
By the end of this block, you should be able to:
 calculate the distance between two points in different
coordinates systems;
 find the area and the centroid of a triangle;
 determine the relative position between two lines;
 reduce a general equation of a quadric curve to standard form;
 classify the quadric curves.

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Section 2.1 Elementary problems

In this section, we will consider a two dimensional affine Euclidean
plane endowed with orthonormal frame F (O; e1 , e2 )
Keywords

Distance
2.1.1 Distance between two points
Centroid of a triangle
Area

Figure 2.1
Proposition1.1

The distance d between the points P( x1 , y1 ) and Q( x2 , y2 ) is expressed

by the formula:

d ( P, Q)  ( x2  x1 ) 2  ( y2  y1 ) 2 (2.1)

Proof

The distance between P and Q is the length of the vector PQ i.e.

d ( P, Q )  PQ .

From figure1.1, we have OQ  OP  PQ, what gives PQ  OQ  OP.

The components of PQ are given by PQ  ( x2  x1 , y2  y1 ).

Thus d ( P, Q)  PQ  ( x2  x1 ) 2  ( y2  y1 ) 2

Example1.1

Determine the distance between the points P(1,3) and Q(3,6)

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 Block 2: Plane analytic geometry

Solution

According to the formula (2.1) we have:

d ( P, Q)  (3  1) 2  (6  3) 2  25  5.

Proposition1.2

The distance d between the points P ( 1 , 1 ) and Q (  2 ,  2 ) in polar

coordinates system is expressed by the formula:

d ( P, Q)  12   22  2 1  2 cos(2  1 ) (2.2)

Figure 2.2
Proof. The formula (2.2) is directly derived from the law of the cosines
in plane trigonometry. Indeed, let us consider the triangle OPQ

(figure1.2)

2 2 2
PQ  OP  OQ  2 OP OQ cos(OP,OQ).

But OP  1 ; OQ   2 ; (OP, OQ)   2  1 .

By the cosines law we have:

d ( P, Q)  PQ  12   22  2 1  2 cos(2  1 )

Example1.2

   
Determine the distance between P  3,  and Q  4,  .
 3  6

Solution

Applying the formula (2.2), we get:

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  
d ( P, Q)  32  42  2.3.3cos     25  12 3
3 6

2.1.2 Dividing a line segment in a given ratio

We say that the point M divides the line segment PQ in a given
ratio  if and only if PM   MQ.

Qx2 , y2 

Figure 2.3
Proposition1.3:

Let ( x2 , y2 ) and ( x1 , y1 ) be the coordinates of the points P and Q

respectively and ( x, y) be the co-ordinates of the point M which divides
the segment PQ in the ratio  .The following formulas hold:
x1   x2 y   y2
x ,y 1 (2.3)
1  1 
Proof:

The components of the vectors PM and MQ are ( x  x1 , y  y1 ) and

( x2  x, y2  y) respectively.

In co-ordinates form, the relation PM   MQ can be written:

( x  x1 , y1  y1 )   ( x2  x, y2  y);

Since  ( x2  x, y2  y)  ( x2   x,  y2   ),

We have ( x  x1 , y1  y1 )  ( x2   x,  y2   ).

The equality of two couples leads to:

x1   x2 y   y2
x ;y 1 
1  1 

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
Remark 1.1

 If   0, M is inside the segment PQ

 If   0 , M is outside of the segment PQ

 If   0 , then M  P
 If M  Q , then   ,

 If   1 , the point M moves away indefinitely on the line

carrying PQ
 If M is the midpoint of PQ,   1 , we
x1  x2 y  y2
have x  ;y 1
2 2

 Remark 1.2

The coordinates of the centroid of a system of material points

Pi ( xi , yi ) with masses mi (i  1,..., n) are given by the formulas:
n n

m x i i m y i i
x i 1
n
;y i 1
n
(2.4)
m
i 1
i m
i 1
i

Example 1.3

P(1,1) and Q(7, 4) are the initial and terminal points of the line segment
PQ . Find the coordinates of the point M which is twice more closer to
P than to Q and located between these two points.
Solution

1
The point M divides the segment PQ in  
2
1 1
1  .7 1  .4
Applying the formulas (2.3), we have: x  2  3; y  2 2.
1 1
1 1
2 2

Example 1.4

Let A( x1 , y1 ), B  ( x2 , y2 ) and C  ( x3 , y3 ) be the vertices of the triangle

ABC . Find the co-ordinates of the centroid of the triangle.
Solution. The co-ordinates of the centroid of this triangle are given by

 x  x  x y  y2  y3 
G 1 2 3 , 1 .
 3 3 

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2.1.3 Area of a triangle

Figure 2.4

Proposition 4: Let A( x1 , y1 ), B  ( x2 , y2 ), C  ( x3 , y3 ) be the vertices of

the triangle ABC . Then the area S ABC of the triangle in terms of the
coordinates of its vertices is expressed by the formula:

S ABC 
1
x1  x2  y1  y 2   x2  x3  y 2  y3   x3  x1  y3  y1  (2.5)
2

Proof: The area of the triangle ABC (figure (1.4) can be found by the
relation
sABC  sAAC`C`A  sAABBA  sBBCC (2.6)

where S AACC A , s AABBA, sBBCC  are the areas of the corresponding

trapezoids.

The area A of a trapezoid with bases B; b and altitude h is given by:

( B  b)
A h.
2

Using the above formula we have:

AA  C C 1
s AACAA  AC   ( y1  y3 )( x3  x1 )
2 2
AA  BB 1
s AABBA  AB  ( y1  y2 )( x2  x1 )
2 2
BB  C C 1
sBBCC B  BC   ( y2  y3 )( x3  x2 )
2 2

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Injecting the expression of the areas of these trapezoids in the relation

(2.6), we get:
1
S ABC   x1  x2  y1  y2    x2  x3  y2  y3  x3  x1  y3  y1  
2 

The formula (2.5) in terms of determinants can be also expressed in the

form

x1 y1 1
1 1 x2  x1 y2  y1
S ABC   x2 y2 1   (2.7)
2 2 x3  x1 y3  y1
x3 y3 1


Remark 1.3

We assume that the area of the triangle is positive. This is why we take
the sign ‘plus’ if the value of the determinant is positive and the
sign‘minus’ if it is negative.
Example 1.5: Find the area of the triangle whose vertices are
A(1,1); B(6, 4); C(8, 2)
Solution: Applying the formula (2.5), we have

1 1
S ABC  (1  6)(1  4)  (6  8)(4  2)  (8  1).(1  2)  16  8
2 2

 Remark 1.4: The formula (2.5) can be generalized in the case of a

polygon whose the coordinates of its vertices are known.The area of a
polygon whose vertices are P1 ( x1 , y1 ), P2 ( x2 , y2 ), , Pn ( xn , yn ) is given by
the formula:
1
A ( x1  x2 )( y1  y2 )  ( x2  x3 )( y2  y3 )      ( xn  x1 )( yn  y1 
2

(2.8)


Remark 1.5: Three points A( x1 , y1 ), B( x2 , y2 )C ( x3 , y3 ) are collinear if and

only if

x1 y1 1
x2 y2 1  0 (2.9)
x3 y3 1

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Activity 2.1 
1. Determine the distance between P and Q if their polar coordinates are
    
P 5,  and Q 8, 
 4  12 
2. Given the triangle whose vertices are: P1 10,5; P2 3,2; P3 6,5

Find:
a. the perimeter
b. the area
c. the centroid of the triangle

Feedback
Try and do this activity on your own. If you meet some difficulties, do not be
discouraged. You can ask for help to your colleagues or your Tutor during weekend
tutorials sessions. If difficulties persist, read the section again and retry the activity.
The answers are provided at the end of this block and you can compare them with
yours.If they are similar, go to the next section.

Section 2.2: Straight line Keywords

2.2.1 The straight line and its equations Parametric equation

Vector equation
Cartesian equations
Normal equations
Canonical equation
Pencil of lines
Slope

Figure 2.5
Any non zero vector u  0 collinear to a straight line (d ) is called the
direction vector of this straight line. Suppose the straight line (d )
passes through the point M 0 ( x0 , y0 ) . Let us consider any point M ( x, y)
lying on the line (d ) . Since the points M 0 , M lie on (d ) , the vector

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 Block 2: Plane analytic geometry

M 0 M is collinear to the vector u (figure 2.5). Consequently, there is a

real number  , such that:

M 0 M  u (2.10)

Conversely, any point M atisfying the relation (2.10) lies on the line (d )

Let r0 and r be the radii vectors of the points M 0 and M respectively.

The equation (2.10) takes the form r  r0  u , which can be written

as (d ) : r  r0  u , (2.11)

The equations (2.10) or (2.11) are called vector equations of the

straight line (d ) . If (u 1 , u2 ) are the co-ordinates of the vector u , then
the equation (2.11) in co-ordinates form is written:

 x  x  u 
(d ) :     0     1  (2.12)
 y   y0  u2 

The equations (2.3) are called parametric equations of the

line (d ) passing through the point M ( x0 , y0 ) in the direction u .
Excluding the parameter  in (2.12), we get:
x  x0 y  y0
(d ) :  (2.13)
u1 u2

Equation (2.13) is called the canonical equation of the straight line (d )

The equation (2.13) can be written in the following form:
u2 x  u1 y  u2 x0  u1 y0  0

Putting A  u2 , B  u1 , C  u2 x0  u1 y0 , we obtain

(d ) : Ax  By  C  0 (2.14)

Equation (2.14) is called the general equation of the straight line (d )

If in the equation (2.14), B  0, then we can write

A C
(d ) : y   x  or (d ) : y  kx  m (2.15)
B B

The equation (2.15) is studied in secondary school and is called a

slope-intercept form.
The coefficient k is called the slope of the straight line (d ) .The vector,
parametric and analytic equations of the straight line (d ) passing
through the points P( x1 , y1 ); Q( x2 , y2 ) are given respectively by the
formulas:

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 d  : v  P   PQ (2.16)

 x   x1   x2  x1 
d  :        y  y  (2.17)
 y   y1   2 1

x y1
x  x1 y  y1
 d  : x1 y1 1  0 (2.18)
x2  x1 y2  y1
x2 y2 1

The equation of the straight line (d ) intersecting the coordinate

axes OX ; OY at the points A(a,0); B(0, b) respectively Is given by:

x y
d  :  1 (2.19)
a b

This equation is called the intercept equation of a straight line.

2.2.2 Relative positions of two straight lines

In the plane, two lines have a common point or do not have a common
point or coincide.
Proposition 2.1

Two lines (d1 ) : A1 x  B1 y  C1  0; (d2 ) : A2 x  B2 y  C2  0 coincide if and

A1 B1 C1
only if   
A2 B2 C2
Proof:

Necessity: The vectors u ( B1 , A1 ) and v ( B2 , A2 ) are direction vectors of

the straight lines (d1 ) and ( d 2 ) respectively. Since the two lines
coincide, their assocated direction vectors are collinear. Thus there is a
real number  , such that

( B1 , A1 )   ( B2 , A2 ) (2.20)

If the point M 0 ( x0 , y0 )  (d1 )  (d2 ) , then

A1 x0  B1 y0  C1  0; A2 x0  B2 y0  C2  0

Multiplying the second equation by  and subtracting it from the first

equation and using (2.20), we get:
C1  C2  0 (2.21)

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The relations (2.20) and (2.21) are equivalent to

A1 B1 C1
  (2.22)
A2 B2 C2

Sufficiency: From (2.21), it follows

that A1 x  B1 y  C1   ( A2 x  B2 y  C2 ) for some  , and this means that
the equations A1 x  B1 y  C1  0 and A2 x  B2 y  C2  0 are equivalent.

Proposition 2.2: Two straight lines (d2 ) : A2 x  B2 y  C2  0 and

A1 B1 C1
(d1 ) : A1 x  B1 y  C1  0 are parallel if and only if  
A2 B2 C2
(2.23)

Proof
Necessity: The necessity condition results directly from the colinearity
of the vectors u ( B1 , A1 ) and v ( B2 , A2 ) of the straight lines (d1 ) and

(d 2 ) and from the proposition (2.23)

Sufficiency: The first condition of (2.23) implies the colinearity of the

vectors u and v and the second condition of (2.23) joined to proposition
2.10 show that the lines (d1 ) and ( d 2 ) do not coincide.

From propositions 2.10 and 2.11, we can conclude that the lines
(d1 ) : A1 x  B1 y  C1  0 and (d2 ) : A2 x  B2 y  C2  0 intersect if and only
A1 B1
if  (2.24)
A2 B2

2.2.3 Angle between two straight lines

The angle between two straight lines (d1 ) : A1 x  B1 y  C1  0 and
(d2 ) : A2 x  B2 y  C2  0 is simply the angle between their respective
direction vectors u ( B1 , A1 ) and v ( B2 , A2 ) .We have:

A1 A2  B1 B2
cos(d1 , d2 )   (2.25)
A  B12 . A22  B22
1
2

From (2.25), it follows that (d1 ) and ( d 2 ) are perpendicular iff

A1 A2  B1B2  0 (2.26)

 Remark 2.1: If (d1 ) : y  k1 x  m1 and (d2 ) : y  k2 x  m2 , Then,

k2  k1
tan(d1 , d 2 ) 
1  k1k2 (2.27)
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and (d1 ) is perpendicular to ( d 2 ) if k1k2  1. (2.28)

2.2.4 Pencil of straight lines

Figure 2.6
The collection of all straight lines in the plane passing through a point
P ( x0 , y0 ) is called the pencil of all straight lines centred at the
point V called the vertex.

Let (d1 ) : A1 x  B1 y  C1  0;(d2 ) : A2 x  B2 y  C2  0 ) be two nonparallel

lines and P0 ( x0 , y0 ) be heir intersecting point. The general equation of
the straight lines passing through P0 ( x0 , y0 ) is given by:

A1 x  B1 y  C1   ( A2 x  b2 yC2 )  0 (2.29)

where the parameter  varies from  to  .

Injecting   0 into (2.29) we get (d1 ) . Dividing both sides of (2.29) by

 and evaluating the limit of the expressionobtained when   , we

get ( d 2 ) .

The lines ( d1 ) and ( d 2 ) are fundamental straight lines of pencil centred

at ( x0 , y0 ) .

Equation (2.29) is the equation of the firstdegree in x and represents a

straight line. Moreover, this straight line passes through P0 ( x0 , y0 ) since
the co-ordinates ( x0 , y0 ) satisfy both sides of (2.29) by hypothesis.
Conversely, let consider an arbitrary point P1 ( x1 , y1 ) not lying on the
fundamental lines of the pencil. It can be shown that the straight line
P0 P1 admits an equation of the type (2.29).
Injecting the co-ordinates ( x1 , y1 ) in (2.29) and then isolating the
corresponding value 1 of  , we have:

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Ax1  By1  C1
1  
Ax2  By2  C2

The equation A1 x  B1 y  C1  1 ( A2 x  B2 y  C2 )  0 represents a straight

line which passes through the points P0 and P1 because of 1 . It is the
equation of line P0 P1 . Thus, any straight line passing through the
common intersecting point of (d1 ) and ( d 2 ) has an equation of the form
(2.29)

2.2.5 Distance from a point to a straight line

The distance from the point M 0 to the line (d ) is the length of the
perpendicular M 0 M1 , dropped from this point onto the line (d )

Figure 2.7
Proposition 2.3

The distance from the point M 0 ( x0 , y0 ) to the straight line

(d ) : Ax  By  C  0 is expressed by the formula bellow:
Ax0  By0  C
d ( M 0 , (d ))  (2.30)
A2  B 2

Proof

The vector u ( B, A) is a direction vector of the straight line (d ) .The

vector n ( A, B) is orthogonal to the lineh (d ) since u , n   BA  AB  0

Let us consider a straight line (d1 ) passing through M 0 and

perpendicular to (d ).

The common point M1 of these two straight lines is the foot of the
perpendicular dropped from the point M 0 onto the line (d ) . The
parametric equations of (d1 ) are given by

 x  x0   A
(d1 ) : 
 y  y0   B (2.31)

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Let ( x1 , y1 ) be the co-ordinates of the point M1 . The co-ordinates of

this point are obtained from (2.29) for a certain value 1 of the
parameter  i.e. M1 ( x0  1 A, y0  1B) . As M 1  (d ) , we have:
A( x0  1 A)  B( y0  1B)  C  0 .
From this last relation, the value of 1 is given by:

Ax0  By0  C
1   (2.32)
A2  B 2

The components of the vector M 0 M 1 are (1 A, 1 B ) and we have:

Ax0  By0  C
d ( M 0 , (d ))  M 0 M 1  1 A2  B 2  
A2  B 2

Remark 2.2: We say that the general equation Ax  By  C  0 of a line

is normalized if A2  B2  1.

From the general equation Ax  By  C  0 of a line, we can always

obtain its normal equationbydividing the both sides of the general

A B C
equation by A2  B 2  0 : x y  0,
A B2 2
A B
2 2
A  B2
2

The above equation can also be written as:

x cos   y sin   p  0 (2.33)

2.2.6 Equations of a line in polar co-ordinates

Let us introduce in a plane a system of polar coordinates with pole at
the point O . Suppose given a straight line (d ) .

Figure 2.8
Let us draw a perpendicular from the pole to the given line and denote
its foot by P . Then, we denote the coordinates of the point P by
( p,  ) and those of the current point M of the given line by (  ,  ) .

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From the triangle OPM , it follows that: OP  OM cos(   )

which is equivalent to

p
 (2.34)
cos(   )

The converse is also true: any point whose coordinates satisfy equation
(2.34) belongs to the given straight line. Equation (2.34) is called the
equation of a straight line in polar coordinates. This form of the
equation of a straight line is readily obtained from its normal equation
x cos   y sin   p  0 by means of the
substitution x   cos ; y   sin 
If the line passes through the pole, it admits the obvious equation

  (2.35)

Activity 2.2 
Given the triangle whose vertices are A (-4, 0); B (4, 0) and C (0, 4)
1. Find the different types of equations of the sides AC and BC
2. Find the equation of the altitude dropped from the vertex B
3. Find the length of the altitude dropped from B
4. Calculate the angles of the triangle

Feedback
Try and do this activity on your own. If you meet some difficulties, do not be
discouraged. You can ask for help to your colleagues or your Tutor during weekend
tutorials sessions. If difficulties persist, read the section again and retry the activity.
The answers are provided at the end of this block and you can compare them with
yours. If they are similar, go to the next section.

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Module 4: Analytical and projective geometry

Section 2.3: Canonic equations of quadric

curves Keywords

2.3.1 The circle Circle

Ellipse
Hyperbola’
Parabola
Center
Eccentricity
Directrix
Focus
Vertex
Minor and major axes

Main text main text

main text main text
main text main text
main text main text
main text main text

Figure 2.9
Definition 3.1: The circle is the set all points in a plane equidistant
from a fixed point called the centre (fig 2.9).

Let in the plane the point C ( x0 , y0 ) be chosen as the centre of the circle.

According to the above definition, the general property of any

point M ( x, y) of this set can be described as

follows: d (C , M )  CM  r .

The number r is called the radius of the circle.Using the formula for
the determination of the distance between two points, the equation of
the circle of radius R with centre at point C ( x0 , y0 ) and denoted by:
(C ( x0 , y0 ), r ) is given by

(C ( x0 , y0 ), r ) : ( x  x0 ) 2  ( y  y0 ) 2  r 2 (2.36)

(2.36) can also be written in the form:

(C ( x0 , y0 ), r ) : x 2  y 2  2mx  2ny  p  0 (2.37)

If the center is at the origin of the axes of the co-ordinates, the

equation (2.36) takes the form:

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 Block 2: Plane analytic geometry

(C (0,0), R)  x2  y 2  r 2

The parametric equations of the circle of radius R with the centre at

C ( x0 , y0 ) are:
x  x0  r cos ; y  y0  r sin  (2.38)

The polar equations of the circle of radius R with the centre at

C  0 , 0  are:

  C  0 , 0  , R    2  02  2 0 cos   0   R 2 (2.39)

where   ,   are the polar co-ordinates of an arbitrary point of the

circle.

Intersection of a line and a circle

The intersection of a straight line (d ) : Ax  By  C  0 and a circle
 : x2  y 2  2mx  2ny  p  0
is obtained by solving the system

 Ax  By  C  0
 2 (2.40)
 x  y  2mx  2n  p  0
2

This system leads to a quadratic equation of the form:

ax2  bx  c  0 (2.41)

A C
obtained by injecting y   x into the equation of the circle.
B A
Three scenarii can occur:

1. If (2.41) has two double roots, the line intersectsthe circle in two
points
2. If (2.41) has a double root, the line is tangent to the circle.
3. If (2.41) has two conjugated complex roots, the line does not have
any real common point with the circle.

Intersection of two circles: common chord

Let 1 : x  y  2m1 x  2n2 y  p1  0 and
2 2

 2 : x 2  y 2  2m2 x  2n2 y  p2  0

be two non concentric circles. From the equations of the above circles
we have:

2(m1  m2 ) x  2(n1  n2 ) y  p1  p2  0 (2.42)

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Module 4: Analytical and projective geometry

Equation (2.42) represents a straight line which is the common chord

to both circles. The common chord always exists even if the two circles
are not geometrically secant. In this latter case, the real common chord
joins the two complex conjugate intersecting points.

2.3.2 The ellipse

Definition 3.2: An ellipse is the set of all points in the plane for each
of which the sum of distances from two fixed points in the same plane
is constant. The two fixed points are called the fociof the ellipse, and
the distance between them is called the focal length.

Figure 2.10
Let denote the foci by F1 and F2 , and the distance between them by
d ( F1 , F2 )  F1 F2  2c and let P be an arbitrary point belonging to the
ellipse. The distances from point P to the foci F1 and F2 are called focal
radii and are denoted by r1 , r2 respectively. We
have: r1  d ( F1 , P); r2  d ( F2 , P) .

According to the definition of the ellipse, the sum of focal radii is

constant. Denoting it by 2a , we have:

d ( F1 , P)  d ( F2 , P)  2a (2.43)

Equality (2.43) is the equation of the ellipse. Let us write this equality
in terms of coordinates.
Let take x-axis for the straight lines F1 F2 (Fig 2.10)

Let P( x, y) be an arbitrary point of the ellipse and F1 ( c, 0) ; F2 (c, 0) be

its foci. From the triangle F1 F2 P we deduce: a  c. Analytically, (2.43)

is expressed by: ( x  c ) 2  y 2  ( x  c ) 2  y 2  2a
Writing the above equation as: ( x  c ) 2  y 2  2a  ( x  c ) 2  y 2
and squaring both sides, we obtain

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 Block 2: Plane analytic geometry

x 2  2cx  c 2  y 2  4a 2  4a ( x  c) 2  y 2  x 2  2cx  c 2  y 2

which simplifies to: a ( x  c )  y  a  cx

2 2 2

Squaring both sides gives: a 2 ( x2  2cx  c 2  y 2 )  a 4  x 2  2a 2 cx  c 2 x 2

which may be written in the form: (a 2  c2 ) x2  a 2 y 2  a 2 (a 2  c 2 )

Since a  c  0 , introducing b2  a 2  c2

The above equation becomes: b2 x2  a 2 y 2  a 2 b2

Dividing both sides by a 2 b2 leads to

x2 y 2
 1 (2.44)
a 2 b2

The equation (2.44) is called canonicalor standard equationof the

ellipse.

x2 y 2
The equation   1 can be also been written in the form:
a 2 b2
b 2
y a  x2 (2.45)
a

The curve representing this equation is found inside the rectangle

MM N N with base 2a and height 2b
The segments AA and BB are called major and minor axes
respectively.

The numbers a and b are called the semi axes of the ellipse.
The points A(a,0), A(a,0); B(0, b), B(0, b) are the vertices.

The point O(0,0) is the centre of the ellipse. The ellipse is symmetric to
both x -axis and y -axis. It is also symmetric with respect to the origin.

c b2
The numbers e  and 2 p  2 are called eccentricity and latus
a a
rectumrespectively.
The eccentricity of ellipse is responsible for its shape.

a a
The lines (d1 ) : x   and (d 2 ) : x  are directrices of the ellpse.
e e


Remark 3.1: For a circle: a  b, e  0 , the foci coincide at the centre of
the circle, the directrices are at infinity.

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Module 4: Analytical and projective geometry

Let us determine the rational expressions of the focal radii of the

ellipse. The length r1 can be found using the following relation:

r12  ( x  c) 2  y 2
 x2 
 ( x  c) 2  b 2 1  2 
 a 
 b2 
 1  2  x 2  2cx  c 2  b 2
 a 
c2 2
 2
x  2eax  a 2  (ex  a) 2
a

Since x  a, we have ex  a and r1  a  ex

Similarly r2  a  ex . Finally we have

 r1  a  ex

r2  a  ex

This relation leads to: r1  r2  2a

x2 y 2
The parametric equations of the ellipse E :   1 are given by:
a 2 b2
 x  a cos 
 (2.46)
 y  b sin 

 1 t2
 x  a
1 t2
 (2.47)
 y  b 2t
 1 t2

x2 y 2
The tangent to the ellipse E :   1 at the point T ( x0 , y0 ) is
a 2 b2
expressed by the equation:
x0 x y0 y
 2 1 (2.48)
a2 b

2.3.3 Hyperbola
Definition 2.2. A hyperbola is the set of all points in the plane for
each of which the absolute value of the difference of distances from two
fixed points in the same plane is constant.
The two fixed points are called the foci of the hyperbola, and the
distance between them is called the focal length.

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 Block 2: Plane analytic geometry

Figure 2.11
Let denote the foci by F1 and F2 , and the distance between them by
d ( F1 , F2 )  F1 F2  2c and let P be an arbitrary point belonging to the
hyperbola. The distances from the point P to the foci F1 and F2 are called
focal radii and are denoted by r1 , r2 respectively. We have:
r1  d ( F1 , P); r2  d ( F2 , P) .
According to the definition of the hyperbola, the absolute value of their
difference is constant.
Denoting it by 2a , we have:

d ( F1 , P )  d ( F2 , P )  2a (2.49)

Equality (2.49) is the equation of the hyperbola. Let us write this

equality in terms of coordinates. Let us take x-axis for the straight
lines F1 F2 (Fig 2.11)

Let P( x, y) be an arbitrary point of the hyperbola and F1 ( c, 0) ; F2 (c, 0)

be its foci. From the triangle F1 F2 P we deduce: a  c . Analytically
(2.49) is expressed by:

x  c 2  y 2   x  c 2  y 2  2a

( x  c) 2  y 2  ( x  c)2  y 2  2a
Writing the above equation as: ( x  c)  y  ( x  c)  y  2a
2 2 2 2

Transposing one radical: ( x  c)  y  ( x  c ) 2  y 2  2a

2 2

Squaring and collecting terms: cx  a  a ( x  c )  y

2 2 2

Squaring and simplifying: (c  a ) x  a y  a (c  a )

2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Since a  c  0 , for convenience let b  a  c

2 2 2

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Module 4: Analytical and projective geometry

The above equation becomes: b2 x2  a 2 y 2  a 2 b2

Dividing both sides by a 2 b2 leads to

x2 y2
 1 (2.50)
a 2 b2

The equation (2.48) is called the canonical or standard equation of

the hyperbola.

x2 y 2
The equation   1 can be also be written in the form
a 2 b2
b 2 a
y x  a2  x   y 2  b2 (2.51)
a b

From these equations, we can deduce that the hyperbola has two axes
of symmetry: one axisintersects the curve and is called the transverse
(real) axis of symmetry. The other does not intersect the hyperbola and
is called non-transverse or as the conjugate (imaginary) axis of
symmetry.
The points A1 (  a, 0) and A2 (a,0) are called vertices. The
numbers a and b are called semi transverse and semi conjugate axis of
the hyperbola.The point O(0,0) is called the centre of the hyperbola
and it is the point of intersection of the axes of symmetry. The
hyperbola has two branches: the points for which x  a form the right-
hand branch, the points for which x  a form the left-hand branch.
b b
The lines A1O : y  x and A2O : y  x are called the asymptotes of
a a
the hyperbola.
c
The number e  is the eccentricity of the hyperbola (e  1). The
a
b2
number 2 p  2 is called the lactus rectum. The straight lines of the
a
a a
equations (d1 ) : x   and (d 2 ) : x  are the directrices.
e e
Remark 3.2: If a  b, the hyperbola is called equilateral hyperbola or

the equiangular hyperbola.


The epressions of focal radii of the hyperbola can be obtained in similar
way as the case of the ellipse. For the hyperbola, we
have: r1  (ex  a ) ; r2  (ex  a ) . Since | ex || x | a, we have
2 2 2 2

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 Block 2: Plane analytic geometry

 a  ex, x  0
 r1  a  ex  
 a  ex, x  0
 (2.52)
r a  ex, x  0
 ex  a  
2 a  ex, x  0


From (2.52) we have: r1  r2  2a

x2 y 2
The parametric equations of the hyperbola H :   1 are given by:
a 2 b2
 x  ach
 (2.53)
 y  bsh

or

 x  a sec t
 (2.54)
 y  btgt

x2 y 2
The tangent to the hyperbola H :   1 at the point T ( x0 , y0 ) is
a 2 b2
given by the equation
x0 x y0 y
 2 1 (2.55)
a2 b

2.3.4 Parabola
Definition 3.4: The parabola is the set of all points in the plane each
of which is equidistant from a given point and a given straight line not
passing through the given point .The given point is called focus and
denoted by F and the given straight line is the directrix of the
parabola and is denoted by (d ) .
The distance from the focus to the directrix is the focal parameter

Figure 2.12

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Module 4: Analytical and projective geometry

In order to obtain the equation of the parabola in a simple form, a

system of coordinates should be chosen in the following way: the x-axis
is drawn through the focus F perpendicular to the directrix d . The
point of intersection of the x-axis and directrix will be denoted by D .
For the coordinate origin, we take the midpoint O of the line
segment DF . In the chosen system, the focus has coordinates
p  p
F  , 0  and the equation of the directix will be d : x   0 .
2  2
Let P( x, y) be an arbitrary point of the parabola. From this point, we
drop a perpendicular onto the directrix d , and let M be the foot of
this perpendicular.Then,

p p 2
d ( P, M )  x  and d ( P, F )  ( x  )  y
2

2 2

The point P( x, y) belongs to the parabola if d ( P, M )  d ( P, F )

p p
or x  = ( x  )2  y 2
2 2

Squaring both sides of the above equality and simplifying, we have

y 2  2 px (2.58)

The equation (2.58) is called the canonical or the standard equation

of the parabola. It can also be written as:

y   2 px (2.59)

All the points of the parabola y 2  2 px lie on the right of y-axis.

x- axis is the axis of symmetry and is called the focal axis.The point
O(0,0) is the vertex of the parabola. The number p is called the
parameter of the parabola: it regulates its opening.

p
The distance d (O, F )  is the focal distance.
2
d (F , M )
The number expressed by: e   1 is called eccentricity of the
d (M , d )
parabola.

The parametric equations of the parabola y  2 px ,are written as:

2

 t2
x 
 2p (2.60)
y  t


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 Block 2: Plane analytic geometry

or

 x  2 p cot 2 
 (2.61)
 y  2 p cot 

The equation of the tangent to the parabola y 2  2 px at the point

T ( x0 , y0 ) is given by:

yy0  p( x  x0 ) (2.62)

2.3.5 Focus-directrix- eccentricity property of

conics
Theorem 3.1: Let ri be the distance from an arbitrary point P( x, y) to
x2 y 2
one of the foci Fi of the ellipse 
E:  1 and d i the distance from
a 2 b2
r
the same point to the corresponding directrix. Then, the ratio i is a
di
r
constant and equals the eccentricity e of the ellipse : i  e ; i  1, 2 .
di
Proof. Consider the left focus F1 ( c, 0) and its corresponding directrix.
a
(d1 ) : x  
e
Let P( x, y) bean arbitrary point of the ellipse. The distancesfrom the

point P to the directrix (d1 ) and its associated focus F1 are given

respectively by:

a
d1  d ( P, (d1 ))  x  ; r1  a  ex (2.63)
e

r1 a  ex
From (2.63) we obtain :  e
d1 x  a
e

If we consider the right focus and the corresponding directrix, we will

find the same results.
Theorem 3.2

Let ri be the distancefrom arbitrary point P( x, y) to one of the foci Fi of

x2 y 2
the hyperbola H :   1 and d i the distance from the same point
a 2 b2

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Module 4: Analytical and projective geometry

ri
toits corresponding directrix (di ) . Then ratio is a constant and
di
r
equals to the eccentricity e of the hyperbola: i  e ; i  1, 2 .
di
Proof. Two cases are considered:

The point P lies on the right branch of the hyperbola.

The distances from P to the directrix ( d 2 ) and its associated
focuss F2 (c, 0) are given respectively by:

a
d 2  d ( P,  d 2 )  x  ; r2  ex  a (2.64)
e
r2 ex  a
From (2.64) we get:  e
d2 x  a
e

The point P lies on the leftt branch of the hyperbola.

The distances from P to the directrix (d1 ) and its associated

focuss F1 ( c, 0) are

given respectively by:

a
d1  d ( P,  d1 )   x  ; r1  ex  a (2.65)
e

r1 ex  a
From (2.65) we get:  e
d1  x  a
e

Remark 3.3

The ellipse, hyperbola and the parabola can be defined in terms of

focus, directrix and eccentricity as the set all points in the plane for

which the ratio of the distance r from any arbitrary point of the set and
a certain fixed point (focus) to the distance d from the same point of
the locus to a certain fixed line (directrix) is a constant value
(eccentricity):
r
e . (2.66)
d

If 0  e  1, we have an ellipse; if e  1 , we have a hyperbolaand if e  1 ,

we havea parabola.

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 Block 2: Plane analytic geometry

2.3.6 The equations of conics in

polar coordinates
Let denote  denote onene of three conics: ellipse, hyperbola and
parabola.

Figure 2.13
In the case of hyperbola, one of its branches will be considered.
Let F be the focus of the conic and (d ) its corresponding directrix. In

the case of the hyperbola, we will consider the focus and the directrix
which are closer to the chosen branch.

Let introduce the polar coordinates (  ,  ) in such a way the pole

coincides with the focus F and the polar axis be perpendicular to the
directrix (d ) (fig 2.13). To obtain the polar equations of the conic  we
r
have to use the relation:  e , where r is the focal radius and d the
d
distance from any point of the conic to the directrix. Since the pole
coincides with the focus we have:
r (2.67)

From fig (2.13) we have:

d  RP  AQ  AF  FQ  AF   cos  (2.68)

( R is the projection of P on the directrix (d ) ).

Let M be a point of the curve  such that the segment FM be

perpendicular to the axis of the curve  and p be the length of FM i.e
p is the half of the latus rectum  (focal parameter). Using (2.68) which
is satisfied for any point of  , for the point M , we have:
FM FM p
 e  NM  
NM e e
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Module 4: Analytical and projective geometry

( N is the projection of M on the directrix (d ) ).

p
Considering that NM  AF , we have AF  .
e
The relations (2.67) and (2.68) lead to:

p
d   cos  (2.69)
e

Replacing in (2.66) r and d by their expressions given by (2.67) and

(2.69) we get:

e.
p
  cos
e

This last equality can be written in thelowing form

p
 (2.70)
1  ecos

Equation (2.70) is called the equation of conics in polar coordinates.

p is the focal parameter and e the eccentricity.

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 Block 2: Plane analytic geometry

Activity 2.3 
1.
a. Derive the equation of the circle circumscribing the triangle whose the
sides are governed by the following equations:
d1  : x  y  8; d 2  : 2x  y  14; d 3  : 3x  y  22
b. Write the parametric equation of the circle
c. Calculate the perimeter and the area of this circle

2. Given the ellipse E : 16 x 2  25 y 2  400  0 , find:

a. The foci; b. the vertices; c. the eccentricity; d. the directrices;
e. the parametric and polar equations

3. Given the hyperbola H : 9 x 2  16 y 2  144  0 . Find:

a. the focci; b. the vertices; c. the eccentricity; d. the directrices;
e. the parametric and polar equations; e. the asymptotes

4. Given the parabola P  3 y 2  8x  0 . Find:

a. the focus; b. the equation of directrix;
c. the parametric and polar equations

Feedback
Try and do this activity on your own. If you meet some difficulties, do not be
discouraged. You can ask for help to your colleagues or your Tutor during weekend
tutorials sessions. If difficulties persist, read the section again and retry the activity.
The answers are provided at the end of this block and you can compare them with
yours. If they are similar, go to the following section.

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Module 4: Analytical and projective geometry

Section 2.4: General equation of quadric

curves
Keywords
2.4.1 Simplification of general equation
Rotation
In a system of rectangular Cartesian coordinates oxy eof the plane
Translation
endowed with an orthonormal frame F (O; e1 , e2 ) , the general equation
of a the second order curve is described by Orthogonal invariant
Centre
( x, y )  a11 x 2  2a12 xy  a22 y 2  2a13 x  2a23 y  a33  0 (2.71)
Line of centre
where, a11  a12  a22  0 .
2 2 2 t

In terms of quadratic and linear forms, the equation (2.71) can be

written
( x, y)  q( x, y)  2l ( x, y)  a33  0 (2.72)

Where, q ( x, y )  a11 x  2a12 xy  a22 y and

2 2
l ( x, y)  a13 x  a22 y
arequadratic and linear formsassociated with the cquadric curve. In
matrix notations, (2.71) takes the form:
( x, y )  X T AX  2 BX  a33  0 (2.73)

 a11 a12 
where A   is the matrix of the quadratic form q( x, y) and
 a12 a22 
B   a13 a23  , X   x y
T

or in compact form

ˆ ˆ 0
( x, y )  Xˆ T AX (2.74)

x  a11 a12 a13 

 
Where, Xˆ  y and Aˆ  a a22 a23 
   12
 1   a13 a23 a33 

Introducing a new coordinates system Oxy associated with the

orthonormal frame F (O, e1, e2 ) , the systems x, y and x, y are
connected by:

 x   p11 p12   x   p1 
 y   p 
p22   y  p2 
   21

or

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 Block 2: Plane analytic geometry

 x   p11 p12 p1   x 
 y   p p22 p2   y
   21
1   0 0 1  1 
(2.75)

 p11 p12 
where P   and OO  p1 e1  p2 e2 . The matrix P is the
 p21 p22 
transition matrix from the basis e1 , e2  to the basis e1, e2  and is
orthogonal.Geometrically it describes a rotation or a rotation followed
by a reflection in direction of the vector e1 and can be written in one of
two following forms:

cos   sin   cos  sin  

 sin  or
 cos    sin   cos  

 x  x   p1 
The transformation         represents geometricallyr the
  y  y   p2 
translation of axes of coordinates from the old origin to the new one.
We observe that the translation does not affect the linear part of the
quadric curve.
Passing from the system Oxy to the system Oxy under the rotation
through the angle 

 x  cos   sin    x 
 y    sin  cos    y
, the general equation (2.71) of the curvein
  
thenew system is written as

( x, y) : a11

 x2  2a12
 xy  a22
 y2  2a13
 x  2a23
 y  a33
 0 (2.76)

The matrix A   aij   of the quadratic part of ( x, y) is given

22
by:

cos   sin    a11 a12  cos   sin  

A  
 sin  cos    a12 a22   sin  cos  

Therefore, we have:

  a11 cos 2   2a12 cos  sin   a22 sin 2 

a11

  a11 sin 2   2a12 cos  sin   a22 cos 2 

a22

  (a22  a11 ) cos  sin   a12 (cos 2   sin 2  )

a12

  a13 cos   a23 sin 

a13

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Module 4: Analytical and projective geometry

  a13 sin   a23 cos 

a13

  a33
a33

Assuming a12  0 , then choosing the angle  :

2a12
tg 2  (2.77)
a11  a22

We obtain a system of coordinates in which the matrix A is diagonal i.e

 a 0
A   11 and
 
 0 a22
( x, y) is written as

( x, y)  a11

 x2  a22
 y2  2a13
 x  2a23 y  a33
 0 (2.78)

2.4.2 Classification of the second order curves

Theorem 4.1

The general equation of a quadric curvee can be reduced to the one

ofthe following nine forms:

x2 y 2
1.  1: Real ellipse
a 2 b2
x2 y 2
2.   1 : Imaginary ellipse
a 2 b2
x2 y2
3.  0: Conjugate complex intersecting lines
a 2 b2
x2 y 2
4.   1 : Hyperbola
a 2 b2
x2 y 2
5.  0: Real intersecting lines
a 2 b2
6. y 2  2 px : Parabola

7. y2  k 2  0 : Real distinct parallel lines

8. y2  k 2  0 : Conjugate complex parallel lines

9. y2  0 : Coincident real lines

Proof: Passing from the system of coordinates Oxy to the

system Oxy under he rotation through the angle  defined by (2.77),
the general equation of the curve (2.71) is transforming into the
equation

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 Block 2: Plane analytic geometry

( x, y)  a11

 x2  a22
 y 2  2a13
 x  2a23
 y  a33
 0 (2.79)

Therefore, this rotation eliminates the cross term of the quadratic part
of 
Two scenarios can ocur:

  a22
Scenario 1: a11  0

 x 2  a22
The equation a11  y 2  2a13 x   2a23
 y   a33
 0

2 2
 a   a  a2 a
  x  13   a22
can be written: a11   y  23   a33
  13  23  0
  
a11   
a22  a22
a11 


a13 a
The translations of coordinates axes by: x  x  ; y  y  23 leads

a11 
a22
to:

 x2  a222 y2  a33

a11   0 (2.80)

  a22
where a22   a11
 a11  ; a33
  a33


The equation (2.80) represents one of the equations (1) - (5) of the
theorem (4.1).
  a22
Scenario 2: a11   0 ; a11
2  a222  0

 0
Without loosing the generality, lett a11


a23
The translation given by: x  x ; y  y  ; transform our equation

a22
into the form

a222 y2  2a13

 x  a33
  0 (2.81)


a33
  0 , performing the transformations x  x 
If in (2.81); a13 we
2a13
obtain
 y2  a13
a22  x  0 (2.82)

The equation (2.81) stands for the equation (6) in theorem 4.1
  0 , then (2.81) becomes
If in (2.22) a13

 y 2  a33
a22   0 (2.83)

The equation (2.83) represents one of the equations (7), (8), and (9) in
theorem 4.1.

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Module 4: Analytical and projective geometry

Remark 4.1
Introducing a new denotation of the axes of the co-ordinates or by
changing their orientations, we can assume that: in (1) – (3): a 2  b2 ; in

(6): p  0 ; in (7) and (8): k 2  0
The equations (1) – (9) are canonical or standard equations of the
quadric curves.

2.4.3 Orthogonal invariants

ˆ ˆ  0 (4.4) be the general equation of quadric curve
Let ( x, y )  Xˆ T AX
ˆ and
in matrix notations,   det A   det A .
Passing from the coordinates system Oxy to the s coordinates

system Oxy via the matrix

 p11 p11 p1 
Pˆ   p21 p22 p2  , det P  1 , the equation (4.1)
 0 0 1 
T ˆ ˆ
becomes ( x, y)  Xˆ  A X   0 ,and the matrices A and A are
ˆ   Pˆ T AP
connected with the matrices A and A by A ˆ ˆ and A  PT AP

Proposition 4.1

Under theorthogonal transformation X   PX , the quantities  and

 are not modified i.e    and     .
Proof.   det Aˆ   det( Pˆ AP
T ˆ ˆ
)  det Aˆ  (det Pˆ ) 2  det Aˆ  (det P ) 2  det Aˆ  .

   det A  det( PT AP)  det A  (det P)2  det A   .

Thus the quantities  and  are orthogonal invariants.

Proposition 4.2

The trace of the matrix A , denoted by S  a11  a22 is also an orthogonal

invariant.

 a11 a12   p11 p21   a11 a12   p11 p12 

Proof: A   
 a12    p12
a22 p22   a12 a22   p21 p22 

  p12 ( p12 a11  p22 a12 )  p22 ( p12 a12  p22a22 )

a22

S   a11
  a22
  a11 ( p112  p122 )  a22 ( p21
2
 p22
2
)  2a12 ( p11 p21  p12 p22 )  a11  a22  S .

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 Block 2: Plane analytic geometry

Proposition 4.3

The characteristicpolynomial of the quadratic part of  is an orthogonal

invariant.
Proof: Let us denote the characteristic polynomial by PA ( ). By

definition,

PA ( )  det( A   I 2 )   2  S   

We have,

PA ( )  det( A   I 2 )  det( PT AP  PT  P)  det( PT ( A   I ) P)  det( A   I 2 )  PA ( )

The invariance of PA ( ) results also from the invariance of the

quantities S and  . The roots 1 and 2 of the characteristic polynomial

PA ( ) are also orthogonal invariants.

Proposition 4.4

a22 a23 a11 a13

Under the rotation, the quantity K   is not modified
a23 a33 a13 a33
Proof: The rotation of the axes of the co-ordinates about the origin
throughthe angle  :

 x  cos   sin    x 
 y    sin  cos    y
  

transforms the coefficients of quadric curve according to the formulas

a13  a13 cos   a23 cos 


  a13 sin   a23 cos 
a23 (2.84)
 a  a
 33 23

Using (4.13) and the invariance of S  , weget:

K   a33
 (a11  a22
 )  a13
2  a23
2  a33 S   (a13 cos   a23 sin  ) 2 
(a13 sin   a23 cos  ) 2  a33 (a11  a22 )  a132  a23
2
K

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Module 4: Analytical and projective geometry

Remark 4.3

K is not modifiedeither under reflection in one axis wit respect to

another. In general under translation K is not invariant and for this

reason it is called a semi orthogonal invariant.
Proposition 4.5

If     0 , then K is an orthogonal invariant.

Proof: We have to prove that passing from the system Oxy to the

system Oxy , K is invariant

Let us introduce two intermediate systems of coordinates Oxy  and

Oxy  : The system Oxy  is obtained from system Oxy under
rotation through a certain angle around O and the system Oxy is
obtained from the system Oxy translating the origin by the
vector OO .
From the proposition 4.4, it follows that passing from the system Oxy
to the system Oxy and from the system Oxy to the system Oxy ,
K remains invariant. We have to prove that during the translation of
the system Oxy to the system Oxy , K remains invariant. The
system Oxy is obtained from the system Oxy under the rotation
through a certain angle which eliminates the coefficient a12 of the
general equation of th curve (2.71).In this system, the matrix A of the
 a11 0 
quadratic part is diagonal i.e. A    .Thus,   det A  a11a12 .
 0 a22 
From   0 , either a11  0 or a22  0

Assuming a11  0 , in the system Oxy , the matrix  has the form:

0 0 a13 
Aˆ   0 a22 a23 
 a13 a23 a33 

ˆ  0 , it follows a  0 .Thus, in the system Oxy , the

From   det A 33

quadratic part of  has the form: q  x , y   a 22 y   2a 23 y   a 33

2

Under translation the x  x  a; y  y  b ,

we have: q ( x, y)  a22 y  2(a22b  a22 ) y   a22b  2a23b  a33  0 .
2 2

In the system Oxy , K has the form

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 Block 2: Plane analytic geometry

 a22 a23  a22b 

K   det  2

 a23  a22b a33  2a23b  a22b 
 a22 a33  2a22 a33b  a22
2 2
b  a23
2
 2a22 a23b  a22
2 2
b  a22 a33  a23
2
K

We conclude that if     0 , then K is an orthogonal invariant.

2.4.4 Classification of the quadric curves in

terms of orthogonal invariants
In simplification of the general equation of the quadric curve by means
of rotation and translation we saw that its general equation can take
one of three forms:

a11 x 2  a22 y 2  a33  0 (2.85)

a22 y 2  2a13 x  0 (2.86)

a22 y 2  a33  0 (2.87)

The matrix  associated with each of the three forms is written as:

 a11 0 0 0 0 a13  0 0 0
ˆ  0 a
I. A 0  ; II. Aˆ   0
 a22 0  ; III. Aˆ  0 a22
 0 
 22

 0 0 a33   a13 0 0  0 0 a33 

The form I is characterised by:   a11a22  0 ,;   a11a22 a33 2  a22

The equation (2.85) is written as


( x, y ) : 1 x 2  2 y 2  0 (2.88)


The form II is characterised by:   0 ,;    a22 a132  0 ; S  a22


From the expressions of  and S , we get: a13  
S

The equation (2.86) can be written as:

 
Sy 2  2 x  0  y 2  2 3 x  0 (2.89)
S S

The form III is characterised by:     0.

From the proposition 4.5, we know that if     0 , and then K is an
orthogonal invariant. In our case, K  a22 a33 ; S  a22 .Thus K  a33 S and
the equation (2.87) is written as

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Module 4: Analytical and projective geometry

K K
Sy 2   0  y2  2  0 (2.90)
S S

We can summarize all results in the following table:

In terms of the invariant  , there are three types of second order
curves: ellipse:   0 ; hyperbola:   0 and parabola   0 . If   0 ,
degenerating curves occur.

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 Block 2: Plane analytic geometry

Various cases Conditions on the Canonical equation Cuven0

invariants:  ; ; S ; K

I  0 0 S  0 1 x 2  2 y 2 

0 x2 y 2 (1)
  1
a 2 b2
a11 x 2  a22 y 2  a33  0
S  0  x2 y 2 (2)
1 x 2  2 y 2  0   1
 a 2 b2

0 1 x 2  2 y 2 

0 x2 y2 (3)
  0
a 2 b2

0 1 x 2  2 y 2 

0 x2 y 2 (4)
   1
a 2 b2

 0 0 1 x 2  2 y 2 

0 x2 y 2 (5)
 1
 a 2 b2

II  0 0  y 2  2 px (6)
y2  2 x
a22 y 2  2a13 x  0 S3

III  0 0 K 0 K y2  a2 (7)

y2  0
a22 y 2  a33  0 S2

K 0 K y2  a2 (8)
y2  0
S2

K 0 K y2  a2 (9)
y2  0
S2

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Module 4: Analytical and projective geometry

Activity 2.5 
1. By a suitable transformation of axe x, simplify each of the following equations of
conics and determine the nature of each conic

a.l ( x, y) : 5x2  xy  8 y 2  32 x  56 y  80  0
b.l x, y  : 7 x 2  16xy  23 y 2  14x  16 y  218  0
c.l x, y  : 4 x 2  4 xy  y 2  2 x  14 y  7  0
2. Using the technique of orthogonal invariant, reduce to the standard form the
equations of conics given in question 1.

Feedback
Try and do this activity on your own. If you meet some difficulties, do not be
discouraged. You can ask for help to your colleagues or your Tutor during weekend
tutorials sessions. If difficulties persist, read the section again and retry the activity.
The answers are provided at the end of this block and you can compare them with
yours.If they are similar, go to the next section.

Section 2.5: Asymptotic direction and Keywords

diameter of quadric curves Asymptotic direction

Tangent
2.5.1 Centre of a quadric curve
Diameter
Conjudate directions
Let given the general equation of a quadric curve:
Centret
( x, y )  a11 x  2a12 xy  a22 y  2a13 x  2a23 y  a33  0
2 2
(2.91) Centre
Line of centret
Definition 1: A point P ( x0 , y0 ) is called the center of the curve (2.91),
if the origin of coordinates is placed at the point P ( x0 , y0 ) the equation
(2.91) looses its linear part.
The translation of the origin of coordinates to the point P ( x0 , y0 )
corresponds to the following transformations of coordinates: x  x  x0 ;
y  y  y0 which lead to

( x  x0 , y  y0 )  a11
 x2  2a12
 xy  a22
 y2  2a13 x  2a23 y  a33
 0

(2.92)

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 Block 2: Plane analytic geometry

  a11; a12
Where: a11   a12 ; a22
  a22

  a11 x0  a12 y0  a13 ; a23

a13   a12 x0  a22 y0  a23

  ( x0 , y0 )
a33

  a23
From the definition 1, P ( x0 , y0 ) is the center of  if a13  0.
This condition is equivalent to the system of equations:

a11 x0  a12 y0  a13  0

 (2.93)
a12 x0  a22 y0  a23  0

In terms of partial derivatives, (2.93) can also be written:

 1 ( x, y )
 2 x ( x0 , y0 )  0
 1 ( x, y ) (2.93’)
 ( x0 , y0 )  0
 2 y

Definition 2: The point M  is symmetric to the point M with respect

to the pointt C if

CM   CM .The point C is the center of the symmetry of the curve if

each time the curve contains the point M , it also contains its
symmetric M  .

Theorigin of coordinates O is the centre of symmetry of the curve

( x, y) =0 if and only if ( x, y) =0 implies ( x,  y)  0 . Each center of
the (5.1) curve is its centre of the symmetry. The relations (2.93) imply
that the centres of the curve (2.91) are the common points of the lines
(d1 ) : a11 x  a12 y  a13  0 and (d2 ) : a21 x  a22 y  a23  0 (2.94)

Three scenarios can occur:

1. The two lines are concurrent : the cconic has unique centreand it is
called a central conic
2. The two lines are parallel : the curve has no centre
3. The two lines coincide: the curve has a line of centres.

a11 a12
In terms of othogonal invariants invariants  and
a12 a22
a11 a12 a13
  a12 a22 a23
a13 a23 a33

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Module 4: Analytical and projective geometry

we have the following theorem :

Theorem 5.1. A quadric curve

( x, y )  a11 x 2  2a12 xy  a22 y 2  2a13 x  2a23 y  a33  0

i. has unique center iff   0

ii. has no centre iff   0 and   0
iii. has a line of centre iff   0 and   0
Proof

i. ( x, y) has unique centre iff (2.94) possesses unique

solution and this can occur iff
a11 a12
  a11a12  a122    0
a21 a22
ii. ( x, y) has no center iff (2.94) is an inconsistent system
a a a
: 11  12  13    0;   0 .
a21 a22 a23
iii. ( x, y) has a line of centers iff (2.94) possesses an infinite
of solutions and this can occur iff
a11 a12 a13
      0.
a21 a22 a23
Central quadric curves the two ellipses: real and imaginary, the
hyperbola and the two concurrent lines: real or imaginary.The parabola
has no centre.The quadric curves with a line of centres are the parallel
lines : real or imaginary and a line counted twice.

2.5.2 Asymptotic direction of a quadric curve

Let consider the relative position of the curve:
( x, y)  q( x, y)  2 ( x, y)  a33  0 (2.91)

where q ( x, y )  a11 x  2a12 xy  a22 y  0 , ( x, y )  a13 x  a23 y and the line

2 2

 x  x0  u
(d ) :  (2.95)
 y  y0   v

Let adopt the following notations:

Fi ( x, y)  ai1 x  ai 2 y  ai 3 , i  1, 2 (2.96)

The common points of (2.91) and (2.95) are defined

by ( x0  u, y0  v)  0 , which leads to the quadratic equations in

varible  given by

A 2  2B  C  0 , (2.97)
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 Block 2: Plane analytic geometry

where A  q(u, v); B  F1 ( x0 , y0 )u  F2 ( x0 , y0 )v, C  ( x0 , y0 ) , (2.98)

Definition. The line (2.95) has an asymptotic direction with respect to

the curve (2.91) if A  0 .
For a line with non asymptotic direction wit respect to the curve (2.91)
the equation (2.97) is a quadratic equation which can have two real
roots or a double root or non real roots.
In the first case, the line (2.95) cuts the curve (2.91) in two distinct
pointss, in the second case, they have only one common point and in
the last case the line and the curve do not have a common pont.
Definition: A tangent to the curve (2.91), is a line with non asymptotic
direction cutting the curve in a single point i.e. the equation (2.95)
possesses a double root.
Let establish the equation of the tangent line (d ) to the curve (2.91) at
the point P ( x0 , y0 ) and let the line (d ) be governed by equation
(2.95).Since ( x0 , y0 )   , then ( x0 , y0 )  0 and the equation (5.7) takes
the form:
 ( A  2B)  0 (2.99)

Since (d ) is tangent to ( x, y)  0 a the point P ( x0 , y0 ) , then the equation

(2.99) possesses a double root equals zero i.e   0 . This occurs iff
B  F1 ( x0 , y0 )u  F2 ( x0 , y0 )v  0
v F (x , y )
We have   1 0 0 and the equation of the line (2.95) written in
u F2 ( x0 , y0 )
x  x0 y  y0
the canonical form (d ) :  becomes
u v
x  x0 y  y0
 or
F2 ( x0 , y0 ) F1 ( x0 , y0 )
F1 ( x0 , y0 )( x  x0 )  F2 ( x0 , y0 )( y  y0 )  0 (2.100)

Using notations of Fi ( x, y) given by (2.96) and taking into account

that ( x0 , y0 )  0 ,the equation(2.100) becomes :

(a11 x0  a12 y0  a13 ) x  (a21x0  a22 y0  a22 ) y  a13 x0  a23 y0  a33  0 (2.101)

The equation (2.101) is the equation of the tangent to the

curve ( x, y)  0 at the point ( x0 , y0 ) .


v
Remark: The slope of the tangent to the curve  at the point ( x0 , y0 )
u
1 
( x0 , y0 )
  2 x
v F (x , y )
can be otained using the formula  1 0 0
u 1  F2 ( x0 , y0 )
( x0 , y0 )
2 y

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Module 4: Analytical and projective geometry

For a line with asymptotic direction with respect to the curve (2.91), the
equation (2.97) takes the form: 2B  C  0 .
If B  0 , we have a single root and the line (2.95) cuts the curve (2.91)
in one point but it is not tangent to the curve.
If B  0 and C  0 , there is no root and the line (2.95) and the curve
(5.1) do not have a common point..
If B  C  0 , the equation is identically verified and the line (2.95)
belongs to the curve (2.91).
Definition. A line having an asymptotic direction with respect to the
curve and does not have a common point with the curve is called
asymptote to the line.

The solutions of the equation q(u, v)  0  a11u  2a12uv  a22 v  0 are

2 2

u a12  
given by the following formulas :  , if
v a11
u a12  
a11  0;  , if a22  0
v a22
If a11  a22  0 , the equation q(u, v)  0 ,is writtent 2a12uv  0 and the
asymptotic direction is given by : (u : v)  (0 :1) or (u : v)  (1: 0) .

a11 a12
Depending on the sign of   , three cases can occur:
a12 a22

If   0 , the curve (2.91) is parabolic type and possesses one

asymptotic direction.
If   0 , the curve (2.91) is elliptic type and does not have asymptotic
direction.
If   0 , the curve (2.91) is hyperbolic type and possesses two
asymptotic directions.

2.5.3 Diameter of a quadric curve

Consider again the
curve ( x, y )  a11 x  2a12 xy  a22 y  2a13 x  2a23 y  a33  0
2 2
(5.102)

 x  x0  u
and a nonasymptotic line (d ) :  to the curve ( x, y) .
 y  y0   v

Let P1 ( x1 , y1 ) and P2 ( x2 , y2 ) be two common points of (d ) and ( x, y) .

The point P0 ( x0 , y0 ) is the mid point of the chord P1 P2 in (u : v) direction

if and only if
x1  x2 y  y2
x0  , y0  1 , (2.103)
2 2
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 Block 2: Plane analytic geometry

Noting that
x1  x0  1u; y1  y0  1v; x2  x0  2u; y2  y0  2v

1  2
Injecting the latter values in (2.103), we obtain : u0 ;
2
1  2
v  0.
2
Since u and v are the coordinates of the direction vector of the line
(d ) ,they can not vanish simultaneously and this means that the
condition (2.103) is equivalent to
1  2  0 (2.104)

Since 1 and 2 are the roots of the equation A 2  2B  C  0 , we

2B
have 1  2  
A
and the relation (5.13) is equivalent to B  0 , which can be written as

F1 ( x0 , y0 )u  F2 ( x0 , y0 )v  0 (2.105)

The formulas (2.105) provide the conditions characterizing the point

P ( x0 , y0 ) which is the mid point of the chord P1 P2 in u : v direction.

Consider all lines (di ) with the same non asymptotic direction (u : v) to
the curve (2.102) and let Pi ( x0i , y0i ) be the mid points of their
corresponding chords.
The coordinates ( x0 i , y0 i ) verify (2.105): F1 ( x0i , y0i )u  F2 ( x0i , y0i )v  0 .
We have: (a11 x0i  a12 y0i  a13 )u  (a21 x0i  a22 y0i  a23 )v  0 (2.106)

Adopting the notations x  x0i and y  y0i , we

have: (a11 x  a12 y  a13 )u  (a21 x  a22 y  a23 )v  0 or

(d ) : (a11u  a21v) x  (a12u  a22v) y  (a13u  a23v)  0 (2.107)

The equation (2.107) is an equation of a certain line (d ) which is the

locus of the mid points of the chords of line having the non asymptotic
direction (u : v) to the curve ( x, y) .

The line (d ) given by (2.107) is called the diameter of the curve (2.91)
and its direction is conjugate to the direction (u : v) .The center of the
curve ( x, y) verifies the equation (2.107) whatever the direction
(u : v) ;this means that the diameter of a central curve passes through
its center.

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Module 4: Analytical and projective geometry

Activity 2.5 
1. Given the following quadric curve

C( x, y) : 3x2  7 xy  4 y 2  5x  2 y  6  0
Find:
a. The equations of the tangent to the curveat the point P(0,1)
b. The equations of its asymptotes

2. Write down the equations of the diameter passing through the midpoint of the
chord of ellipse obtained by intersection of the ellipse and the line given
respectively by equations:

E  x, y  :12 x 2  16 y 2  192  0;( d ) : 3 x  2 y  6  0

Feedback
Try and do this activity on your own. If you meet some difficulties, do not be
discouraged. You can ask for help to your colleagues on your Tutor during weekend
tutorials sessions. If difficulties persist, read the section again and retry the activity.
The answers are provided at the end of this block and you can compare them with
yours.

Block summary
This block focused on reviewing analytical geometry studied in
secondary school and on the systematic classification of the second
order curves. The classification was done using the techniques of
orthogonal transformation and orthogonal invariant.The equations of
the centre, asymptotic directions and diameter of a quadric curve given
its general equation has been established

References
Efimov, N. (1976), Eléments de géométrie analytique. Ed. Mir.
Fedorchk, V. (1990),Course of Analytical Geometry and Linear Algebra,
Mir Publishers.

Hakizimana Th. (2013), Linear and multilinear algebra. KIE

Kayoya J.BJ. &Hakizimana ,Th. &UwimanaC.(2010), Fundamental
mathematics II, KIE

Page 70
 Block 2: Plane analytic geometry

Kindle, J.H. (1950), Plane and Solid Geometry, Schaum’s Outline

Series, McGraw-Hill Book Company
Monier, J.M. (1996), Algébre I, J’intégre, Dunod.
Nzotungicimpaye J. & J.D. Jairu (2006), Géometrie analytique, KIE
Postinikov, M. (1981,Leçons de géométrie, Ed.Mir.
Yakovlev, G et all. (1982), Geometry, Mir Publishers

 Answers to activities in this block

Activity 2.1
1. Applying the formula

d P, Q   12   22  2 1  2 cos 2  1  , we have:

  
d P, Q   5 2  8 2  2  5  8 cos    7
 4 12 
2.
a. The perimeter P of the triangle P1 , P2 , P3 give by:

P  d P1 , P2   d P2 , P3   d P1 , P3 

Thus
2
P  3  10    2  5   6  3   5  2    6  10    5  5  
2 2 2 2 2


 2 2  58

b.The area A of the triangle P3  x3 , y 3  is given by:

A
1
x1  x2  y1  y 2   x2  x3  y 2  y3   x3  x1  y3  y1 
2

For our case, we have:

A
1
10  3 5  2  3  62   5  6  10  5  5  29
2
c.The centroid G of the triangle is given by :
 x  x 2  x3 y1  y 2  y3 
G 1 , 
 3 3 
 10  3  6 5  2 5   19 2 
Therefore, we have G ,  , 
 3 3   3 3

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Module 4: Analytical and projective geometry

Activity 2.2
1. Equations of AC

AC  0,4    4,0   4,4 

 The vector equations of AC are given by:

AC : v  A   AC
 The parametric equations of AC are:

 x    4  4
AC :         
 y  0   4
 The canonical equations of AC are:
x4 y
AC : 
4 4
 The Cartesian equation of AC are:
AC : x  y  4 or AC : y  x  4
 The normal equations of AC is
1 1 4
AC : x y  0 or
2 2 2
 7   7 
AC :  Cos  x   sin y  2 2  0
 4   4 
 The polar equations of AC are:

2 2
Ac :  
 7 
cos  
 4 
Equations of BC

BC  0,4   4,0    4,4 

The vector equations of BC are:

BC : v  B   BC
 The parametric equations of BC are:

 x 0 4
BC :         
 y 4 4

 The canonical equations of BC are:

x y4
BC : 
4 4

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 Block 2: Plane analytic geometry

 The caresian equation of BC are:

BC : x  y  4  0 or y   x  4
 The normal equation of B is
x 1    
BC :  y  2 2  0 or BC :  cos  x   sin  y  2 2  0
2 2  4  4
 The polar equations of BC are:

2 2
BC : 
 
cos   
4 
2. The height dropped from B is perpendicular to the side AC .i.e
B  AC
The equations of the height hB are give by:

hB  y   x  k , since AC  y  x  4
To find k, we have to use the fact that B  hB

Thus 0  4  k  k  4

Therefore hB  y   x  4  AC

3. The length of hB is given by:

hB  d B, AC   4
Using the formula of the distance between a point a straight
line:

Ax0  By0  C
d  P  x0 , y0  , Ax  By  C  0   ,
A2  B 2

we have:

404
hB  d B, AC   4 2
12   1
2

We can also find the length of hB using

404
hB  d B, Ac   4 2
12   1
2

4. The angles of the triangle are:


ĉ =  CA, CB   . Since CA : y  x  4 : CB : y   x  4
2

Taking into account that AC  BC  4 2

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Module 4: Analytical and projective geometry

ˆ  Bˆ  
We have: A
4

Activity 2.3
1.
a. Solving these equations in pairs, the vertices of the triangle
are given by:
A  d1   d 2   6,2 : B  d1   d 3   7,1 : C  d 2   d 3   8,2
Substituting the coordinates of these points in the general
equation of the circle:

x 2  y 2  2mx  2ny  p  0 ,
we have

12m  4n  p  40

14m  2n  p  50
16m  4n  p  68

Solving this system of equation, we get:
m  3, n  2 : p  12
Substituting these values, in the general equation of the circle,
we get:

 : x 2  y 2  6 x  4 y  12  0
b. To find the parametric equations of this circle, we have to
calculate the centre and the radius

 :  x  3   y  2   5 2
2 2

Thus c3,2, R  5
The parametric equations of the circle are given by:

 x  3  5 cos t
c3,2, R  5 : 
 y  2  5 sin t
c. The perimeter C and area A of the circle are given by:
c  2R  10
A  R 2  25
2. The standard equation of the ellipse

E : 16 x 2  25 y 2  400 is written as follows

x2 y2
E:  1
52 42

In this case a  5 : b  4 and c  a 2 .b 2  9  3

a. The focci of the ellipse are:

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 Block 2: Plane analytic geometry

F1  c,0   3,0 ; F2 c,0  3,0

b. The vertices are given:
by:
A1  a, 0   5,0, A2 a,0  5,0 : B1 0,b  0,4 : B2 0, b  0,4

c 3
c. The eccentricity is given by e    0.6
a 5
d. The equations of directrices are:

a2 a 2 25
d1  : x     ; d 2  : x  
25
c 3 c 3
e. The parametric equations are:

 x  a cos t t  x  5 cos t
 
 y  b sin t  y  4 sin t
The polar equation are:

p b 2 16
 , where p  
1  cos a 5
16
5 16
Thus   
3 5  3 cos 
1  cos 
5
3. The standard equation of the hyperbola is given by :
x2 y2
H:  1
4 2 32

In this case a  4, b  3 and c  a2  b2  5

a. The foci of the hyerbola are: F1  c,0   5,0; F2 c,0  5,0

b. The vertices are given by A1  a,0   4,0; A2 a,0  4,0

c 5
c. The eccentricity is given by e  
a 4
d. The directrices are:
2
a 2 16
d1  : x   a 
16
; d 2  : x  
c 5 c 5
e. The parametric equation are :

 x  a cht  x  4cht
 
 y  b sht  y  3sht
The polar equations are:

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Module 4: Analytical and projective geometry

p b2 9
 , where p  
1  e cos  a 4
9
4 9
Thus   
5 4  5 cos
1  cos
4
f. The equation of asymptotes are:
b 3
0. A1 : y   x   x;
a 4
b 3
0. A2 : y  x x
a 4
8
The standard equation of the parabola is y 2  x
3
8 4
Thus 2 p   p
3 3
 p  2 
a. The focus is given by: F  ,0    ,0 
 2  3 
b. The equation of the directrix is given by:

d  : x  p

2
2 3
c. The parametric equations are:

 t2  3t 2
x  x 
 2p   8
y  t y  t
 

The polar equations are:

4
p 3 4
  
1  cos 1  cos 3  3 cos

Activity 2.4
1.
a. In matrix form, the equation of the conic

l x, y  : 5x 2  4 xy  8 y 2  32x  56 y  80  0
can be written as:

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 Block 2: Plane analytic geometry

5 2  16  x 

x, y  : x y 1 2 8  28   y  0
 
 16  28 80 1 

5 2
  36  0 .
2 8
The nature of the conic is the ellipse
The center of this conic is the solution of the following system of
equation:

5 x  2 y  16

2 x  8 y  28
Thus, the centre of the conic is c (2, 3)
Translation of axes
To eliminate first degree terms of the equations, we have to use the
following transformation:
x  x  2; y  x  3
Thus, x, y   5x 2  4 xy   8 y  2  36  0
Rotation of axes
To find the angle of rotation, let us use the formula:
2a12 4 4
tan 2    .
a11  a22 5  8 3
2 tan 
Using the formula tan 2  ,
1  tan 
we have: 2 tan 2   3 tan  2  0
Solving this quadratic equation, we have:
3  5  1
tan    2, 
4  2

Using tan  2, the equations for rotation

 x   cos  sin    x  
 y   sin  cos   y  yield
     
 1 2 

 x   5 5   x  
 y    1   y 
   2
 5 
 5

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Substituting into the equation of x, y  , we get :

x, y  : 9 x  4 y  2  36

Finally the standard equation of our ellipse is:

x  2 y  2
x , y  :  2 1
22 3

 7 8  7 x 
x, y  : x y1 8  23  8 
  y  0
 
 7 8  218  1 
b.
7 8
  225  0 . We have a hyperbola
8  23
The centre of this parabola is obtained by solving:

7 x  8 y  7
  x0  1; y 0  0; Thus c1,0
8 x  23 y  8
Translation of axes
x  x  1; y  y
Substituting into the equation x, y  , the first degree terms of
x, y  are removed. We have:
x, y   7 x 2  16xy   23 y  2  225  0
Rotation
2a12 8
To find  , use tan 2  
a11 a 22 15

This leads to the equation 4 tan 2   15 tan  4  0

1
This equation has two roots: tan   ; tan   4
4
Using the first solution, the equations for rotations are:

 4 1   x  
   
 x   cos  sin    x    17 17   

 y  sin  cos   y   
     1 4   
   
 17 17   y 
Using the transformation
4 1 1 4
x  x   y ; y   x   y ,
17 17 17 17
we have x, y   9 x  25 y   225  0
2 2

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Therefore, the standard equation of our hyperbola is :

 2 y 2
x , y  : 2
x
 2 1
5 3
4  2  1  x 
c. x, y  : x y 1  2 1  7   y   0
 1  7 7  1 

4 2
  0 , we have a parabola
2 1
Rotation of axes
The angle of rotation  is given by solving:

2a12 4 4
tan 2   
a11  a 22 4 1 3
This leads equation 2 tan  3 tan  2  0

1
Solving it, we have: tan  2 or tan   
2
1 2
Using tan   2 , we have cos   ; sin  
s 5
The equations for rotations are:

 1  2   x 
  
x   5 5   
 y   1  
   2
  
 5 5   y 
Substituting into x, y  , we have:

x , y  : 5 y  2  6 5 x   2 5 y   7  0

This equation can be written as follows:

  5  
2
 5

x , y  : 5 y  
2 2 5

y     6 5  x   0
 5 5   5 
     
or
2
 2 5  6 5 5
 x , y  :  y   y     x  0
 5  5  5 

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Module 4: Analytical and projective geometry

Translation

, we have x, y  : y  2 

5 5 6 5
Putting: x   x   ; y   y   x 
5 5 5

2. Using the technique of orthogonal invariants, we have:

5 2  16   x 
a. x, y  : x y 12 8  28   y   0
 16  28 80 1 
Calculating the orthogonal invariants we have:
5 2
  36 we have an ellipse
2 8

5 2  16
 2 8  28  1296 No degenerate ellipse
 16  28 80

5  2
PA     2  13  36
2 8 
The eingenvalues of A are the roots of :

2  13  36    9  4  0
1  9 ; 2  4
The standard form of our conic in terms of orthogonal invariants
is given by:

 x, y : 1 x2  2 y2  0.

Therefore

x, y : 9 x 2  4 y 2  36  0 ;

x  2 y  2
which is equivalent to  x , y  :  2 1
22 3
b.

 7 8  7  x 
x, y  : x 
y 1  8  23  8   y   0
 7  8  218 1 
  225;   50 625
7 8
PA       9  25
8  23  

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 Block 2: Plane analytic geometry

2  9; 2  25

Using the formula:  x, y  :  x2  2 y2   0,

we have: x, y  : 9 x 2  25 y  2  225  0

x  2 y  2
Finally x , y  :  2 1
52 3
 4  2  1  x 
c. x, y   x y1  2 1  7  y   0
 1  7 7 1 

  0;   225; s  a11  a22  4  1  5


Using the formula: y   2 x
2

s3
225
we have y   2 x  .
2

53

Therefore  x , y  : y  2  6

5
x 
5

Activity 2.5
1.

Given the curve 3x  7 xy  4 y  5x  2 y  6  0 , and the

2 2
a.
point P(0,1)
Applying the formula
(a11 x0  a12 y0  a13 ) x  (a21x0  a22 y0  a22 ) y  a13 x0  a23 y0  a33  0 ,
Providing the equation of the tangent line to the general equation of the
curve
at the point P ( x0 , y0 ) , we get:

6x  5 y  5  0
b.

 7
3 2   x   2  5 1  x   6  0;   1
C ( x, y )   x y     2   y  0
7 4    
y 4
 2 

The curve is a hyperbola

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Module 4: Analytical and projective geometry

The asymptotic directions of the curve are obtained by solving the

equation

3u 2  7uv  4v2  0
u a12   3.5  0.25 7  1
Applying formula: v
  
a11 3 6

We get two asymptotic directions given by:

1   4
v1    ; v2   
 1 3 
Since asymptotic directions are characterized by:
A  0; B  0; C  0
The condition B=0, leads to:

 7
 3 2   x   5  1 
1  1  7   y    1  1  0;
4   
 2  
 2 
 7
 3 2   x   5   4 
 4 3  7   y    1 3   0
4   
 2  
 2 

Finally, the equations of the two asymptotes are given by:

x  y  3  0; 3x  4 y  14  0
2.
The intersection of the ellipse and the line is found by solving the
system

12 x 2  16 y 2  192  0

3x  2 y  6  0
Solving, we obtain

 3  13 3  3 13   3  13 3  3 13 
P  ,  ; Q  , 
 2 4   2 4 
The mid point of the chord oining the two points is given by:
M (3,1.5)
The diameter of the ellipse conjugate to the given line passes through
the center of the ellipse and the point M(3,1.5). Applying the formula of
the line given its two ponts, we get:
y  0.5x

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