BIOLOGY ∕ GRADE 11

Biological processes in human body

There are many biological methods take place in human body.

Eg: …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

All living organisms organized there body for these biological processes.

Organization of the body of living organisms

The basic ……………… and …………………….. unit of animal body.

A collection of cells originated in same structure and organized for a

particular function.

A collection of tissues organized for a particular function.

System is a collection of organs organized for a particular function.

All system collects together and works in coordination to from the

animal body.

Systems present in human body.

1. ……………………………………
2. ……………………………………
3. ………………………………….…
4. …………………………………….
5. ………………………………….…
6. ……………………………..……..
7. …………………………………….
8. …………………………………….

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BIOLOGY ∕ GRADE 11

.
Digestive System

The organs involved in food digestion, are collectively called digestive system.

 Human digestive system comprises the digestive …………….and………….…………….. associated

with it.
 It starts from the ……………………………………………………. , passing through the body
ending up out the ……………………………………
 Digestion of food is ;
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
 This digestion takes place in two processes. They are
1. Mechanical digestion ─ physical nature of food is alterd
2. Chemical digestion ─ insoluble complex compounds are broken down into simple molecules by
the action of enzymes.
 So all the organs that help in digestion from the digestive system.
 …………………………..……… ,……………………………… & …………………………. are
associated glands.
 The functions of digestive system are

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BIOLOGY ∕ GRADE 11

Buccal cavity
 The mouth is the entrance of the buccal cavity The mouth is guarded by lips.
 ……………….......are used in closing &opening of the mouth, sucking & sipping liquid food.
 Teeth & tongue are situated inside the buccal cavity.
 ………………….. is a muscular structure which address to the bottom of the buccal cavity. It helps
in identification of taste , mixing of food with saliva and swallowing.

 Teeth help in ………………………………………..into small particles.

 Tongue mixes those broken food particles with saliva.
 Saliva is secreted by salivary glands & it is slightly …………………………….
 So digestion in the mouth cavity takes place in basic medium.
 Saliva contains an enzyme called ……………………………… Starch is digested in to maltose sugar
by means of this enzyme.

 Initially digested food is formed in to a bolus and pushed to the

posterior part of the buccal cavity.

Pharynx
 The bolus is pushed in to the pharynx by the tongue.
 Pharynx is a common compartment to both the ………………………………………..system &
…………………………….………… system.
 A cartilaginous flop like structure (epiglottis) prevents food entering from pharynx to trachea.
 When partially digested food particles enter in to pharynx, the opening of the pharynx is closed by the
…………………………….
 This directs the food into esophagus.
 When food is completely swallowed, epiglottis open up, enabling the ……………………. To enter
into the ……………………….

Esophagus(Oesophagus)
 Food goes through the esophagus by means of
…………………………………… of the esophagus wall.
 This pushes the food into …………………………..….

Stomach
 Inside the stomach the medium is ………………………

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BIOLOGY ∕ GRADE 11

What happen to food inside the stomach?

Due to the peristaltic activity of muscles in the stomach wall the
bolus is broken down and mixed well in to a chyme.

 Gastric juice contains 2 enzymes. They are

o …………………………………………
o ………………………………………..
 HCl activates pepsin.
 ……………………………are digested to polypeptides by means
of pepsin,

 Rennin causes the coagulation of milk.

 Food retains inside the stomach about …………………………

 After the digestion inside the stomach pyloric sphincter opens up & sends the
……………………….…….. into ………..…………………………….. at regular intervals.
 Chime contain………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
 Duodenum is the first part of the small intestine.

Q) HOW WE FEEL HUNGREY?

.........................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................

Small intestine
 Comprised of 3 parts
 ……………………………………………
 …………………….……………………..
 ……………………….………………….

1) Duodenum

 Semi-digested food is then passed into the duodenum.

 This is …………………….… shaped structure about 25cm long.
 2 ducts connected to the duodenum. They are ………………………….……. and …………………
 Pancreatic duct brings …………………………………………… from the pancreas.
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BIOLOGY ∕ GRADE 11

 Bile duct brings ……………….. from the gall bladder (a small spherical structure found in the
…………….)
 Liver secretes bile & it is stored in the gall bladder. It is released when necessary.

Role of bile
 To emulsify ……………………. (fats & oils) in chime by mixing them well with water molecules &
after it is emulsified only, lipids can be digested.

 Pancreatic juice contains 3 enzymes.

 1. ……………………… 2. ………………………… 3………………………

 The functions of the above enzymes on target food end products are given below.

2) Jejunum
 Semi-digested food is next passed to the 2nd part of small intestine (jejunum) after duodenum.
 Intestinal juices are secreted there by glands found in intestinal walls.
 Intestinal juice contains 4 enzymes. They are ,
1. …………………………. 3. …………………………
2. …………………………… 4. …………………………

 The functions of the above enzymes are on target food & their end products are given below.

 So partially digested food chime completes its digestion inside the small intestine & produce the
final digestive products.

These are the end product of digestion

Carbohydrates
Protein
Lipids

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BIOLOGY ∕ GRADE 11

3) Ileum

 Last section of small intestine.

 Now the digested food must be…………………….in to the blood. So ileum is modified to absorb the
digested final food products.
 Ileum is long in structure.
 Hence the chime retains inside it for a longer period of time. This provides sufficient time for food to
complete it’s ……………………………. & the necessary nutrients are absorbed to the body.
 Inner wall of the ileum bears finger like structures called “……………..….”
 These villi increase the ………………………. Of absorption.
 These villi are encapsulated with a network of …………………….. & a
……………………………… named ……………………………… is present in the middle of it.

Villi are,

 Surrounded by the digested food

 Villi provide more……………………. to nutrients to be absorbed.
 Wall of the villi , blood capillaries & lacteals are very thin in nature.
 ……………………………………………………………………………………………….. are
absorbed into the blood capillaries & …………………………………………….. are absorbed into
the lacteals through this thin walls. Then it is transported to ……………. Via
…………………………….

Q) How small intestine adapted to increase its efficiency of absorption?

a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.

Large intestine
 Substances which are not absorbed at last stage passes to the large intestine.
 The function of the large intestine is …………………………………….
 Because all the required nutrients except ……………………. Are absorbed to body when they pass
to large intestine.
 Due to further absorption of water in large intestine, resulting the ……………………………… to be
in solid form.
 This faecal matter passes through rectum & periodically ejected from the ……………..

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BIOLOGY ∕ GRADE 11

Disease associated with the digestive system

1) Gastritis

 Gastritis is the inflammation of the

……………………………………. Of the stomach.
 Gastritis may be caused by,
o Intake of highly ……………….……
,……………..………..or……………….. food.
o Not taking meals at the proper time.
o …………………..……….. & intake certain
…………..……………. & ……………….…………
o Psychological stress.
o Abnormal secretion of ………………………. In the stomach.

2) Constipation

 When faecal matter retains inside the intestine for a longer period of time
resulting excess absorption of water causing difficulties in passing out the
faeces is known as constipation.
 Constipation may be caused by,
o ……………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
o …………………………………………………………………………………………………
o …………………………………………………………..……………………………………..

3) Typhoid

 This is caused by bacteria.

 This pathogen is transmitted through food. It enter into the body through mouth while swimming and
bathing in contaminated water.
 Main symptoms of this are ……………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………

7) Diarrhea

 This occur when the intestine are infected with a virus, bacteria or a parasite.
 This is transmitted by the faeces of an infected person
 Releasing faecal matters in liquid state is main symptom.
 Absorption of water in the large intestine will not occur properly.

 Other than above diseases there are several other disease may occur related digestive system
as…………………………………………………………………………………………………

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BIOLOGY ∕ GRADE 11

Respiratory system
 We need to perform our daily activities. There are several life processes that take place inside our
body. Energy required for these processes are generated by ……………………….. of food that we
take in. release of energy through life processes inside the body cells is called
……………………………...
 ……………………………………. is essential for the cellular respiration. This activity also produces
by-products. The oxygen that is transported into the cells
through ………………...
 Respiration in a human is a complex process. It occurs in three
stages.
1.)Gas exchange in external environment and lungs
2.)Gas exchange in alveoli
3.)Cellular respiration

 Components of human respiratory system

 Internal surface of nasal cavity is covered with mucus. There are numerous
cilia present on the lining of the nasal cavity. Bacteria, dust and other wasted
in inhaled air stick on to the mucus and they sent out by the rhythemic
movement of cilia. Excess materials which remain in pharynx removed out
with saliva
 The changes that take place when inhaled air passes through nasal cavity are
………………..…………………..……………
…………………………………………………

The mechanism of ventilation(breathing)

 Inspiration the process of entering ………………………….. into lungs.

 Expiration is the process of sending out of……………………. from lungs.
 Air is passed in and out of the lungs by movement of the …………………………..……… and
…………………………………..………… muscles which alter the volume of the
……………………. There are two sets of intercostals muscles between each pair of ribs.
o The external intercostals……………………….…………..
o Internal intercostals ……………………………..………….

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BIOLOGY ∕ GRADE 11

Inspiration.

 The external intercostals muscles ……………… and the internal

intercostals muscles …………..……
 This pulls the ……………………………….……… up and out. ( you can
easily feel this by placing a hand on your chest as you breathe in)
 At the same time, the diaphragm muscles ………………….…..
 This flatters the diaphragm.
 Both acting increase the ……………………… of the thoracic cavity..
 As a result the pressure in the thoracic cavity, and hence the lungs, is
reduced to less than …………………………….………..
 Air therefore enters the lungs, inflating the alveoli, until the air pressure in
the lung is equal to the …………………………………….

Expiration (Breathing out).

1. The external intercostals muscles …………………and the internal

intercostals ………………….…….
2. The …………………… drops mainly due to its own weight
3. At the same time, the diaphragm …………………………….. the dropping
rib cage forces the diaphragm into a domed shape, pushing it up into the
thoracic cavity.
4. These events reduce the …………….……….. of the thorax and rise its
pressure above that of the atmosphere.
5. Consequently air is forces out of the lungs.

Demonstration of the action of diaphragm

…..…………………………………………..…..……
…………………………………………………....…..
…………………………………………………..……
………………………………………………….…….
………………………………………………..………
………………………………………………………..

 There are ………………….million alveoli present in the human Lungs. On its outside is a dense
network of blood capillaries.
 Accordingly , the respiratory surface of human is the wall of alveoli.

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BIOLOGY ∕ GRADE 11

Characteristics of respiratory surface

o
o
o
o
o

Adaptation of the alveoli for efficient gas exchange.

1.
2.
3.
4.

Cellular respiration

Respiration is the process of oxidation of simple foods within living cells.

Respiration equation

Glucose + Oxygen Carbon dioxide + Water + Energy

Aerobic respiration and Anaerobic respiration

The respiration that takes place inside cells in the presence of oxygen is
called……………………

…………………..

Respiration carried out by organisms without oxygen is known as ………………………………

Anaerobic respiration that takes place in plants is known as "alcohol fermentation"

Glucose Ethyl alcohol + Carbon dioxide + Energy

eg; fermentation of yeast

Animals including human cells also perform anaerobic respiration. It referred to as "lactic acid
fermentation”

Glucose Lactic acid + Energy

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BIOLOGY ∕ GRADE 11

The part of energy which produced during respiration is lost as heat. Rest will be deposited in ATP
( Adenosine Try Phosphate) as chemical energy.

Functions of ATP





Disease and disorders associated with the respiratory

system

1) Lung cancer

 Formation of cancerous cells or uncontrolled cell growth inside

the lungs is known as a
……………………………………………………..……..
 This is a fatal condition as the lungs are the main organ that
involve in ………………………… and providing
…………………………….. to the blood.
 There is high prevalence of lung cancer among people who are addicted to ………………...

2) Bronchitis

 This is an inflammatory state of bronchi due to the action………………….. and…………………...

 Common symptoms are severe cough, voice disorders and breathing difficulties.
 It can lead to ………………….………… if neglected.

3) Tuberculosis

 This is common & deadly infections disease.

 Tuberculosis causing ………………….. bacillus tuberculosis was discovered by Dr.Robert Cock, in
1882.
 Causes of tuberculosis
o ……………………………………………………………….……
o ………………………………………………………….…………..
o ………………………………………………….………………….
o …………………………………………………..………………..
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BIOLOGY ∕ GRADE 11

 This commonly occurs in lungs, while it could infect the other parts of the body too.
 The causing bacteria prevail commonly in dusty places……………………. Enter into lungs through
inhalation.
 When the bacteria grow inside the lungs, the lungs would waste away. The epithelial layer of the
lungs may break and comes out on ………………. Infectious bacteria also would come out with that.
 Prolonged existence of these symptoms may cause holes in the lungs which would
…………………………………….
 Symptoms
o …………………………………………………………….………………..
o ……………….………………………………………….…………………..
o ……………………………………………………….………………………
o ……………………………………………………………….………………..
o ………………………..……………………………………………………………

 ………………………… is given to new born babies in order to prevent this disease.

4) The common cold

 The cause is a ………………………………..…. . There is no special treatment for this.

5) Asthma

 This is a ………………………….disease. Now this has become a common ailment.

 This is an allergic condition. Asthma patients have difficulties in inhaling & exhaling.

6) Silicosis

 This occurs due to inhalation of air containing silicon. They accumulate in alveoli and then lung
tissues get deteriorated gradually.

7)Asbestosis

 This occurs due to inhalation of air containing asbestos particles and fibers. Due to accumulation of
these particles tissues of respiratory tract get destroyed.

Excretory System
Metabolism

 All chemical reactions taking inside a cell are commonly called as …………………….………….
This is an essential process for the existence of life.
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BIOLOGY ∕ GRADE 11

 Some by-products produced during metabolism are needed for the functioning of the body. Still some
products are not needed for the body, which are called……………………… Such as,
o Cellular respiration produces………………………… as an excretory substance.
o Protein metabolism produces ……………………………… waste such as urea acid.
 Accumulation of these waste substances may cause toxic reactions inside the body.
 Removal of excretory products produced during metabolism from the body is called excretion.
 Excretion is carried out through different organs. The main excretory organ of the human body is the
kidney, which excrete the nitrogenous waste.

Organ Excretory substance Excretion product

Lungs
Kidney

Skin
Are faeces an excretory substance?

Feces are the matter that remains unabsorbed after digestion. It is not an end product of cellular metabolism.
Hence, although faeces are an unwanted matter to the system functioning, it is not considered as an excretory
substance. However, bile which is removed along with faeces is a product of cellular metabolism and it is
considered as an excretory substance.

Structure and function of Human Excretory System

 Human excretory system comprises

o Two kidneys
o Two ureters
o Urinary bladder
o Urethra

The human kidney

 This is the major excretory organ

 There are a pair of kidneys in humans
 Now let’s consider structure
of kidney.
 A transverse section of the kidney shows two distinct regions.
o ………………….………..
– outer dark color region
o ……………………………
…- inner pale color region
 It consists of several
…………………. Shaped structures
called ………………………. The tips of
these pyramids are directed towards the
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BIOLOGY ∕ GRADE 11

pelvis which is situated at the concave side of the kidney.

Nephron

 Nephron is the functional unit of the ………………….

 It is the nephron that produces …………………………
 There are about ………….. Million nephrons found inside a kidney.
 Nephron is a ……………… one end of this tube is of a cup shape, known as ………………………
 This bowman’s capsule is located in the cortex region. Other part following the Bowman’s capsule is
situated in the medulla region.
 The tubular section which follows the Bowman’s capsule is coiled up in nature. This forms the
………………….. Region which opens up to the collecting tube. This collecting tube ends up at the
……………….….
 Each afferent arteriole enters into each Bowman’s capsule, where they further divide forming a dense
network of capillaries. It is known as
………………………..………….. .
 These capillaries collect up to from efferent
arterioles.
 Efferent arterioles further divide to from a
network of capillaries encapsulating “U” shaped
……………………………………

Process of urine formation

Urine formation in kidney follows three main
processes,
1.) Ultra filtration
2.) Selective reabsorptiion
3.) Secretion

Ultrafiltration
 The blood pressure inside the gloemerulus is high. Most of the substances in the blood except
………………………… and ……………………… pass through the thin wall of the gloemerulus
into the Bowman’s capsule into nephron.

 This fluid is known as …………………………… and this process is known as ultrafiltration.

 The ………………………. and …………………. are not filtered. They passes through the excurrent
arterioles. Glomerular filterate contain ……………………………………………………
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BIOLOGY ∕ GRADE 11

Selective reabsorptiion

 When glomerular filterate moves along the most of the useful substances absorb again in to the blood
capillaries. This is called …………………………….
 90% water , all glucose , part of amino acid , vitamins , salts , urea , uric acids and medicine reabsorb
in to blood.
 While ……………………………………………………………….
,…………………………………………… and excess ……………….…….. Remains inside the
nephrone. These waste substances form ………. Inside the nephrone. This urine gets collected in
collective tube, which passes into the pelvis.
 The volume of glomerular filterate form during one minute in a healthy adult is about …………. But
95% of it reabsorb when it moves along the nephrone. 100% glucose is reabsorbed in a healthy adult.
In diabetes patients, glucose is not totally reabsorbed. The remaining is released with urine.

Secretion

 Some materials in the blood capillaries associated with nephrone , are secreted in to the tubules of
nephrone.
Eg; Hydrogen ions (H+)……………………………………………..

 Urine enters to ……………………………… from …………………………. and is temporally stored

in bladder. according to the need of urination, it pass out
through …………………..….

Diseases and disorders of the urinary system

1) Renal Failure
 Obstructing the dialysis ( process of filtering the blood
inside the nephrones) is commonly known as
…………………………………..
 If this happens during a short period of time, it is known as an
………………………
 Prolonged renal failure for a long period of time is known as
……………………………………
 Kidney transplant would rectify this situation.

2) Stones in the bladder

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BIOLOGY ∕ GRADE 11

 Crystallization of substances such as …………………………cause stone in the

…………………………………………….……..
 This may cause severe pains when the ………………….………… get blocked.
 These stones could be removed by proper medication or by a surgery.
 …………………………………. Is a modern technique of removing stones in the bladder.
 ……………………………… is used to do this.
 In this method, high frequency ………………….. Waves are focused on the stone. This would break
the large stones into small particles allowing them to pass through along with ……………………..

3) Nephritis

 Nephritis or swellings of kidney occur due to infections and toxins.

 During nephritis, it affects glomerulus and also uriniferous tubules.
 Due to damages occur in glomerulus the volume of blood through it reduces.
 Therefore the waste materials remaining within the body become high. Sometimes due to the
damages red blood cells, proteins can be passed in to the glomeruler filterate.

Circulatory system

BLOOD

 Blood is a ……………………. Tissue. It consists of several types of cells,

suspended in a fluid medium called plasma.
 The function of blood tissue is …………….……… ,
………………………. and …………..….………….
 The main parts of blood are

1. Blood plasma 2. Blood cells

 Blood plasma is a ……………………..colored fluid in which cells are suspended. It contain 92% of
water, proteins(Albumin, Globulin , Fibrinogen), nutrients(monosaccharides, amino acids, fatty acids,
glycerol, vitamin), ions(………………………………………….), nitrogenous byproducts (………
……………………………….), gases(……………………..), hormones, antibiotics, antigens.

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BIOLOGY ∕ GRADE 11

Blood cells

1. Red blood cells(erythrocytes)

 These are ………………………. Disk like cells are very small in

size.
 These are red in color due to a substance called………………
 Hemoglobin combines with………………… in lungs and forms an
unstable compound …………………………………………. It breaks
down and release …………………… in places where the oxygen
concentration is low such that when blood circulates through body
tissues …………………..………..is released from
……………………………………….
 No nucleus is found in red blood cells of man.

 The function of red blood cell is to carry oxygen.

 Red blood cells are formed in ………………………………..and after a life span of around
………………… days, destroyed in the …………………….and ……………………..afterward, the
……….…… or ……………………………… is stored in …………………….temporarily and
reused to form ………………………………………

2. White blood cells (Leucocytes)

 Though they are called white, they have no any color. They can be divided mainly into two.
 White cells are larger than the red cells. And all the white cells have a nucleus. The function of white
cell is destroying harmful microorganisms. They prevent the spreading of infection through the body.

3.Platelets

 Platelets are fragments of cells, shaped like ………………………… discs and produced in
………………………………..life span of a plate is about ………………..days. Main function is
initiating the blood clotting mechanism.

Functions of blood

o
o
o
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BIOLOGY ∕ GRADE 11

Blood circulatory system

 Blood circulatory system is responsible for transporting……………………………..gasses, waste

substances flowing inside the body.
 It is clear that 3 factors are essential for this action.in human
circulatory system
1. A fluid (……….….…………….……)
2. Tubes (…………………….………..)
3. Energy source , pump (………………………………)

Blood vessels

 There are 3 types of blood vessels.

1. ………………………………….....
2. …………………………………….
3. ………………………………….…
 Blood vessels provide the path way to flow blood through the body. They are named according to
their structure & function.

The heart

 The heart is situated anterior to …………………………………. and posterior to

…………………… at the center of the body between two lobes of lungs and behind the sternum in
the thorax.
 It is surrounded by a tough sac, the pericardium.
 There are four chambers in the heart.
o Two upper thin walled ………………………………….….………
o Two lower thick walled …………………………………………

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BIOLOGY ∕ GRADE 11

 The walls of auricle thin than ventricle because they only have to pump it to the ventricles. Wall of
the left ventricle ventricles is comparatively the ………………..…………..
 The right side of the heart is completely separated from the ……………………..…… by
..……………………….
 The right side deals with ……………………………………………… and the left side with
…………………………………….
 The heart undergoes contraction (……………………….……..) and relaxation
(………………………) rhythmically throughout the life.

The circulation

 Human circulation is a ………………………………..……….. .

This means that the blood passes through the heart twice for
each circuit of the body.
 The advantage of this is that the blood can be sent to the lungs to
pick up …………….……… and then be returned to the heart to
be pumped again before travelling around the body.
 Double circulation is made possible by the
……………….……being divided in to two.
 Double circulation can be described under two processes.
1. ………………………………………..…………………..
2. ……………………………………………………….……

 One half pumps ………………………………………..blood to

the lungs then brings
…………………………………………….blood to the
heart(………………………………………………….) is called
……………………………………………………
 Other half pumps ………………………………….blood to the rest of the body, it is called the
…………………………………………………….

Cardiac cycle (heart cycle)

 The cardiac cycle refers to the sequence of events which takes during place during the completion of
one ………………………………..……………
 There are 3 stages in cardiac cycle.
1
2
3

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BIOLOGY ∕ GRADE 11

 The two heart sounds are therefore

o ‘Lub’ => ………………………………………
o ‘Dub’ => …………………………………………
 One complete heart beat consists of ……………………….… systole and …………………………..
Diastole and lasts for about ………………………..
 Generally ……… ……………… ……………………….…… is reported within one minute of
human.

Electro cardio gram (E.C.G)

This is used to get information about heart functions. This shows the
potential changes take place in cardiac muscle cells during heart
function.

Three stages of cardiac cycle can be identify in ECG

P ─ Atrial contraction

QRS ─ Ventricular contraction

T ─ Intervening

Blood pressure

When heart contrast and pushes blood through body it makes pressure on arteries. This is called systolic
blood pressure.

A normal systolic blood pressure is 110 ─ 120 mmHg

Diastolic blood pressure is the pressure in arteries when heart rests between beats.

A normal diastolic blood pressure is 70 ─ 80 mmHg

Normal resting blood pressure is mentioned as ,

Blood pressure (B.P) = 120 ∕ 80

Lymphatic system

 Let’s consider about an instance where blood goes through an organ.

 Here ………………….. Divides into many arterioles & these ……………………..…..divides into
many……………………………..………. Which run through cells.
 As we discussed earlier,……………………… will be collected this blood.

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BIOLOGY ∕ GRADE 11

 But some amount of …………………………..……… also diffuses into inter cellular spaces. Now
this liquid is called …………………………...……………….
 This tissue fluid is collected by …………………..…….. Vessels and
again let it to mix with blood circulation system.
 The tissue fluid that enters into lymphatic capillaries is now called
………………….…………
 Then all the lymph vessels in the body form two major lymph
vessels.
o ………………………………………– combines with
left subclavian vein.
o …………………………………….. – combines with
right subclavian vein.
 Likewise lymph vessels join the main veins and flow into the
blood.
 How can they supply pressure to flow lymph?
……………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………
 Like in veins, lymph vessels have ………….……….……….
That prevent lymph flowing reverse direction.
 Though lymphatic system is considered as a sub- circulatory
system, it plays a major role for our survival. It is the natural
……………………………………….. System in our body.

What is immunization?
Resistance against diseases is called immunization. When we
suffer from disease, generally it will cure with the time though we
do not get ………………..…….. . Because we have immunization system.

 Lymphatic system consists of ……………………………….. and …………………………….

 We can see lymph nodes in ……………..…….. ,…………………..…… and in ………..…………
 ………………………..……… produced in lymphatic glands destroy ………………..……. and other
foreign materials entering the body.
 If there is a wound or infection in the body, immunization cells activate and produce more cells
therefore these lymphatic nodes may swell.

Diseases associated with the blood circulatory system

1) Artherosclerosis
 This caused by high amount low density lipoproteins.(LDL)

Thulya Gunarathne
BIOLOGY ∕ GRADE 11

 They deposited in coronary arteries and other arteries. This kind of lipid deposits called Arthero
 So size of the lumen of arteries reduces. Due to blocking of coronary arteries , the blood supply to
Heart is affected. Some parts of cardiac muscles will be failed to function causing angina. ( pain in
chest) this is called heart failure.
 The reasons to increase LDL is …………………………………………………………………..…
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….….
2) Hypertension

 This disease is mostly referred to as “……………………………………….” (H T N or HPN).

 This is increased inside the …………………………..………………..
 This may be caused due to fat (………………………………..) deposition inside the arteries,
hindering the blood circulation.
 Reasons for hypertension
 ………………………………………………………
 ……………………………………………………..
 ………………………………………………………..
 …………………………………………………………
 If once suffers from hypertension , It means
o ……………………………………………. > ……………………………………………..
o …………………………………………….> ………………………………………………

3) Hypotension

It is the abnormally low blood pressure. Such that blood pressure is lower than
……………………………………..…….
4) Coronary Thrombosis

 Coronary artery supplies blood to the ………………………….muscles.

 Coronary thrombosis is caused by the formation of a blood clot inside this blood vessel, obstructing
the flow of blood through the circulatory system.
 This situation is called ………………………………………….. in general.
 Thrombosis can be controlled by steps taken from child hood. They are,

o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o

Thulya Gunarathne
BIOLOGY ∕ GRADE 11

Coordination
 How do Organisms Adapt for the Efficient Functioning of the system?

We are a part of our living environment. We change the environment and respond to the changes in the
environment as well. Can you remember once you were happy recently? What was the reason? When you
were listing to a favorite song, watching nice scenery may have given you that pleasure. When you taste a
ripe mango,how did it bring that pleasure to you?

 Any change in the environment that can bring about a respond in the organism is called
…………………….

 How do we respond them?

How do we react for the stimuli? It is the ……………………………….

Sensory organs and separate stimuli

Sensory organ Stimulus

Eye
Ear
Nose
Tongue
Skin

 Maintaining proper balance between stimulus and response is called as ………………………

Stimuli ………………………………………………………………………………………

Receptor……………………………………………………………………………………..

Response …………………………………………………………………………………….

 There are two inter connected but different systems present in human body for coordination,
1. Nervous coordination.
2. Endocrine coordination.

Nervous coordination

Thulya Gunarathne
BIOLOGY ∕ GRADE 11

 In nervous coordination, impulses are transmitted through nerves. A proper coordination is maintained in
this.
 This takes place with the involvement of the nervous system.
 The structural unit of the nervous system is …………………………..(……………….…)
 They are the cells in our body that are responsible for bringing information from the surrounding,
analyzing the input, and finally create a perception. The human
………………………………….contains about a hundred billion nerve cells.
 There are three types of neurons in the nervous system
1.) Afferent or sensory neurons

 Sensory neurons are nerve cells within the nervous system responsible for
converting external stimuli from the organism’s environment into internal
electrical The nerve endings of the axons are found in the CNS.

2.) Efferent or motor neurons

 Motor neurons send commands from the nervous system out to

…………and ……………………….. In a motor neuron, axon
connects the spinal cord

3.) Interneurons (intermediate neuron)

 It is the largest class- constitutes the rest of all nerve cells, and is
responsible for signaling within the nervous system.

The nervous system is mainly composed of two components.

1.) Central nervous system
2.) Peripheral nervous system

Central nervous system (CNS)

 The central nervous system is made up of the ……………………… and the …………………………
 The impulses arising from stimulation of the……………………………………………………………….
and ………………….. are sent directly from the sense organs to the brain. Impulses from the
…………………………. are first sent to the spinal cord and then to the brain.
 The actions of most organs of the body are under the control of the CNS.
 The brain is enclosed and protected by the ……………………………………..while the spinal cord is
protected inside the ……………………………………………………..

Thulya Gunarathne
BIOLOGY ∕ GRADE 11

Brain

 There are three main parts.

o Cerebrum
o Cerebellum
o Medulla oblongata

 Parts and functions of the brain

Part of the Location

Functions
brain
Cerebrum Largest and most highly 
developed part of brain.
It divided in to left and 
right hemispheres.
Cortex of it is highly 
convoluted.

Cerebellum Just below the latter part  Maintenance of body balance
of the cerebrum  control of voluntary muscle activities
 involve in maintenance of body movement.
Medulla Anteriorly interior to  control the rate of heart beat
oblongata cerebellum  control the fate of respiration
 control reflex actions such as vomiting, coughing and
swallowing.

The spinal cord

 The spinal cord is a cable of neurons extending from the brain

down through the backbone or
…………………………………………………………………
……….
 The spinal cord consists of white and gray matters.

 ……………………..matter - inner zone which consists of

interneurons and cell bodies of motor neurons.
 ……………………..matter - outer zone which consists of the
axons and dendrites of nerve cells.

Thulya Gunarathne
BIOLOGY ∕ GRADE 11

 Messages from the body and brain are transmitted through the spinal cord which functions as an
information highway.
 Pairs of spinal nerves extend from spinal cord, it is along these nerves as well as cranial nerves from the
brain (……………………………….. pairs), and that the CNS communicates with the rest of the body.
 In addition to relaying messages, the spinal cord also functions in reflexes, the sudden movement of
…………………………….
 A reflex produces a rapid motor response to a stimulus, because a sensory neuron passes its information
to a motor neuron in the spinal cord, without higher level processing. One of the most frequently used
reflexes in our body is ………………………………., a reflex that protects our eyes. The reflex involves
only the sensory and motor neurons. There is …………………..pair of spinal nerves.

Reflex arc

 Involuntary responses to stimuli are called ………………………………………..

 A reflex is a very specific response to a very specific stimulus that involves only neurons in the spinal
cord or brain and peripheral nerves.
 A good example of how the
various components of the nervous
system come together is the reflex arc.

 Some interneurons synapse with

motor neurons in the spinal cord.
 The axon of the motor neuron
leaves the spinal cord vertically.
 The nerve impulse travels along
the motor axon to an ……………..and
brings about the ……………………
 The neurons in the spinal cord then send a motor signal to your arm withdraw from the painful stimulus.

Reflex action

Involuntary response to a particular stimulus is called a reflex action.

Reflex actions are two types.

1.) Spinal reflexes ─ moving a hand away when it contacts with a hot surface. , lifting the leg when you
Step on a thorn
2.) Cranial reflexes ─ sneezing, salivation, blinking eyelids

The peripheral nervous system

Thulya Gunarathne
BIOLOGY ∕ GRADE 11

 The peripheral nervous system consists of nerves and ganglia. Nerves are cable like collections of axons,
these contain both sensory and motor neurons, ganglia are aggregations of neurons cell bodies located
outside the CNS.
 There are two subsystems.
 Somatic system
 Autonomous system

Somatic system

 It includes sensory neurons of the dorsal root and cranial ganglia that innervate the …………………… ,
…………………. and joints and provide sensory information to the CNS about muscles and limb
position and about the environment.

Autonomic system

 The autonomic nervous system consists of three sections.

 Sympathetic
 Parasympathetic

1. Sympathetic system
 It participates in the response of the body to
…………………………..
 It is always active at a minimal level and becomes more
active during times of stress. Its action during the stress
response is called the ……………………………….and
……………………………… response.

2. Parasympathetic system
 Heart beats …………………….down, rate of breathing ………………………………., blood vessels
………………………., blood pressure decreases, in fact the opposite of the former responses. The body
is made calm and relaxed.
 The cerebrum of the brain has no control over the actions of the autonomic nervous system.

Endocrine Regulation (chemical coordination)

 Recognizing these changes and body will react by releasing some chemical substances from internal
organs. These substances are called ……………………………………………….
 The hormones are secreted from the ……………………………….. glands.

Features of hormones


Thulya Gunarathne
BIOLOGY ∕ GRADE 11





Differences between nervous and endocrine regulation

1. Nervous regulation is very quick and faster than the chemical

coordination.
2. Endocrine regulation is longer in action than nervous coordination.

The endocrine glands of human body








 In man hormones are the secretions of …………………………………..Glands (endocrine glands) and

certain tissues of the organs. Among the functions of hormones are regulation of
………………………………………….. , growth and reproduction.
 Blood caries the hormones to every cell in the body, but only the target cells for a given hormone can
respond it.
 The secretory activity of many endocrine glands is controlled by
the…………………………………..system.

1. Pituitary Glands

 Pituitary gland regulates hormone production in many endocrine glands. It hangs a stalk from
…………………………………………………… of the brain.
 Growth hormone(GH) / somatotrophins
o Regulates metabolism stimulate growth of muscles , bones and tissues
o …………………………………………… is caused by excessive secretion of growth hormone

2.Thyroid gland

Thulya Gunarathne
BIOLOGY ∕ GRADE 11

 In humans, the gland is located in front of and on either side of the trachea just below the larynx. The
gland is usually larger in women than in men it increases in size slightly during pregnancy. It produces
two hormones.

 Thyroxin
o The ……………………………………. containing hormones thyroxin
regulates metabolic rate in humans and are essential for normal growth
and development.

 Calcitonin
o This hormone assists in regulating serum
……………………………ions.

3. Pancreas

 The pancreas is located adjacent to the stomach and is connected to

the ………………………………….. of the small intestine by the
pancreatic duct. It secretes many types of digestive enzymes into
small intestine through tis duct.

 Cluster of cells called islets of Langerhans are scattered through the

pancreas. These produce two types of hormones in different types of
cells. They are the ………………………….(β )cells and
……………………………..( α ) cells.

 Insulin
o Insulin is secreted by the beta cells, this hormone prevents glucose appear in urine. Insulin promotes
the cellular uptake of glucose into liver and muscle cells where it is stored as
…………………………………… and in adipose cells as fat.
Glucose glycogen

 The condition of glucose in urine is a disease called ……………………………………………………..

 The hormone Glucagon

o This hormone is produced in the ……………………………. cells of the islet. When the concentration
of blood glucose falls, insulin secretion decreases and glucagon secretion increases. Glucagon
promotes the hydrolysis of stored glycogen in the ……………………………. and fat in adipose
tissue. As a result, glucose and fatty acids are released into the blood and can be taken up by cells and
used for energy.

Thulya Gunarathne
BIOLOGY ∕ GRADE 11

4. Adrenal gland

 The human adrenals are located in close vicinity to the upper

………………………….. poles.. There are two components in adrenal
glands.
o Adrenal cortex – outer layer of the adrenal gland
 Adrenalin and nor-adrenalin
o Adrenal medulla – the inner part of the adrenal gland.
 Aldosterone and cortisone

 Adrenalin and nor-adrenalin are called ………………………. or …………………….. hormones

because they prepare the body for stimulations such as fear and anger. Increase of the respiratory rate,
releasing more sugar, increasing the heartbeat, blood pressure and breathing rate and brought about by
these hormones. These are all reactions to prepare the body foe an emergency.

 Aldosterone controls the amount of ……………………………….. leaving the body.

 Corticosone increases the blood ……………………..level at times of stress when the body needs extra
energy.

5. Testes

 The testicle is the male gonad in animals.Testes are components of both the reproductive system and the
endocrine system. The primary functions of the testes are to produce………………………….
and………………………………………….Hormone.
 Functions of testosterone is ……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

6. Ovaries

 Ovaries produce female sex hormones Estrogen and progesterone. This promotes the secondary female
characteristics. They are ………………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

Homeostasis
 Homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant internal environment.
 Internal environment is the environment around the …………………………….in our body. These cells
are bathed in a fluid called …………………………………………….. And Blood cells are in the fluid
medium, blood plasma. Therefore the internal environment of our body is formed these fluids.
 Factors such as temperature, glucose concentration and water content of these fluids need to be
maintained constant for optimum functioning of the body.
1. Regulation of temperature

Thulya Gunarathne
BIOLOGY ∕ GRADE 11

 Humans are …………………………………………... They can maintain a constant body temperature

independent of the environmental temperature. Body temperature of human is …………………..oC .

When the outside temperature rises up,

 The difference between the body temperature and the outside becomes …………………………...
 Loss of heat from the body becomes less. This causes a slight increase in body temperature.
 This stimulates the temperature controlling center, ……………………………………………. to become
activated and causes the blood vessels of the skin to dilate causing more blood flow in.
 This increases the action of the …………………………………….glands which produce more sweat, the
evaporation of which causes a loss of heat and a cooling of the body. Loss of heat in this way maintains
the body temperature constant.

When the outside temperature decreases,

 The difference between the body temperature and outside temperature becomes more.
 Loss of heat from the body becomes more. The hypothalamus is stimulated and causes the surface blood
vessels to ……………………………………………….. Blood flow is less, …………………………….
production is less, and heat loss is reduced.
 Further the…………………………………………. stand erect, increasing the layer of air around the
body. This acts as an ……………………………………….. and prevents heat loss. In this way heat loss
is prevented and the body temperature is maintained constant.

2. Regulation of glucose

 When the concentration of sugar in the blood increases, it is controlled by ……………………………..

 This hormone converts excess sugar into ………………………………………. and stores it in the
………………………..
 But the amount of glycogen in the liver is limited; therefore if this exceeds the limit, sugar is converted
to fat and stored in the fat tissues.

3. Regulation of water content

 When the content of water in the blood decreases……………………………. hormones causes the
kidneys to increase the amount of water re absorbed by the tubules. This decreases the
……………………….. output.
 When the body has more water, reabsorption in the kidneys decreases, water is lost as urine and
increasing the urine output.
 Water in the body is also lost to the air by evaporation from the …………………………..and
…………………………….

Thulya Gunarathne