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UNIT - I INTRODUCTION TO ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

Definitions – Importance of AI, Foundation of AI, Intelligent Agents–Agent and Environment–

Concept of Rationality– Classification of AI Systems with Respect to Environment, Problem Solving
Agents, Application of AI, Future of AI.
Definitions
Intelligence is a complex concept that has been studied by philosophers and scientists for centuries. There is no
single definition of intelligence that is universally accepted, but it is generally understood to be the ability to
acquire and apply knowledge and skills.

There are many different types of intelligence, including:

 Verbal intelligence: The ability to understand and use language.

 Logical-mathematical intelligence: The ability to think logically and solve problems.
 Spatial intelligence: The ability to think in three dimensions and visualize objects.
 Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence: The ability to control one's body and use it effectively.
 Musical intelligence: The ability to understand and create music.
 Interpersonal intelligence: The ability to understand and interact with others.
 Intrapersonal intelligence: The ability to understand oneself and one's own thoughts and feelings.

Intelligence is a multifaceted concept, and it is not always easy to measure. There are a number of different
intelligence tests that have been developed, but they all have their limitations.

One of the biggest issues with intelligence is that it is often seen as a fixed trait. This means that people are often
thought to be born with a certain level of intelligence, and that it is difficult to change. However, there is a
growing body of evidence that suggests that intelligence is not fixed, and that it can be improved through training
and education.

Another issue with intelligence is that it is often used to make judgments about people. For example, people with
high intelligence are often seen as being more capable and successful than people with low intelligence. This can
lead to discrimination and prejudice against people with low intelligence.

It is important to remember that intelligence is just one aspect of a person's overall worth. There are many other
factors that contribute to a person's success in life, such as hard work, determination, and perseverance.

 Artificial intelligence (AI): AI is a branch of computer science that deals with the creation of intelligent agents,
which are systems that can reason, learn, and act autonomously. AI research has been highly successful in
developing effective techniques for solving a wide range of problems, from game playing to medical diagnosis.

Systems that think like humans Systems that think rationally

“The exciting new effort to make computers “The study of mental faculties through
think … machines with minds, in the full and the use of computer models.”
literal sense.”(Haugeland, 1985) (Charniak and McDermont, 1985)
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Systems that act like humans Systems that act rationally
The art of creating machines that perform “Computational intelligence is the
functions study of the
that require intelligence when performed by design of intelligent agents.”(Poole et al.,
1998)
people.”(Kurzweil, 1990)

 Issues with AI: There are a number of issues with AI, including:

o Bias: AI systems can be biased, reflecting the biases of the data they are trained on. This can lead to
discrimination and unfair treatment.
o Safety: AI systems can be dangerous if they are not designed and implemented carefully. For example, an AI
system that is used to control a self-driving car could make a mistake that could lead to a crash.
o Ethics: There are a number of ethical issues raised by AI, such as the use of AI for surveillance or warfare.

It is important to be aware of these issues and to take steps to address them as AI continues to develop.

Importance of AI in Automation
 Efficiency and Productivity: Automation streamlines processes, reducing the time and effort required to
complete tasks.
 Error Reduction: By minimizing human intervention, automation decreases the likelihood of errors,
particularly in repetitive tasks. These benefits make automation a critical tool for businesses looking to stay
competitive and efficient in today’s fast-paced environment.
 Cost Savings: Automated processes can lead to significant cost reductions by optimizing resource allocation
and reducing the need for manual labor.
 Resource Optimization: Automation allows businesses to allocate resources more effectively, focusing on
high-value activities.
 Improved Decision-Making: Automation can analyze large datasets quickly, providing valuable insights
for better decision-making.
 Enhanced Customer Experience: Automation can personalize customer interactions, resolve queries
efficiently, and provide round-the-clock support, leading to higher customer satisfaction and loyalty.
 Risk Management: Automated systems can detect and mitigate risks by identifying potential issues early,
helping businesses avoid costly problems.
Importance of AI in Healthcare
Artificial Intelligence (AI) is playing a crucial role in transforming healthcare by improving patient outcomes,
enhancing efficiency, and reducing costs.
Here are some key areas where AI is making a significant impact in healthcare:
 Medical Imaging: AI is enhancing the accuracy and efficiency of medical imaging interpretation. AI
algorithms can analyze medical images such as X-rays, MRIs, and CT scans to detect abnormalities and
assist radiologists in making diagnoses.
 Personalized Medicine: AI is enabling personalized treatment plans by analyzing patient data, including
genetic information, medical history, and lifestyle factors. This allows healthcare providers to tailor
treatments to individual patients, leading to better outcomes and fewer side effects.
 Predictive Analytics: AI is helping healthcare providers predict and prevent diseases. By analyzing patient
data, AI can identify patterns and risk factors associated with certain diseases, allowing for early
intervention and prevention strategies.
 Drug Discovery: AI is accelerating the drug discovery process by analyzing vast amounts of data to identify
potential drug candidates. This can significantly reduce the time and cost involved in developing new drugs.
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Importance of AI in Finance
Artificial Intelligence (AI) is revolutionizing the finance industry by enhancing decision-making processes,
improving efficiency, and providing innovative solutions. From fraud detection to risk management, AI is
transforming the way financial institutions operate.
Here are some key reasons why AI is essential for finance:
1. Risk Management: AI is improving risk management by analyzing large volumes of data to identify
potential risks and trends. AI algorithms can assess credit risk, detect fraudulent activities, and predict
market fluctuations, helping financial institutions make more informed decisions.
2. Fraud Detection: AI is enhancing fraud detection capabilities by analyzing transaction patterns and
detecting anomalies in real-time. This helps financial institutions prevent fraudulent activities and protect
their customers’ assets.
3. Algorithmic Trading: AI is revolutionizing algorithmic trading by analyzing market data and executing
trades at high speeds. AI-powered trading algorithms can identify profitable trading opportunities and
optimize trading strategies, leading to higher returns for investors.
4. Customer Service: AI is improving customer service in the finance industry by providing virtual assistants
and chatbots that can assist customers with inquiries, account management, and transactions. This enhances
the overall customer experience and reduces the need for human intervention.
5. Personalized Banking: AI is enabling personalized banking experiences by analyzing customer data and
providing personalized recommendations for financial products and services. This helps financial
institutions tailor their offerings to meet the specific needs of individual customers.
6. Operational Efficiency: AI is enhancing operational efficiency in finance by automating routine tasks such
as data entry, reconciliation, and compliance. This reduces the risk of errors and frees up employees to focus
on more strategic tasks.
Importance of AI in Education
1. Personalized Learning: AI is enabling personalized learning experiences by analyzing students’ learning
styles, preferences, and performance data. This allows educators to tailor educational content and activities
to meet the individual needs of each student, leading to improved learning outcomes.
2. Adaptive Learning: AI-powered adaptive learning platforms can adjust the pace and difficulty of learning
materials based on students’ progress. This helps students learn at their own pace and ensures that they are
challenged appropriately.
3. Automated Grading: AI can automate grading for assignments and assessments, saving educators time and
providing students with immediate feedback. This can help students improve their performance and
retention of material.
4. Virtual Assistants: AI-powered virtual assistants can provide students with support and guidance outside of
the classroom. These virtual assistants can answer questions, provide explanations, and help students
navigate educational materials.
5. Data Analysis: AI can analyze large amounts of data to identify trends and patterns in student performance.
This information can help educators identify areas where students may be struggling and provide targeted
interventions.
Importance of AI in Environmental Conservation
Artificial Intelligence (AI) is playing a crucial role in environmental conservation by enabling more efficient
and effective monitoring, analysis, and management of natural resources. Here are some key areas where AI is
making a significant impact in environmental conservation:
1. Wildlife Conservation: AI is being used to track and monitor wildlife populations, helping conservationists
understand animal behavior, migration patterns, and habitat use. AI-powered drones and cameras can collect
data in remote areas, providing valuable insights for conservation efforts.
2. Ecosystem Monitoring: AI is helping to monitor and analyze ecosystems, such as forests, oceans, and
wetlands. AI algorithms can process satellite imagery, sensor data, and other environmental data to identify
changes in ecosystems and assess their health.
3. Anti-Poaching Efforts: AI is being used to combat poaching by detecting and tracking poachers in
protected areas. AI algorithms can analyze data from cameras, drones, and other sensors to identify
suspicious activity and alert authorities.
4. Climate Change Mitigation: AI is helping to address climate change by analyzing data and modeling
scenarios to understand the impact of climate change and develop strategies for mitigation and adaptation.
AI can also optimize energy use and reduce carbon emissions in various sectors.
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5. Natural Disaster Management: AI is assisting in natural disaster management by analyzing data to predict
and mitigate the impact of disasters such as hurricanes, floods, and wildfires. AI can help authorities make
informed decisions and allocate resources more effectively during.
Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a transformative technology with wide-ranging implications across various
industries and sectors. Its ability to analyze data, learn from patterns, and make intelligent decisions has the
potential to revolutionize processes, improve outcomes, and drive innovation. From healthcare to finance,
education to environmental conservation, AI is reshaping the way we live, work, and interact. As AI continues
to evolve, its importance in our lives is only expected to grow, leading to a future where intelligent machines
work alongside humans to solve complex problems and enhance the quality of life for all.

INTRODUCTION
Artificial intelligence is already all around us, from web search to video games. AI methods plan the
driving directions, filter email spam, and focus the digital cameras on faces. AI lets us guide our phone
with our voice and read foreign newspapers in English. Beyond today's applications, AI is at the core
of many new technologies that will shape our future. From self-driving cars to household robots,
advancements in AI help transform science fiction into real systems

The foundations of Artificial Intelligence

The various disciplines that contributed ideas, viewpoints, and techniques to AI are given below:
Philosophy (428 B.C. – present)
Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) was the first to formulate a precise set of laws governing the rational part of the
mind. He developed an informal system of syllogisms for proper reasoning, which allowed one to generate
conclusions mechanically, given initial premises.
Brains and
digital Computer Human Brain
8
Computational units 1 CPU, 10 gates 1011 neurons
computers
Storage units 1010 bits RAM 1011 neurons
perform 11
quite
10 bits disk 1014 synapses
different tasks
Cycle time 10-9 sec 10-3 sec
and have
Bandwidth 1010 bits/sec 1014 bits/sec
different
properties. Memory updates/sec 109 1014
Table 1.1 Table 1.1 A crude comparison of the raw computational resources available to
shows that computers (circa 2003 ) andbrain. The computer’s numbers have increased by at there
are 10000 least by a factor of 10 every few years. The times
more brain’s numbers have not changed for the last 10, 000 years.
neurons in the typical human brain than there are gates in the CPU of a typical high-end computer. Moore’s
Law predicts that the CPU’s gate count will equal the brain’s neuron count around 2020.

Psychology (1879 – present)

The origin of scientific psychology is traced back to the work of German physiologist Hermann von
Helmholtz (1821-1894) and his student Wilhelm Wundt (1832 – 1920). In 1879, Wundt opened the
first laboratory of experimental psychology at the University of Leipzig.In US, the development of
computer modeling led to the creation of the field of cognitive science. The field can be said to have
started at the workshop in September 1956 at MIT.
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Computer engineering (1940-present)

For artificial intelligence to succeed, we need two things: intelligence and an artifact. The computer
has been the artifact of choice.
AI also owes a debt to the software side of computer science, which has supplied the operating
systems,programming languages, and tools needed to write modern programs.
Control theory and Cybernetics (1948-present)
Ktesibios of Alexandria (c. 250 B.C.) built the first self-controlling machine: a water clock with a
regulator thatkept the flow of water running through it at a constant, predictable pace. Modern control
theory, especially the branch known as stochastic optimal control, has as its goal the design ofsystems that
maximize an objective function over time.

Linguistics (1957-present)
Modem linguistics and AI, then, were "born" at about the same time, and grew up together,
intersecting in ahybrid field called computational linguistics or natural language processing.

1.1.3 The History of Artificial Intelligence

The gestation of artificial intelligence (1943-1955)

There were a number of early examples of work that can be characterized as AI, but it was Alan
Turing whofirst articulated a complete vision of AI in his 1950 article "Computing Machinery and
Intelligence." Therein, he introduced the Turing test, machine learning, genetic algorithms, and
reinforcement learning.

The birth of artificial intelligence (1956)

McCarthy convinced Minsky, Claude Shannon, and Nathaniel Rochester to help him bring together
U.S. researchers interested in automata theory, neural nets, and the study of intelligence. They
organized a two- month workshop at Dartmouth in the summer of 1956. Perhaps the longest-lasting
thing to come out of the workshop was an agreement to adopt McCarthy's new name for the field:
artificial intelligence.

Early enthusiasm, great expectations (1952-1969)

The early years of AI were full of successes-in a limited way.
General Problem Solver (GPS) was a computer program created in 1957 by Herbert Simon and
Allen Newell to build a universal problem solver machine. The order in which the program considered
subgoals and possible actions was similar to that in which humans approached the same problems.
Thus, GPS was probably the first program to embody the "thinking humanly" approach.

At IBM, Nathaniel Rochester and his colleagues produced some of the first AI programs. Herbert
Gelernter (1959) constructed the Geometry Theorem Prover, which was able to prove theorems that
many students of mathematics would find quite tricky.

Lisp was invented by John McCarthy in 1958 while he was at the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology (MIT).In 1963, McCarthy started the AI lab at Stanford.
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Tom Evans's ANALOGY program (1968) solved geometric analogy problems that appear in IQ tests,
such as the one in Figure 1.1

Figure 1.1 The Tom Evan’s ANALOGY program could solve geometric analogy problems as shown.

A dose of reality (1966-1973)

From the beginning, AI researchers were not shy about making predictions of their coming successes.
The following statement by Herbert Simon in 1957 is often quoted:
“It is not my aim to surprise or shock you-but the simplest way I can summarize is to say that there are
now in the world machines that think, that learn and that create. Moreover, their ability to do these
things is going toincrease rapidly until-in a visible future-the range of problems they can handle will be
coextensive with the range to which the human mind has been applied.

Knowledge-based systems: The key to power? (1969-1979)

Dendral was an influential pioneer project in artificial intelligence (AI) of the 1960s, and the computer
softwareexpert system that it produced. Its primary aim was to help organic chemists in identifying
unknown organic molecules, by analyzing their mass spectra and using knowledge of chemistry. It was
done at Stanford University by Edward Feigenbaum, Bruce Buchanan, Joshua Lederberg, and Carl
Djerassi.

AI becomes an industry (1980-present)

In 1981, the Japanese announced the "Fifth Generation" project, a 10-year plan to build intelligent
computers running Prolog. Overall, the AI industry boomed from a few million dollars in 1980 to
billions of dollars in 1988.

The return of neural networks (1986-present)

Psychologists including David Rumelhart and Geoff Hinton continued the study of neural-net models
of memory.

AI becomes a science (1987-present)

In recent years, approaches based on hidden Markov models (HMMs) have come to dominate the
area. Speech technology and the related field of handwritten character recognition are already
making the transition to widespread industrial and consumer applications.
The Bayesian network formalism was invented to allow efficient representation of, and rigorous
reasoning with, uncertain knowledge.
The emergence of intelligent agents (1995-present)
One of the most important environments for intelligent agents is the Internet.
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1. DEFINITION
What is artificial intelligence?
Artificial Intelligence is the branch of computer science concerned with making computers
behavelike humans.
Intelligent agent is a system that perceives its environment and takes actions which maximize its
chances of success. John McCarthy, who coined the term in 1956, defines it as "the science and
engineering of making intelligent machines, especially intelligent computer programs."

Four approaches of AI
(a) Acting humanly : The Turing Test approach
o Test proposed by Alan Turing in 1950
o The computer is asked questions by a human interrogator.
The computer passes the test if a human interrogator, after posing some written questions, cannot tell
whether the written responses come from a person or not. Programming a computer to pass, the
computer needs to possess the following capabilities:
 Natural language processing to enable it to communicate successfully in English.
 Knowledge representation to store what it knows or hears
 Automated reasoning to use the stored information to answer questions and to draw new
conclusions.
 Machine learning to adapt to new circumstances and to detect and extrapolate patterns to pass
the complete Turing Test, the computer will need
 Computer vision to perceive the objects, and
 Robotics to manipulate objects and move about.

(b) Thinking humanly: The cognitive modeling approach

We need to get inside actual working of the human mind:
(a) through introspection – trying to capture our own thoughts as they go by;
(b) through psychological experiments
Allen Newell and Herbert Simon, who developed GPS, the “General Problem Solver” tried to trace
thereasoning steps to trace the thought process of human subjects while solving the same problems.
The interdisciplinary field of cognitive science brings together computer models from AI and
experimental techniques from psychology to try to construct precise and testable theories of the workings
of the human mind.
(c) Thinking rationally: The “laws of thought approach”
The Greek philosopher Aristotle was one of the first to attempt to codify “right thinking”, that is
irrefutable reasoning processes. His syllogism provided patterns for argument structures that always
yielded correct conclusions when given correct premises—
for example,
“Ram is student of III year CSE;
All students are good in III year
CSE;Ram is a good student.”
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These laws of thought were supposed to govern the operation of the mind; their study initiated a field
called
logic.

(d) Acting rationally: The rational agent approach

An agent is something that acts. A rational agent is one that acts so as to achieve the best outcome.
Computer agents are not mere programs, but they are expected to have the following attributes also
:
(a) operating under autonomous control,
(b) perceiving their environment,
(c) persisting over a prolonged time period,
(d) adapting to change.

2. TYPICAL INTELLIGENT AGENTS

Agents and environments
An agent is anything that can be viewed as perceiving its environment through sensors and acting
upon that environment through actuators. This simple idea is illustrated in Figure 1.2.
 A human agent has eyes, ears, and other organs for sensors and hands, legs, mouth, and
other bodyparts for actuators.
 A robotic agent might have cameras and infrared range finders for sensors and various
motors foractuators.
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 A software agent receives keystrokes, file contents, and network packets as sensory inputs
and acts onthe environment by displaying on the screen, writing files, and sending
network packets.

Figure 1.2 Agents interact with environments through sensors and actuators.

Percept
Percept to refer to the agent's perceptual inputs at any given instant.
Percept Sequence

An agent's percept sequence is the complete history of everything the agent has ever perceived.
Agent function

Mathematically agent's behavior is described by the agent function that maps any given percept
sequence to anaction.

Agent program
Internally, the agent function for an artificial agent will be implemented by an agent program. It is
importantto keep these two ideas distinct. The agent function is an abstract mathematical description;
the agent program isa concrete implementation, running on the agent architecture. To illustrate these
ideas, we will use a very simple example-the vacuum-cleaner world shown in Figure 1.3. This
particular world has just two locations: squares A and B. The vacuum agent perceives which square it
is in and whether there is dirt in the square. It can choose to move left, move right, suck up the dirt, or
do nothing. One very simple agent function is the following: if the current square is dirty, then suck,
otherwise move to the other square. A partial tabulation of this agent function is shown in Figure 1.4.

Figure 1.3 A vacuum-cleaner world with just two locations.

Agent function
Percept Sequence Action
[A, Clean] Right
[A, Dirty] Suck
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[B, Clean] Left
[B, Dirty] Suck
[A, Clean], [A, Clean] Right
[A, Clean], [A, Dirty] Suck
…
Figure 1.4 Partial tabulation of a simple agent function for the vacuum-cleaner world shown
in Figure 1.3.

Rational Agent
A rational agent is one that does the right thing. Every entry in the table for the agent function is
filled out correctly. The right action is the one that will cause the agent to be most successful.
Performance measures
A performance measure embodies the criterion for success of an agent's behavior. When an agent is
plunked down in an environment, it generates a sequence of actions according to the percepts it
receives. This sequence of actions causes the environment to go through a sequence of states. If the
sequence is desirable, then the agent has performed well.

Rationality
What is rational at any given time depends on four things:
 The performance measure that defines the criterion of success.
 The agent's prior knowledge of the environment.
 The actions that the agent can perform.
 The agent's percept sequence to date.
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Definition of a rational agent:

For each possible percept sequence, a rational agent should select an action that is expected to
maximize its performance measure, given the evidence provided by the percept sequence and
whatever built-in knowledgethe agent has.

Omniscience, learning, and autonomy

 An omniscient agent knows the actual outcome of its actions and can act accordingly; but
omniscience isimpossible in reality.
 Doing actions in order to modify future percepts-sometimes called information gathering-is
an importantpart of rationality.
 Our definition requires a rational agent not only to gather information, but also to learn as much as
possible from what it perceives.
 To the extent that an agent relies on the prior knowledge of its designer rather than on its own
percepts,we say that the agent lacks autonomy. A rational agent should be autonomous-it
should learn what it can to compensate for partial or incorrect prior knowledge.

1.2.3 The nature of environmentsTask environments

We must think about task environments, which are essentially the "problems" to which rational agents
are the"solutions."
Specifying the task environment
The rationality of the simple vacuum-cleaner agent, needs specification of
 the performance measure
 the environment
 the agent's actuators and sensors.

PEAS
All these are grouped together under the heading of the task environment. We call this the
PEAS (Performance, Environment, Actuators, Sensors) description.
In designing an agent, the first step must always be to specify the task environment as fully as possible.

Agent Type Performance Environments Actuators Sensors

Measure
Taxi driver Safe: fast, Roads, Steering, Cameras, sonar,
legal, othe accelerato Speedometer,
comfortable rtraffic, r,brake, GPS,Odometer,
trip, maximize pedestrians, Signal, horn, engin
profits customers display esensors,
keyboards,
accelerometer
Figure 1.5 PEAS description of the task environment for an automated taxi.
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Figure 1.6 Examples of agent types and their PEAS descriptions.

Properties of task environments
 Fully observable vs. partially observable
 Deterministic vs. stochastic
 Episodic vs. sequential
 Static vs. dynamic
 Discrete vs. continuous
 Single agent vs. multiagent

Fully observable vs. partially observable.

If an agent's sensors give it access to the complete state of the environment at each point in time, then
the taskenvironment is fully observable. A task environment is effectively fully observable if the sensors
detect all aspects that are relevant to the choiceof action; An environment might be partially observable
because of noisy and inaccurate sensors or because parts of thestate are simply missing from the sensor
data.
Deterministic vs. stochastic.
If the next state of the environment is completely determined by the current state and the action executed
by theagent, then we say the environment is deterministic; otherwise, it is stochastic.

Episodic vs. sequential

In an episodic task environment, the agent's experience is divided into atomic episodes. Each episode
consistsof the agent perceiving and then performing a single action. The next episode does not depend
on the actions taken in previous episodes.

For example, an agent that has to spot defective parts on an assembly line bases each decision on the
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current part, regardless of previous decisions;
In sequential environments, on the other hand, the current decision could affect all future decisions.
Chess and taxi driving are sequential.

Discrete vs. continuous.

The discrete/continuous distinction can be applied to the state of the environment, to the way time is
handled,and to the percepts and actions of the agent.
For example, a discrete-state environment such as a chess game has a finite number of distinct states.
Chess alsohas a discrete set of percepts and actions.
Taxi driving is a continuous- state and continuous-time problem: the speed and location of the taxi and
of the other vehicles sweep through a range of continuous values and do so smoothly over time.
Taxi-driving actions are also continuous (steering angles, etc.).

Single agent vs. multiagent.

An agent solving a crossword puzzle by itself is clearly in a single-agent environment Agent playing
chess is in a two-agent environment.
The hardest agent is partially observable, stochastic, sequential, dynamic, continuous, and multiagent.

Figure 1.7 Examples of task environments and their characteristics.

Structure of AgentsAgent programs

The agent programs all have the same skeleton: they take the current percept as input from the sensors
andreturn an action to the actuator. Notice the difference between the agent program, which takes the
current percept as input, and the agent function, which takes the entire percept history. The agent
program takes just the current percept as input because nothing more is available from the
environment; if the agent's actions depend on the entire percept sequence, the agent will have to
remember the percepts.

Function TABLE-DRIVEN_AGENT(percept) returns an action

static: percepts, a sequence initially empty
table, a table of actions, indexed by percept sequence
append percept to the end of
perceptsaction
LOOKUP(percepts, table)
return action
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Figure 1.8 The TABLE-DRIVEN-AGENT program is invoked for each new percept andreturns an action
each time.
Drawbacks:
• Table lookup of percept-action pairs defining all possible condition-action rules necessary to
interact inan environment
• Problems
– Too big to generate and to store (Chess has about 10^120 states, for example)
– No knowledge of non-perceptual parts of the current state
– Not adaptive to changes in the environment; requires entire table to be updated if
changes occur
– Looping: Can't make actions conditional
• Take a long time to build the table
• No autonomy
• Even with learning, need a long time to learn the table entries

AGENT TYPES
• Table-driven agents
– use a percept sequence/action table in memory to find the next action. They
are implemented bya (large) lookup table.
• Simple reflex agents
– are based on condition-action rules, implemented with an appropriate production
system.
They are stateless devices which do not have memory of past world states.
• Model based agent
– haveinternal state, which is used to keep track of past states of the world.
• Goal based Agents
– are agents that, in addition to state information, have goal information that
describes desirablesituations. Agents of this kind take future events into
consideration.
• Utility-based agents
– base their decisions on classic axiomatic utility theory in order to act rationally.
• Learning agents

SIMPLE REFLEX AGENT

The simplest kind of agent is the simple reflex agent. These agents select actions on the basis of
the current percept, ignoring the rest of the percept history. For example, the vacuum agent whose
agent functionis tabulated in Figure 1.10 is a simple reflex agent, because its decision is based only on
the current location and on whether that contains dirt.
 Select action on the basis of only the current percept.
E.g. the vacuum-agent
 Large reduction in possible percept/action situations(next page).
 Implemented through condition-action rules If dirty then suck
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A Simple Reflex Agent: Schema

Figure 1.9 Schematic diagram of a simple reflex agent.

function SIMPLE-REFLEX-AGENT(percept) returns an action

static: rules, a set of condition-action
rulesstate INTERPRET-INPUT(percept)
rule RULE-MATCH(state, rule) action
RULE-ACTION[rule]

return action
Figure 1.10 A simple reflex agent. It acts according to a rule whose condition matchesthe current
state, as defined by the percept.

function REFLEX-VACUUM-AGENT ([location, status])

return an actionif status == Dirty then return Suck
else if location == A then return Right
else if location == B then return Left

Figure 1.11 The agent program for a simple reflex agent in the two-state vacuum environment. This
programimplements the agent function tabulated in the figure 1.4.
 Characteristics
o Only works if the environment is fully observable.
o Lacking history, easily get stuck in infinite loops
o One solution is to randomize actions

MODEL-BASED REFLEX AGENTS

The most effective way to handle partial observability is for the agent to keep track of the part of the
world it can't see now. That is, the agent should maintain some sort of internal state that depends on
the percept history and thereby reflects at least some of the unobserved aspects of the current state.
Updating this internal state information as time goes by requires two kinds of knowledge to be
encoded in the agent program.
First, we need some information about how the world evolves independently of the agent-for example,
that an overtaking car generally will be closer behind than it was a moment ago.
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Second, we need some information about how the agent's own actions affect the world-for example,
that when the agent turns the steering wheel clockwise, the car turns to the right or that after driving
for five minutes northbound on the freeway one is usually about five miles north of where one was five
minutes ago.
This knowledge about "how the world working - whether implemented in simple Boolean circuits or in
completescientific theories-is called a model of the world. An agent that uses such a MODEL-BASED
model is called a model-based agent.

Figure 1.12 A model based reflex agent

function REFLEX-AGENT-WITH-STATE(percept) returns an action

static: rules, a set of condition-action rules state, a description of the current world state
action, the most recent action.
state UPDATE-STATE(state, action, percept)
rule RULE-MATCH(state, rule)

action RULE-ACTION[rule]
return action

Figure 1.13 Model based reflex agent. It keeps track of the current state of the world using an
internalmodel. It then chooses an action in the same way as the reflex agent.

GOAL-BASED AGENTS
 Knowing about the current state of the environment is not always enough to decide what to do.
For example, at a road junction, the taxi can turn left, turn right, or go straight on.
 The correct decision depends on where the taxi is trying to get to.
 In other words, as well as a current state description, the agent needs some sort of goal
information that describes situations that are desirable-for example, being at the passenger's
destination.
 The agent program can combine this with information about the results of possible actions (the
same information as was used to update internal state in the reflex agent) in order to choose
actions that achieve the goal. Figure 1.14 shows the goal-based agent's structure.
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Figure 1.14 A goal based agent

UTILITY-BASED AGENTS
Goals alone are not really enough to generate high-quality behavior in most environments. For
example, there are many action sequences that will get the taxi to its destination (thereby achieving the
goal) but some are quicker, safer, more reliable, or cheaper than others.

Goals just provide a crude binary distinction between "happy" and "unhappy" states, whereas a more
general performance measure should allow a comparison of different world states according to
exactly how happy they would make the agent if they could be achieved.
Because "happy" does not sound very scientific, the customary terminology is to say that if one world
state is preferred to another, then it has higher utility for the agent.

Figure 1.15 A model-based, utility-based agent. It uses a model of the world, along with
utility function that measures its preferences among states of the world. Then it chooses the
action that leads to the best expected utility, where expected utility is computed by
averaging over all possible outcome states, weighted by the probability of the outcome.

• Certain goals can be reached in different ways.

– Some are better, have a higher utility.
• Utility function maps a (sequence of) state(s) onto a real number.
• Improves on goals:
– Selecting between conflicting goals
– Select appropriately between several goals based on likelihood of success.
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LEARNING AGENTS

Figure 1.16 A general model of learning agents.

• All agents can improve their performance through learning.

A learning agent can be divided into four conceptual components, as shown in Figure 1.16
Performance element: Responsible for selecting external actions. The performance element is what
we havepreviously considered to be the entire agent: it takes in percepts and decides on actions.
Learning element : Responsible for making improvements. It uses feedback from the critic on how
the agent isdoing and determines how the performance element should be modified to do better
in the future.
Problem generator: Responsible for suggesting actions that will lead to new and informative
experiences. But if the agent is willing to explore a little, it might discover much better actions
for the long run. The problem generator's job is to suggest these exploratory actions. This is
what scientists do when they carry out experiments.

Use of Intelligent Agents in Businesses

 Operating systems use agents to add email and dial up networking account, do
group management,add/remove programs and devices and monitor licences.
 Spreadsheet agents offer suggestions for improvement and can also tutor novice users.
 Software development agents assist in routine activities such as data filtering.
 Search engines – improve your information retrieval on the Internet
 Web mastering Agents – these agents make it easy to manage a web site
 Web Agents – These agents improve the users browsing experience.
 Monitoring Agents – These agents monitor web sites or specific themes you are interested in.
 Shopbots – These agents allow you to compare prices on Internet.
 Virtual Assistants – these include virtual pets and desktop assistants.

Applications of AI
1. Neural networks (NN), also known as artificial neural networks (ANN), are
computational models that mimic human brain, have a unique ability to
extract meaning from imprecise or complex data by passing input through
various layers of the neural network.

NN are used in various applications such as:

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 Banking: Credit card attrition, credit and loan application evaluation, fraud and
riskevaluation, and loan delinquencies.
 Business Analytics: Customer behaviour modelling, customer segmentation,
fraudpropensity, market research, market mix, market structure, and models
for attrition, default, purchase, and renewals
 Defense: Counterterrorism, facial recognition, feature extraction, noise
suppression,object discrimination, sensors, sonar, radar and image signal
processing, signal/image identification, target tracking, and weapon steering
 Education: Adaptive learning software, dynamic forecasting, education
systemanalysis and forecasting, student performance modeling, and
personality profiling Financial: Corporate bond ratings, corporate financial
analysis, credit line use analysis, currency price prediction, loan advising,
mortgage screening, real estate appraisal, and portfolio trading
 Medical: Cancer cell analysis, ECG and EEG analysis, emergency room test
advisement, expense reduction and quality improvement for hospital systems,
transplant process optimization, and prosthesis design
 Securities: Automatic bond rating, market analysis, and stock trading advisory
systems
 Transportation: Routing systems, truck brake diagnosis systems, and vehicle
scheduling.

2. Fuzzy Logic: Fuzzy logic is a form of many-valued logic in which the truth
values of variables may be any real number between 0 and 1 both inclusive. By
contrast, in Boolean logic, the truth values of variables may only be the integer
values 0 or 1.

Fuzzy logic is used in various applications such as:

Medicine
 Controlling arterial pressure when providing anaesthesia to patients
 Used in diagnostic radiology and diagnostic support systems
 Diagnosis of prostate cancer and diabetes

Transportation systems
 Handling underground train operations
 Controlling train schedules
 Braking and stopping vehicles based on parameters, such as car speed,
acceleration and wheel speed

Defence
 Locating and recognizing targets underwater
 Supports naval decision making
 Using thermal infrared images for target recognition
 Used for controlling hypervelocity interceptors

Industry
 Controlling water purification plants
 Handling problems in constraint satisfaction in structural design
 Pattern analysis for quality assurance
 Fuzzy Logic is used for tackling sludge wastewater treatment

Naval control
 Selecting the optimal or best possible routes for reaching a destination
 Autopilot is based on Fuzzy Logic
 Autonomous underwater vehicles are controlled using Fuzzy Logic
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Washing systems powered by Fuzzy Logic

Modern washing machines powered by Fuzzy Logic are becoming popular these
days. They have sensors that continuously track variations in temperature. It adjusts
the controls and operations accordingly. These systems perform well, and are
productive and cost efficient.
3. Expert Systems: Expert Systemsis an interactive and reliable computer-
based decision-making system which uses both facts and heuristics to solve
complex decision-making problems.
It is considered at the highest level of human intelligence and expertise. The purpose of
an expert system is to solve the most complex issues in a specific domain.

 Hospitals and medical facilities: Diagnosis Systems to deduce cause of

disease from observed data, conduction medical operations on humans.
 Employee performance evaluation: To evaluate employees based on
various key parameters.
 Virus detection: To predict virus based on the activities performed.
 Stock market trading: to predict stock market price
 Process monitoring and control:Controlling a physical process based on
monitoring.
 In designing and manufacturing domain: It can be broadly used for designing
and manufacturing physical devices such as camera lenses and automobiles.
 In the finance domain: In the finance industries, it is used to detect any type of
possible fraud, suspicious activity, and advise bankers that if they should provide
loans for business or not.
 Planning and Scheduling: The expert systems can also be used for planning
and scheduling some particular tasks for achieving the goal of that task.

4. NLP: NLP stands for Natural Language Processing, which is a part

of Computer Science, Human language, and Artificial Intelligence. It is
the technology that is used by machines to understand, analyse,
manipulate, and interpret human's languages.

Applications of NLP:
 Question Answering: Question Answering focuses on building systems that
automatically answer the questions asked by humans in a natural language.
 Spam Detection: Spam detection is used to detect unwanted e-mails getting to a
user's inbox.
 Sentiment Analysis: Sentiment Analysis is also known as opinion mining. It is
used on the web to analyse the attitude, behaviour, and emotional state of the
sender. This application is implemented through a combination of NLP (Natural
Language Processing) and statistics by assigning the values to the text (positive,
negative, or natural), identify the mood of the context (happy, sad, angry, etc.)
 Machine Translation: Machine translation is used to translate text or speech
from one natural language to another natural language.
 Spelling correction: Microsoft Corporation provides word processor software
like MS-word, PowerPoint for the spelling correction.
 Speech Recognition: Speech recognition is used for converting spoken words
into text. It is used in applications, such as mobile, home automation, video
recovery, dictating to Microsoft Word, voice biometrics, voice user interface, and
so on.
 Chatbot: Implementing the Chatbot is one of the important applications of NLP. It
is used by many companies to provide the customer's chat services.
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 Information extraction: Information extraction is one of the

most important applications of NLP. It is used for extracting
structured information from unstructured or semi-structured
machine-readable documents.

Other Applications:
Gaming: AI plays crucial role in strategic games such as chess, poker, tic-tac-
toe, etc., where machine can think of large number of possible positions based
on heuristic knowledge.

Vision Systems: These systems understand, interpret, and comprehend visual

input on the computer.
Eg.
 A spying aeroplane takes photographs which are used to figure out
spatial information or map of the areas.
 Doctors use clinical expert system to diagnose the patient.
 Police use computer software that can recognize the face of criminal
with the stored portrait made by forensic artist.

Speech Recognition: Some intelligent systems are capable of hearing and

comprehending the language in terms of sentences and their meanings while a
human talks to it. It can handle different accents, slang words, noise in the
background, change in human’s noise due to cold, etc.
Handwriting Recognition: The handwriting recognition software reads the text
written on paper by a pen or on screen by a stylus. It can recognize the
shapes of the letters and convert it into editable text.
Self-driving cars: It enables your car to steer, accelerate and brake automatically
within its lane. It requires sensors like camera for object detection.
Intelligent Robots: Robots are able to perform the tasks given by a human.
They have sensors to detect physical data from the real world such as light,
heat, temperature, movement, sound, bump, and pressure. They have
efficient processors, multiple sensors and huge memory, to exhibit intelligence.
In addition, they are capable of learning from their mistakes and they can adapt
to the new environment.
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Future of Artificial Intelligence

Undoubtedly, Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a revolutionary field of computer science, which

is ready to become the main component of various emerging technologies like big data,
robotics, and IoT. It will continue to act as a technological innovator in the coming years. In
just a few years, AI has become a reality from fantasy. Machines that help humans with
intelligence are not just in sci-fi movies but also in the real world. At this time, we live in a
world of Artificial Intelligence that was just a story though for some years.

We are using AI technology in our daily lives either unknowingly or knowingly, and
somewhere it has become a part of our life. Ranging from Alexa/Siri to Chatbots, everyone is
carrying AI in their daily routine. The development and evolution of this technology are
happening at a rapid pace. However, it was not as smooth and easy as it seemed to us. It has
taken several years and lots of hard work & contributions of various people to take AI at this
stage. Being so revolutionary technology, AI also deals with many controversies about its
future and impact on Human beings. It may be dangerous, but also a great opportunity. AI
will be deployed to enhance both defensive and offensive cyber operations. Additionally, new
means of cyber-attack will be invented to take advantage of particular vulnerabilities of AI
technology.

This topic will discuss the future of AI and its impact on human life, i.e., whether it is a
great technology or a threat to humans.

Artificial Intelligence (AI) at Present

Before going deep dive into AI in future, first, let's understand what is Artificial
Intelligence and at what stage it is at present. We can define AI as, "It is the ability of
machines or computer-controlled robot to perform task that are associated with
intelligence." So, AI is computer science, which aims to develop intelligent machines that
can mimic human behaviour.
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Based on capabilities, AI can be divided into three types that are:

o Narrow AI: It is capable of completing dedicated tasks with intelligence.

The current stage of AI is narrow AI.
o General AI: Artificial General Intelligence or AGI defines the machines that can
show human intelligence.
o Super AI: Super AI refers to self-aware AI with cognitive abilities that surpass that of
humans. It is a level where machines can do any task that a human can do with
cognitive properties.

At the current stage, AI is known as Narrow AI or Weak AI, which can only perform
dedicated tasks. For example, self-driving cars, speech recognition, etc.

Myths about Advanced Artificial Intelligence

1. Superintelligence by the year 2100 is not possible.

The reality about the possibility of superintelligence is that currently, we can't determine it. It
may occur in decades, or centuries, or may never, but nothing is confirmed. There have been
several surveys in which AI researchers have been asked how many years from now they
think we will have human-scale AI with at least a 50% chance. All of these surveys have the
same conclusion: The world's leading experts disagree, so we don't know. For example, in
such a survey of AI researchers at the 2015 Puerto Rico AI conference, the (average)
answer was by 2045, but some researchers estimated hundreds of years or more.

2. I will replace all human jobs.

It's certainly true that the advent of AI and automation has the potential to disrupt labour
seriously - and in many situations, it is already doing just that. However, seeing this as a
straightforward transfer of labour from humans to machines is a vast oversimplification.

With the development of AI, a revolution has come in industries of every sector, and people
fear losing jobs with the increased development of AI. But in reality, AI has come up with
more jobs and opportunities for people in every sector. Every machine needs a human being
to operate it. However, AI has taken over some roles, but it reverts to producing more jobs for
people.

3. Super-intelligent computers will become better than humans at doing anything we can do

As discussed above, AI can be divided into three types, Weak AI, which can perform
specific tasks, such as weather Prediction. General AI; Capable of performing the task as a
human can do, Super AI; AI capable of performing any task better than human.

At present, we are using weak AI that performs a particular task and improves its
performance. On the other hand, general AI and Super AI are not yet developed, and
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researches are going on. They will be capable of doing different tasks similar to human
intelligence. However, the development of such AI is far away, and it will take years or
centuries to create such AI applications. Moreover, the efficiency of such AI, whether it will
be better than humans, is not predictable at the current stage.

4. AI does not require human intervention.

People also have a misconception that AI does not need any human intervention. But the fact
is that AI is not yet developed to take their own decisions. A machine learning
engineer/specialist is required to pre-process the data, prepare the models, prepare a training
dataset, identify the bias and variance and eliminate them, etc. Each AI model is still
dependent on humans. However, once the model is prepared, it improves its performance on
its own from the experiences.

How can Artificial Intelligence be risky?

Most of the researchers agree that super AI cannot show human emotions such as Love, hate
or kindness. Moreover, we should not expect an AI to become intentionally generous or
spiteful. Further, if we talk about AI to be risky, there can be mainly two scenarios, which
are:

1. AI is programmed to do something destructive:

Autonomous weapons are artificial intelligence systems that are programmed to kill. In the
hands of the wrong person, these weapons could easily cause mass casualties. Moreover, an
AI arms race could inadvertently lead to an AI war resulting in mass casualties. To avoid
being dissatisfied with the enemy, these weapons would be designed to be extremely difficult
to "turn off," so humans could plausibly lose control of such a situation. This risk is present
even with narrow AI but grows as levels of AI intelligence and autonomy increase.

2. Misalignment between our goals and machines:

The second possibility of AI as a risky technology is that if intelligent AI is designed to do

something beneficial, it develops destructive results. For example, Suppose we ask the self-
driving car to "take us at our destination as fast as possible." The machine will immediately
follow our instructions. It may be dangerous for human lives until we specify that traffic rules
should also be followed and we value human life. It may break traffic rules or meet with an
accident, which was not really what we wanted, but it did what we have asked to it. So,
super-intelligent machines can be destructive if they ask to accomplish a goal that
doesn't meet our requirements.

Future impact of AI in different sectors

 25

Healthcare:

AI will play a vital role in the healthcare sector for diagnosing diseases quickly and more
accurately. New drug discovery will be faster and cost-effective with the help of AI. It will
also enhance the patient engagement in their care and also make ease appointment
scheduling, bill paying, with fewer errors. However, apart from these beneficial uses, one
great challenge of AI in healthcare is to ensure its adoption in daily clinical practices.

Cyber security:

Undoubtedly, cyber security is a priority of each organization to ensure data security. There
are some predictions that cyber security with AI will have below changes:

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o With AI tools, security incidents will be monitored.

o Identification of the origin of cyber-attacks with NLP.
o Automation of rule-based tasks and processes with the help of RPA bots.

However, being a great technology, it can also be used as a threat by attackers. They can use
AI in a non-ethical way by using automated attacks that may be intangible to defend.

Transportation:

The fully autonomous vehicle is not yet developed in the transportation sector, but
researchers are reaching in this field. AI and machine learning are being applied in the
cockpit to help reduce workload, handle pilot stress and fatigue, and improve on-time
performance. There are several challenges to the adoption of AI in transportation, especially
in areas of public transportation. There's a great risk of over-dependence on automatic and
autonomous systems.
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E-commerce:

Artificial Intelligence will play a vital role in the e-commerce sector shortly. It will positively
impact each aspect of the e-commerce sector, ranging from user experience to marketing and
distribution of products. We can expect e-commerce with automated warehouse and
inventory, shopper personalization, and the use of chatbots in future.

Employment:

Nowadays, employment has become easy for job seekers and simple for employers due to the
use of Artificial Intelligence. AI has already been used in the job search market with strict
rules and algorithms that automatically reject an employee's resume if it does not fulfil the
requirement of the company. It is hoping that the employment process will be driven by most
AI-enabled applications ranging from marking the written interviews to telephonic rounds in
the future.

For jobseekers, various AI applications are helping build awesome resumes and find the best
job as per your skills, such as Rezi, Jobseeker, etc.