3

The Role of the Forensic Laboratory

WILLIAM G.
ECKERT STUART H.
JAMES

Introduction
Forensic or crime laboratories are concerned with the examination of items
of physical evidence associated with crime scenes, victims, and suspects. The
scientific findings of the laboratory are utilized in conjunction with the
other areas of forensic science and criminal investigation in preparation for
a legal proceeding or trial.

Classification of Laboratories

Forensic or crime laboratories vary in size and capabilities throughout the

country and abroad. The federal government operates forensic laboratories
in various regions of the country with different specialties. The Federal
Bureau of Investigation (FBI) Laboratory in Washington, D.C., is a well
recognized crime laboratory. The Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA)
maintains several laboratory facilities for illicit drug analysis, and the
Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms Bureau (ATF) supports criminal
investigations involv- ing fires and explosions, as well as those concerned
with firearms, alcohol, and tobacco. The U.S. Army operates a crime
laboratory in Georgia, as well as in Frankfurt, Germany, and Japan. Many
law enforcement agencies operate crime laboratories at the state, county, or
local level. The medical examiner’s or coroner’s offices usually have in-
house laboratory facilities. Forensic lab- oratories are also maintained at
colleges and universities, as well as in the private sector. Forensic
laboratories may be full service or specialize in one or more areas. For
example, the FBI laboratory and most state laboratories are considered full-
service operations, whereas many medical examiner’s office laboratories
concentrate on forensic toxicology or the analysis of body tissues and fluids
for drugs, poisons, and other toxic substances. Private forensic laboratories
such as National Medical Services, Inc., in Willow Grove, Pennsylvania,
offer services in forensic toxicology and criminalistics. Some of the private
forensic laboratories are completely specialized in an area of forensic
science. The McCrone Research Institute in Chicago, Illinois, per- forms
microscopic analysis of particulate matter, and Cellmark Diagnostics in
Germantown, Maryland, provides DNA analysis of blood and other body
materials. Whether the forensic or crime laboratory exists in the public or
private sector, it should demonstrate a high level of quality control and
reproducibility of results through participation in blind testing of samples.
Laboratory certification or accreditation is available through organizations
such as the Association of Crime Laboratory Directors (ACLD).

Typical Sections of the Forensic or Crime Laboratory

Forensic or crime laboratories that offer multidisciplinary services are

usually divided into sections based upon the types of physical evidence
examined. Some of the sections require specialized equipment,
instrumentation, and training of personnel while other sections may share
instrumentation. Crim- inalists may rotate through various sections of the
laboratory depending upon their training, experience, and expertise.
Depending upon the size and workload of the particular facility some of the
sections may be combined or perhaps further subdivided.

Toxicology and Drug Identification

The toxicology and drug identification section of the laboratory utilizes
forensic chemistry and modern instrumental techniques to isolate, identify,
and often quantify alcohol, drugs, poisons, and other toxic materials. The
material submitted for analysis may consist of bulk quantities of illicit drugs
such as marijuana, heroin, LSD, or cocaine which must be accurately
weighed, analyzed, and often quantitated to establish the degree of a criminal
drug charge. Other liquid, solid, or gaseous materials may be submitted for
analysis to determine the presence any toxic or poisonous content. Many
crime laboratories analyze blood for alcohol and/or drug content in cases of
driving while impaired or intoxicated, as well as perform alcohol, drug, and
toxic substance analysis on body tissues and fluids for purposes of death
investigation in conjunction with the medical examiner’s or coroner’s
office. Drugs detected may be either of a prescribed or illicit nature. Some
com- monly encountered toxic substances are carbon monoxide, cyanide,
insecti- cides, and heavy metals. The quantitative blood and tissue levels of
these substances, as well as their metabolites, may reveal therapeutic, toxic, or
lethal levels present in the body and help determine the role of the substance
in the death of the individual. Occasionally, the determination of the
absence of a prescribed medication, such as anticonvulsive drugs in victims
known to have a seizure disorder, may help to explain their behavior or
circumstances of a death.
The procedures utilized in a typical toxicology section of a laboratory
may include extraction and purification techniques prior to analysis. Prelim-
inary examination of materials may include chemical spot tests which by
color production may indicate the presence of a type of drug or poison. More
sophisticated techniques include radioimmunoassay (RIA), thin-layer chro-
matography (TLC), ultraviolet absorption (UV), infrared absorption (IR),
high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), and gas chromatography
(GC). The application of mass spectroscopy (MS) is now commonly
utilized for positive identification of drug and toxic compounds. The reader
should refer
to Chapter 8 for a more comprehensive overview of forensic toxicology.

Arson Analysis
The detection of accelerants in fire debris samples to help prove arson is a
common procedure for crime laboratories. Samples collected by fire
investi- gators from suspected areas of fire origin consist of burned or
partially burned wood, carpet, or other materials. Samples of similar
materials from unburned areas at the fire scene are also submitted for
comparative purposes. Samples of suspected flammable liquids found at a fire
scene are also analyzed and in some cases the clothing and shoes from a
suspected arsonist.

When these charred materials, unknown liquids, and comparison sam-

ples are received in sealed, airtight sample containers and logged at the
forensic laboratory, they are subjected to an organized process of isolation
or concentration, detection, and identification. Unknown and comparison
samples, as well as known laboratory positive standards or controls, are
treated in a similar manner. There are four general methods for isolating or
concentrating accelerants from fire debris:
 1. Steam distillation — This technique involves the heating and distill-
ing with steam of the charred material and trapping the distillate with
a cold water condenser. The volatile hydrocarbons are collected in a
liquid form prior to analysis.
2. Solvent extraction — The sample of charred material is extracted
by mixing and shaking with a known solvent such as carbon
disulfide, methylene chloride, or hexane which dissolves the
petroleum distil- lates and other volatiles into the known solvent.
This extract is then evaporated to a small volume which concentrates the
sample for analysis.
3a. Cold head space — The top of the sample container is punctured
and a stopper is inserted in order that a head space vapor sample can
be removed with a syringe for subsequent analysis.
3b. Heated head space — After the stopper is inserted into the top of the
sample container, the vessel is heated in an oven to approximately
100°C or slightly lower. This technique concentrates the head space
vapors since the heat drives the volatiles from the charred matrix. This
method is popular and more sensitive than cold head space technique.
4. Vapor concentration on charcoal — This method utilizes an inert
gas purge utilizing nitrogen or air of the heated sample container
which carries volatiles through a small tube containing charcoal
where they are concentrated. The charcoal is desorbed by heat or a
small volume of a solvent such as carbon disulfide and thus prepared
for analysis.

The technique of GC is the most commonly utilized for the detection of

accelerants in fire debris in forensic laboratories. GC is essentially a separation
technique capable of separating mixtures of petroleum distillates and volatile
organic compounds into individual peaks which form a pattern for
comparison with known standards (Figure 3.10). The introduction of mass
spectroscopy coupled with gas chromatography (GC-MS) as well as
infrared spectroscopy coupled with gas chromatography (GC-IR) permits
specific identification or a “fingerprint” of the molecules to be made. Some
forensic laboratories do not possess this advanced capability for
identification and utilize the GC pattern recognition of the more common
accelerants. Some accelerants are easily recognized by their GC patterns in
the absence of interfering substances that may mask them. Examples of these
are turpentine, gasoline, kerosene, and heavier fuel and diesel oils. Those
laboratories without GC-MS or GC-IR certainly have the option of further
analysis performed by a laboratory with those capabilities if deemed
necessary.

Serology
Forensic serology is concerned with the analysis, identification, and
individualization of body fluids and tissues, secretions, and excretions.
Blood, semen, and saliva are the most frequently encountered types of
samples but occasionally samples such as perspiration, urine, gastric
contents, and feces may be examined for purposes of characterization.
Physical evidence of this type is usually submitted to the laboratory in the
form of dried stains on clothing or other materials retrieved from the scene,
victim, or suspect. Control samples consisting of clean areas from the
surface from which the suspected stains were obtained must be included in
the analyses. Standard known samples consisting of victim and/or suspect
blood are also utilized for comparative purposes.
The identification of blood or semen on dried, stained materials and
subsequent individualization and comparison to known persons for
inclusion or exclusion are the major functions of the serologist.
The approach to the identification of a suspected bloodstain begins with
a presumptive chemical test to indicate the possible presence of blood. The
term presumptive is used to describe these types of tests because they will
react with substances other than blood, such as certain metals and plant
peroxidases. Common presumptive tests for blood include phenolphthalein,
which produces a bright pink color in the presence of blood, and
leucomalachite green, which produces a blue-green color in the presence of
blood. Luminol is another type of presumptive test for blood which is
frequently utilized at the crime scene to locate traces of blood in areas that
may have been washed or the blood is not otherwise visible to the naked
eye. In these instances, the Luminol is sprayed onto suspect surfaces and
observed in the dark or near darkness for a bluish-white chemical
luminescence which may indicate the presence of blood. This luminescence
may be photographed for documentation. If the presumptive test is
negative, blood is considered not detected in the sample. If positive,
confirmatory tests are performed to prove that the substance is in fact blood,
they are followed by species identification to differentiate between human
and animal origin. This is accomplished with the use of specific antibodies
which will react with the suspect material. Conventional serological
procedures for individualization of blood, as well as semen, include
grouping within the ABO system and characterization of polymorphic
proteins and genetic markers. In large part, these procedures are in limited
use with the emergence of DNA profiling which is comprehensively
 discussed in Chapter 11.

Trace Evidence
The forensic scientist or criminalist responsible for the analysis and
comparison of trace evidence must be familiar with a wide range of
materials that may be submitted to the crime laboratory in small or trace
quantities. The primary tool for the trace evidence analyst is the microscope.
A low–medium power stereo microscope usually in the range of  5–40 is
utilized for scanning and sorting many types of physical evidence, such as
clothing, for the collection of trace materials. The compound microscope
with capabilities up to
1000 magnification is utilized for the analysis and comparison of hair, fibers,
soil, cosmetics, powder particles and residues, and a wide range of particulate
matter. A polarized-light microscope is utilized for the observation of
optical properties and morphology of materials. A comparison microscope is
utilized for side-by-side viewing of samples, most commonly hairs and
fibers. This is essentially two microscopes connected by a prism
arrangement known as a comparison bridge. This permits the field of view
from each microscope to be divided into a semicircle so that the two
samples can be viewed simultaneously.
The trace evidence analyst may also utilize an array of microchemical
tests and instrumental techniques for the identification of paints, glass, oils,
and an array of organic compounds. Examples of instruments utilized
include GC-MS and techniques of elemental and organic analysis including
IR, X-ray diffraction and fluorescence, spectrophotofluorometry, and
scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The scanning electron microscope
with good resolution and magnification up to 100,000 is also utilized for
the examination of samples of gunshot particles recovered from the hands
of persons suspected of recently handling or firing a weapon or being in the
immediate vicinity of a firearm discharge.

Firearms and Toolmarks

The firearms and toolmark section of the crime laboratory is responsible for
the examination of all types of firearms and ammunition, as well as scrapes
and impressions on surfaces made by a variety of prying and cutting type
instruments.
The examination of pistols, revolvers, rifles, and shotguns determines
whether they were in good condition and operable or capable of accidental
discharge. Projectiles recovered from a victim or crime scene, as well as
fired casings, are examined to determine whether the ammunition was fired
from a particular weapon. Most projectiles excluding those fired from
shotguns bear impressions referred to as lands and grooves which are
reproducible with test ammunition fired in the suspect weapon. If the
recovered projectile is not extremely distorted and contains sufficient detail,
positive comparisons can be accomplished. In cases where no weapon is
recovered, an examination of land and groove detail may indicate the type of
weapon utilized to the exclusion of others. Cartridge casings contain firing
pin impressions and in some cases ejection marks that can be compared to
test casings fired in the suspect weapon. A low-power comparison
microscope with an external light source is utilized for the examination of
the features of fired projectiles and casings (Figure 3.11).
The examination of tool marks involves the comparison of impressions
created by a hard tool (prybar, screwdriver, knife) created on a softer surface.
The impressions left by the tool may show class characteristics indicating the
type of tool utilized and possibly individual characteristics due to wearing
or nicking of the tool surface that could be considered unique to that tool.
Test impressions or cuttings of the suspect tool may be made for study with
the comparison microscope.

Fingerprint Identification
This section of a laboratory is often referred to as the latent print section.
Partial or complete finger, palm, or foot prints chemically enhanced or
lifted from various surfaces at crime scenes, weapons, and other objects are
exam- ined, classified, and compared to sets of known or suspect inked sets of
prints. This section assists with the identification of the deceased in
conjunction with the medical examiner’s or coroner’s office. Tire and
footwear impres- sions are often examined and compared by personnel in
this area of the laboratory.

Forensic Photography
Forensic photography is an important element of crime scene investigation
for documentation purposes including the location of the victim and the
surrounding area prior to examination by the forensic pathologist and sub-
sequent removal to the morgue. Bloodstains and other items of physical
evidence are photographed in place prior to collection and examination.
Color film is best suited for these purposes. Videotaping of crime scenes is
a technique often employed in addition to photography for documentation
purposes. Crime scene units and the forensic pathologist often take their own
photographs. Assistance may be requested from the local crime laboratory.
The various sections of the crime laboratory may also photograph items of
physical evidence and subsequent comparisons and test results to comple-
ment their laboratory reports or for courtroom presentation during their
testimony. Many laboratories are equipped to develop film and produce
enlargements of the photographs. Some special procedures, such as the use
of infrared and ultraviolet photography, are employed as well as photography
through the various types of microscopes to demonstrate identification and
comparison of trace evidence.

Case Presentation 1

Several years ago, during the winter season in a rural college community, a
young coed was last seen hitchhiking back to campus. She was reported
missing the following day which resulted in an intensive police search for
her whereabouts. During the next two weeks, several leads were developed
which focused on a known sexual offender living in the area. Further
investigation led to the location of the body of the coed in a remote, snow-
covered, wooded section of the area. She was in a frozen state, clothed in the
apparel she was last seen in while hitchhiking.
Postmortem examination of the victim revealed that she had sustained a
fractured skull, with minimal external bleeding as well as bruising in the
neck area consistent with manual strangulation. Blood and tissue samples
collected for toxicological analysis were negative.
Further examination of the victim revealed a soft contact lens in the left
eye with the corresponding right eye lens missing. Vaginal exam by the
pathologist revealed evidence of seminal fluid and spermatazoa. The clothing
of the victim and the contact lens were submitted to the crime laboratory for
trace evidence analysis.
Continued police investigation resulted in the arrest of the suspect iden-
tified earlier as a known sexual offender. The suspect’s clothing and other
possessions were collected and submitted to the laboratory. Scalp and pubic
hairs were obtained from the suspect and submitted to the crime laboratory
for comparative analysis. A court order was obtained for the search of the
suspect’s vehicle. Examination of his vehicle revealed fragments of a soft