Chapter 2

AC Electrical Quantities

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 Contents
• Sinusoidal AC Characteristics
• Phase Relations
• Average Value and Effective (RMS) Values
• Phasor Representation of Sinusoidal Waveforms
• Complex Numbers
• Phasor notation AC Response of R, C, L elements
• Frequency Response of the Basic Elements

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 Sinusoidal AC Characteristics
• Alternating current (AC) is a time varying voltage
– the term alternating indicates that the waveform
alternates between two prescribed levels in a set time
sequence (sinusoidal AC waveform)
• Most electrical power is available as AC (we then
convert it to a DC level locally)
• An AC generator produces the electrical energy
from mechanical energy, such as water power, oil,
gas, nuclear fission, wind, or gasoline (in the case
of small power plants)
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 Sinusoidal AC Characteristics
• Waveform
– the path traced by a quantity (such as voltage) is plotted as
a function of time or position (degrees, radians)
• Instantaneous value
– the magnitude of a waveform at any instant of time is
denoted by lowercase letters (e1,e2)
• Peak amplitude
– the maximum value of a waveform as measured from its
average or mean value is denoted by uppercase letters (i.e.
Em for sources or Vm for the voltage drop across a load)
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 Sinusoidal AC Characteristics
• Peak value
– the maximum instantaneous value of a function as
measured from the zero-volt level
• Peak-to-peak value
– Epp or Vpp is the full voltage between positive and
negative peaks of the waveform
• Periodic waveform
– a waveform that continually repeats itself after the same
time interval

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 Sinusoidal AC Characteristics
• Period (T)
– the time interval between successive repetitions of a
periodic waveform, as long as successive similar points
of the periodic waveform are used to determine T
• Cycle
– the portion of a waveform contained in one period of
time
• Frequency ( f )
– the number of cycles that occur in one second (1 Hz)

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 Sinusoidal AC Characteristics

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 Sinusoidal AC Characteristics
• Frequency and Period are inversely related:

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Example 2.1
Find the period of periodic waveform with a frequency of
(a) 60 Hz
(b) 1000 Hz

Answers :
(a) 1 / f = 16.67 ms
(b) 1 / f = 1 ms

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 Sinusoidal AC Characteristics
• The velocity with which a radius vector rotates
about the center, called the angular velocity () :

• The time to complete one revolution is equal to

the period (T) of the sinusoidal waveform

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 Sinusoidal AC Characteristics
• Since the frequency ( f ) of the generated
waveform is inversely related to the period (T) of
the waveform:

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Example 2.2
Determine the angular velocity of a sine wave having a
frequency of 60 Hz.

Answer :

2f = 377 rad/s

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Example 2.3
Determine the frequency and period of a sine wave in the
following figure (a) and (b).

Answers :
(a) 2f = 100 rad/s
f = 15.9Hz ; T = 1 / f = 62.83 ms
(b) 2f = 500 rad/s
f = 79.58Hz ; T = 1 / f = 12.57 ms

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Example 2.4
Given ω = 200 rad/s, determine how long it will take the
sinusoidal waveform to pass through an angle of 90˚.

Answer : t = 7.85ms

2f = 200rad/s
f = 31.8Hz
T = 31.4ms
t at an angle of 90˚ = 1 / 4T = 7.85 ms

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Example 2.5
Find the angle through which a sinusoidal waveform of 60 Hz
will pass in a period of 5 ms.

Answer : Angle = 108˚

 in rad = 2f t = 2(60)(5m) = 1.855rad/s

 in deg = 180 /  = 108˚

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 General Format for the
Sinusoidal AC Sources
• The basic format for
the sinusoidal
waveform is:

• Which can also be

written as:

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Example 2.6
Given e = 5 sin α , determine e at α = 40˚ and α = 0.8π.

Answers :

α = 40 e = 3.21V
α = 0.8π =144 e = 2.94V

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Example 2.7
a) Determine the angle at which the magnitude of the
sinusoidal function v = 10 sin 377t is 4V.
b) Determine the time at which the magnitude is attained.

Answers : α1 = 23.58 ; α2 = 156.42

t1 = 1.09 ms ; t2 = 7.24 ms

(a)  = sin-1 (4 / 10) 10V

α1 = 23.58 ; α2 = 156.42 4V

(b) 4 = 10sin377t or 10sin( - 377t)

t1 = 1.09 ms ; t2 = 7.24 ms 1 2

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 Phase Relations
• If a waveform is shifted to the left or right, the
expression becomes:

• The terms lead and lag are used to indicate the

relationship between two sinusoidal waveforms of
the same frequency plotted on the same set of axes
– the cosine curve is said to lead the sine curve by 90
– the sine curve is said to lag the cosine curve by 90
– sine and cosine curves are out of phase by 90

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 Phase Relations
• if the waveform passes
through the horizontal axis
with a positive-going
slope before 0:

• if the waveform passes

through the horizontal axis
with a positive-going
slope after 0:

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Example 2.8
What is the phase relationship between the sinusoidal waveforms
of each of the following sets?
(a) v = 10 sin (ωt + 30˚) i = 5 sin (ωt + 70˚)
(b) v = 2 sin (ωt + 10˚) i = - sin (ωt + 30˚)

Answers :

a) i leads v by 40˚, or v lags i by 40˚.

b) v leads i by 160˚, or i lags v by 160˚.
i leads v by 200˚, or v lags i by 200˚.

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 Average Value
• For any variable quantity, such as current or
voltage, the algebraic sum of the areas under the
curve must be determined
– areas above the axis are positive
– areas below the axis are negative
• The average value of any current or voltage is the
value indicated on a dc meter
– over one complete cycle, the average value is the
equivalent dc value
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Example 2.9
Determine the average value of the following waveforms.

Answers : (a) 0V ; (b) 4V

(a) [(10 x 1) + (-10 x 1) + (10 x 1) + (-10 x 1)] / 4 = 0 V
(b) [(14 x 1) + (-6 x 1) + (14 x 1) + (-6 x 1) ] / 4 = 4 V

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 Effective (RMS) Values
• How is it possible for a sinusoidal ac quantity to
deliver a net power if, over a fully cycle, the net
current in any one direction is zero
• Irrespective of direction, current of any magnitude
through a resistor will deliver power to that
resistor
– during the positive or negative portions of a sinusoidal
ac current, power is being delivered at each instant of
time to the resistor

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 Effective (RMS) Values
• The power delivered by an ac supply at any instant
of time is:

– the average power delivered by the ac source is just the

first term
• The equivalent dc value of a sinusoidal current or
voltage is 1/2 or 0.707 of its peak value
– the equivalent dc value is called the effective value of
the sinusoidal quantity
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 Effective (RMS) Values
• The effective value will be:

• The solution of this quantity will give the root-

mean-square (rms) value of the current

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Example 2.10
Find the rms value of the following waveform.

Answer : 2.24V

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Example 2.11
Determine the average and rms value of the following
square wave.
Answer : 0V ; 40V

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 Phasor Representation of
Sinusoidal Waveforms
• For ac circuits, the currents and voltages will be
sinusoidal (vary with time) and may be out of
phase
– The methods used in this chapter will be only for
sinusoidal waveforms that are the same frequency
• When adding or subtracting sinusoidal waveforms
of the same frequency the resulting waveform will
also be sinusoidal with the same frequency

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 Phasor Representation of
Sinusoidal Waveforms
• Vectors are a “snapshot”
of the rotating vectors at
t = 0 s or  = 0˚
• The radius vectors are
called phasors when
applied to electric
circuits
– the peak value is the sum
– T is the phase angle
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 Phasor Representation of
Sinusoidal Waveforms
• Finding the sum or difference of two sinusoidal
waveforms requires putting each in the phasor
format and performing the required vector algebra
– the angle associated with each vector is the phase angle
associated with the standard format for a sinusoidal
waveform
v1 = Vm sin (t + 1)  V1 = 0.707Vm 1

i1 = Im sin (t + 2)  I1 = 0.707Im 2

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Example 2.12
Write the sinusoidal expression for the following phasors if
the frequency is 60 Hz.

Phasor Domain

(a) I = 1030 (b) V = 115-70

Answers:
(a) I = 10 x1.414 sin (260t +30)
= 14.14 sin (377t + 30) A

(b) = 115 x1.414 sin (260t -70)

= 162.6sin (377t -70) V

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Example 2.13
Convert the followings from the time to the phasor domain.

(a)
(b) 69.6 sin(t + 72)
(c) 45 cost

Answers:
(a) 500

(b) 49.21  72

(c) 45sin(t + 90) = 31.8  90

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 Complex Numbers
• A complex number defines a point in a two-
dimensional plane established by two axes at 90
to one another
– the horizontal axis is the real axis
– the vertical axis is the imaginary axis
• Two forms are used to represent a complex
number: rectangular and polar
– each can define the vector drawn from the origin to a
point in the two-dimensional plane
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 Complex Numbers

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 Complex Numbers
• The rectangular form is:

– the boldface notation is for any number with magnitude

and direction
– the italic notation is for magnitude only
• The polar form is:

– Z indicates magnitude only

–  is measured counterclockwise from the positive real axis

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 Complex Numbers
• Conversion between forms:
– Rectangular to Polar:

– Polar to Rectangular:

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Example 2.14
convert the following from rectangular form to polar form.

C=3+j4 Answer: C = 5∠53.13˚

(Example 14.16)
convert the following from polar form to rectangular form.

C = 10∠45˚ Answer: C = 7.07 + j 7.07

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 Mathematical Operations with
Complex Numbers
• Complex numbers lend themselves readily
to the basic mathematical operations of
addition, subtraction, multiplication and
division
• The symbol j associated with imaginary
numbers is by definition:

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 Complex Numbers
• The complex
conjugate of a
complex number can
be found by:
– changing the sign of
the imaginary part in
rectangular form
– using a negative sign
of the angle in the
polar form
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 Complex Numbers
• Addition or subtraction of complex numbers
will normally be performed in rectangular
form
– addition or subtraction of two complex numbers
requires that the real and imaginary parts be
worked on independently
• If C1 = a1 + b1j and C2 = a2 + b2j , then,
C1 + C2 = (a1 + a2) + (b1 + b2)j
C1 - C2 = (a1 - a2) + (b1 - b2)j

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Example 2.15
(a) Add C1 = 2 + j 4 and C2 = 3 + j 1
(b) Add C1 = 3 + j 6 and C2 = -6 + j 3

Answers: (a) 5 + j 5 ; (b) ?

(a) 5 + j 5
(b) -3 + j 9

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Example 2.16
(a)Subtract C2 = 1 + j 4 from C1 = 4 + j 6
(b)Subtract C2 = -2 + j 5 from C1 = 3 + j 3

Answers : (a) 3 + j 2 ; (b) ?

(a) 3 + j 2
(b) 5 - j 2

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 Complex Numbers
• Multiplication (division) can be performed
using either rectangular or polar form,
although it is usually much easier to
perform these operations in the polar form
– in polar form the magnitudes are multiplied
(divided) and the angles are added (subtracted)
algebraically

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Example 2.17
Find C1 C2 if
(a) C1 = 2 + j 3 and C2 = 5 + j 10
(b) C1 = -2 - j 3 and C2 = 4 - j 6

Answers: (a) -20 + j 35 ; (b) ?

(a) -20 + j 35
(b) -26

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Example 2.18
Answers:
Find C1 C2 if
(a) C1 = 5∠20˚ and C2 = 10∠30˚ (a) 50∠50˚
(b) C1 = 2∠- 40˚ and C2 = 7∠120˚ (b) 14∠80˚

Example 2.19
Answers:
Find C1 / C2 if
a) C1 = 15∠10˚ and C2 = 2∠7˚ (a) 7.5∠3˚
b) C1 = 8∠120˚ and C2 = 16∠-50˚ (b) 0.5∠170˚

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 Phasor notation
AC Response of Resistors
• At every instant of time, other than when iR = 0A (or
vR = 0V), power is being delivered to the resistor
irrespective of the direction of the current through (or
polarity of the voltage across) the resistor
• For resistive elements, the applied voltage and the
resulting current are in-phase
• The impedance of a resistive element is:

• The frequency or angular velocity is not a part of the

phasor notation
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 Phasor notation
AC Response of Inductor
• The opposition of an inductor to the flow of current
is directly related to the inductance of the inductor
and the frequency (rate of change) of the current
• The opposition of an inductor is called its reactance

• Reactance is quite different from resistance in that all

the electrical energy transferred to an ideal inductor
is not dissipated but simply stored in the form of a
magnetic field
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 Phasor notation
AC Response of Inductor
• For a pure inductor the
peak values of the current
and voltage are related by
an Ohm’s law relationship:

• The voltage across an

inductor leads the current
through the inductor by 90
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 Phasor notation
AC Response of Inductor
• Using phasor notation, the impedance of a
coil will be defined by:

• Vector representation of the impedance of an

inductor ensures that the phase angle
associated with the voltage or current is
correct
– this format does not define a sinusoidal function

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 Phasor notation
AC Response of Capacitor
• The larger the capacitance of a capacitor, the
smaller the opposition to the flow of current
• For a capacitor, the higher the applied frequency
the less the opposition factor, termed reactance

• The reactance of a capacitor is quite different from

resistance in that all the electrical energy
transferred to an ideal capacitor is not dissipated
but simply stored in the form of an electric field

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 Phasor notation
AC Response of Capacitor
• For a capacitor the peak
values of current and
voltage are related by an
Ohm’s law relationship:

• The current of a capacitor

leads the voltage across
the capacitor by 90
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 Phasor notation
AC Response of Capacitor
• Using phasor notation, the impedance of a
capacitor will be defined by:

• Vector representation of the impedance of a

capacitor ensures that the phase angle
associated with the voltage or current is
correct
– this format does not define a sinusoidal function

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Example 2.20
For the following pairs of voltages and currents, determine:
(i) whether the element involved is a capacitor, an inductor, or a resistor, and
(ii) determine the value of C, L, or R if sufficient data are provided

(a) v = 100s in(t + 40)

i = 20sin(t + 40)
(b) v = 1000 sin(377t +10)
i = 5sin(377t - 80)
(c) v = 500 sin(157t +30)
i = 1sin(157t +120)
(d) v = 50 cos(t + 20)
i = 5sin(t +110)

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 Answers:

Reactance lead / lag C, L or R value

(a) 5 v and i are in-phase R 5
(b) 200 v lead i by 90 L 0.531H
(c) 500 i lead v by 90 C 12.74F
(d) 10 v and i are in-phase R 10
cos(t + 20)
= sin (90+t + 20)

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Example 2.21
Find the input voltage of the circuit if
va = 50 sin (377t + 30 ˚)
f = 60Hz
vb = 30 sin (377t + 60 ˚)

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 Example 2.21 cont’d
Answers:
sinusoidal form phasor /polar form rectangular form
va 50 sin (377t + 30 ˚) V  35.35V30  30.61 + j17.68 V
vb 30 sin (377t + 60 ˚) V  21.21V60  10.61 + j18.37 V

By Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law,

ein = va + vb = (30.61 + j17.68) + (10.61 + j18.37)
ein = 41.22 + j36.05

rectangular form polar / phasor form sinusoidal form

ein 41.22 + j36.05 V  54.76V41.17  77.43 sin(377t + 41.17 ˚)V

ein = 77.43 sin (377t + 41.17 ˚) V

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Frequency Response of the Basic
Elements
• Every commercial element available today
will not respond in the ideal fashion for the
full range of possible frequencies
• We will consider the response of ideal
elements
• For the ideal resistor, frequency will have
no effect on the impedance level

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Frequency Response of the Basic
Elements
• At a frequency of 0 Hz an inductor takes on
the characteristics of a short-circuit
• At very high frequencies the characteristics
of an inductor approach those of an open-
circuit
– the higher the inductance value, the quicker it
will approach the open-circuit equivalence

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Frequency Response of the Basic
Elements
• At, or near, 0 Hz the characteristics of a
capacitor approach those of an open-circuit
• At very high frequencies, a capacitor takes
on the characteristics of a short circuit
– reactance drops very rapidly as the frequency
increases

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 Reference
• Chapter 13.
• Boylestad, R. (2010). Introductory circuit
analysis. Upper Saddle River, N.J: Prentice
Hall.

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