UNIT-4

(SENSOR NETWORKS INTRODUCTION AND

ARCHITECTURES)

# single-node architecture for wireless sensor networks (WSNs), the

focus is on the components that make up an individual sensor node, which is responsible for
collecting data, processing it, and communicating wirelessly. Here are the key hardware
components :

1. Microcontroller/Processor

 Microcontroller Unit (MCU): Acts as the brain of the sensor node, handling data
acquisition, processing, and communication. It can be an 8-bit, 16-bit, or 32-bit processor
depending on the application's complexity.

2. Sensors

 Sensing Elements: Various types of sensors (e.g., temperature, humidity, pressure, light,
motion) that detect environmental changes and gather data. The choice of sensors
depends on the specific application.

3. Power Supply

 Batteries: Commonly used power sources include lithium-ion or alkaline batteries.

Energy efficiency is critical, and some nodes may use energy harvesting techniques (e.g.,
solar cells) to extend battery life.
 Energy Harvesting Components: Devices that convert ambient energy (e.g., solar,
thermal) into electrical energy.

4. Communication Module

 Wireless Transceiver: Enables data transmission over wireless protocols (e.g., Zigbee,
LoRa, Bluetooth, Wi-Fi). The choice of protocol impacts range, power consumption, and
data rate.

5. Memory

 RAM: For temporary data storage and processing.

 Flash Memory: For storing firmware, configurations, and collected data before it’s
transmitted.
# Energy Consumption of Sensor Nodes
energy consumption in sensor nodes within wireless networks is a crucial factor, especially for
applications like IoT, environmental monitoring, and smart cities.

1. Components of Energy Consumption

 Sensing: The energy used by the sensors to collect data.

 Processing: Energy consumed during data processing, including filtering and
aggregation.
 Transmission: The most significant energy drain, especially when sending data over
long distances.
 Reception: Energy used to receive incoming signals.

2. Factors Influencing Energy Consumption

 Transmission Power: Higher power levels increase range but also energy use.
 Data Rate: Higher data rates consume more energy.
 Sleep Modes: Many nodes use low-power sleep modes to conserve energy when not
actively sensing or transmitting.
 Network Topology: The arrangement of nodes can affect how data is routed and the
energy efficiency of the network.

3. Energy-Efficient Strategies

 Data Aggregation: Reduces the amount of data transmitted, thereby saving energy.
 Adaptive Transmission Power Control: Adjusts the transmission power based on
distance and signal quality.
 Multi-hop Communication: Nodes relay data, reducing the distance each node needs to
transmit.
 Energy Harvesting: Some nodes utilize solar or kinetic energy to recharge.

4. Protocols for Energy Efficiency

 LEACH (Low-Energy Adaptive Clustering Hierarchy): Uses clustering to minimize

energy consumption in data transmission.
 Zigbee and LoRaWAN: Designed for low-power, wide-area networking, optimizing
energy use for low-data-rate applications.

5. Monitoring and Management

 Energy Harvesting Systems: Implement systems to monitor energy levels and optimize
consumption.
 Dynamic Power Management: Techniques to dynamically adjust power use based on
current demand.
# Network Architecture – Sensor Network Scenarios
Network architecture in wireless sensor networks (WSNs) is vital for efficient data collection,
processing, and transmission. Different scenarios can influence the design and implementation of
these networks.

1. Environmental Monitoring

 Scenario: Collecting data on temperature, humidity, air quality, etc.

 Architecture:
o Hierarchical Structure: Sensor nodes collect data and send it to cluster heads
that aggregate data before transmission to a central server.
o Multi-hop Communication: Nodes may relay data to extend coverage and reach
a base station.

2. Smart Agriculture

 Scenario: Monitoring soil conditions, crop health, and weather data.

 Architecture:
o Mesh Networks: Nodes form a mesh to ensure robust communication despite
obstacles (e.g., plants, terrain).
o Gateway Nodes: Act as a bridge between sensor nodes and the internet for real-
time monitoring.

3. Health Monitoring

 Scenario: Wearable devices track patients’ vital signs and activities.

 Architecture:
o Body Area Networks (BANs): Sensor nodes (e.g., heart rate monitors)
communicate wirelessly with a central hub (smartphone or dedicated device).
o Cloud Integration: Data is sent to cloud servers for analysis and remote access
by healthcare providers.

4. Smart Cities

 Scenario: Monitoring traffic, waste management, and energy use.

 Architecture:
o Layered Architecture: Different layers for data acquisition, processing, and
presentation. Sensors collect data and transmit it to a central system for analysis.
o Interoperability: Sensors from various domains (traffic, air quality, etc.) need to
communicate effectively.

5. Industrial Monitoring

 Scenario: Monitoring equipment health and environmental conditions in factories.

  Architecture:
o Star Topology: Sensors connect directly to a central controller, minimizing
latency for critical data.
o Real-time Data Processing: Immediate feedback loops for process control and
predictive maintenance.

6. Disaster Management

 Scenario: Monitoring seismic activity or assessing damage after natural disasters.

 Architecture:
o Ad-hoc Networks: Quickly deployable networks that self-organize to provide
real-time data.
o Robust Communication: Focus on reliability and redundancy to ensure data
transmission in challenging conditions.

7. Military Applications

 Scenario: Surveillance and reconnaissance.

 Architecture:
o Secure and Adaptive Networks: High security and adaptability to dynamic
environments, with encrypted communication channels.
o Decentralized Control: Nodes operate autonomously and collaborate to provide
situational awareness.

# Transceiver Design Considerations

Transceiver design is crucial in wireless networks, impacting communication efficiency, range,
and power consumption.

1. Frequency Band Selection

 Regulatory Compliance: Must adhere to frequency regulations set by authorities.

 Propagation Characteristics: Choose bands that suit the application—lower frequencies
have better range, while higher frequencies offer higher data rates.

2. Modulation Scheme

 Data Rate vs. Range: Higher-order modulation schemes provide higher data rates but
may reduce range and increase susceptibility to noise.
 Robustness: Consider modulation techniques that are resilient to interference and fading.
3. Power Consumption

 Efficiency: Design for low power consumption to extend battery life in devices,
especially in sensor networks.
 Dynamic Power Management: Implement features that allow the transceiver to switch
between different power modes based on activity levels.

4. Antenna Design

 Gain and Directivity: Choose antenna types that match the application requirements,
balancing gain and coverage.
 Size and Form Factor: Ensure antennas fit within device constraints while maintaining
performance.

5. Sensitivity and Noise Figure

 Receiver Sensitivity: Design for low sensitivity to ensure effective reception of weak
signals.
 Noise Figure (NF): Optimize NF to improve the overall performance of the receiver.

6. Interference Mitigation

 Channel Selection: Implement algorithms for dynamic frequency selection to avoid

congested channels.
 Error Correction: Use robust error correction codes to recover data integrity in noisy
environments.

7. Integration and Cost

 System on Chip (SoC): Consider integrating multiple functions (e.g., modulation,

encoding) onto a single chip to reduce size and cost.
 Manufacturing Cost: Optimize designs for cost-effectiveness while meeting
performance requirements.

8. Scalability and Flexibility

 Adaptability: Design for future upgrades, such as supporting new standards or enhanced
functionalities.
 Multi-protocol Support: Enable compatibility with various wireless protocols (e.g., Wi-
Fi, Zigbee, LoRa) to increase versatility.

9. Latency and Throughput

 Real-Time Requirements: Optimize the transceiver for low latency in applications

requiring immediate response (e.g., industrial control).
  Throughput Optimization: Ensure that the design can support high data rates as
required by the application.

10. Environmental Considerations

 Temperature and Humidity Tolerance: Design for robustness against environmental

factors, especially for outdoor or industrial applications.
 Mechanical Durability: Ensure that the transceiver can withstand physical stresses and
vibrations.